Classical Music :

Instrumental

Hee-sun Kim
 Classical Music : Instrumental 49

Pungnyu: Classical Instrumental Music

Classical instrumental musical genres performing today in Korea are the body of music generally classified
as jeong-ak (“proper music”). Jeong-ak genres encompass historical royal court and literati music of the Joseon
dynasty (1392-1910). Pungnyu (“wind and stream”) is the most representative instrumental jeong-ak today and that
was performed privately for and by the literati. However, it is ambiguous to define the body of music merely as the
music of literati because although this music was originally performed at the court, it was the jung-in class (“middle
class people”) who later enjoyed and developed the music. Pungnyu music was elegant and distinguished culture
that was enjoyed by the members of high society purely for entertainment during leisure hours. Pungnyu music is
often defined as music of pungnyu-bang, the literati’s private salon or club where literati gathered to enjoy music,
arts and poetry. Even though the class of people who gathered at the pungnyu-bang has changed throughout the
history, the main purpose of the pungnyu-bang has, most of the time, remained cultivating one’s culture as
suggested by Confucian teaching. The most popular repertoire played at pungnyu-bang was Yeongsanhoesang.
Currently the term pungnyu is used synonymously with Yeongsanhoesang when it is related to literati music
culture. Pungnyu music itself has been passed on for approximately five hundred years, and in its current form is
the result of gradual changes throughout history.
The emergence of pungnyu culture in Korean music history reflects the socio-cultural changes of particular
periods. Up until the early Joseon period, musical activities were mostly centered on court music as prescribed by
the ruling elite. However, the Joseon Dynasty experienced social, political and economic changes after the
seventeenth century, which in turn affected the production and consumption of music. Local literati and the middle
class emerged as new consumers of music, and they cultivated a new music culture era in Korea. The present
orchestral suite Yeongsanhoesang exemplifies how music has changed along with people, society and culture.
In this chapter, I examine the people, society, history, repertoires, transmission, and modern day
performance practice of Yeongsanhoesang and the historical and socio-cultural dimensions of music making within
its historical contexts.

Understanding Pungnyu
Even though today’s pungnyu music has been transmitted from the late Joseon,but but the term pungnyu had
previously existed in Korea for a long time. The term pungnyu first appeared in the History of Three Kingdoms
(Samguk sagi) in relation to activities in King Jinheung’s reign in the sixth century in Silla (57 BCE - 935 CE).
Choi Chiwon, a scholar and writer of Silla dynasty, states in his preface to the “Nallang Pi” (Inscription on the
Monument of Nallang) that:
There is a wonderful and mysterious way in the country, called Pungnyu. The origins of the institution are
detailed in Seonsa. In fact it embraces the Three Teachings [Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism] and transforms
50 Music of Korea
myriad men. It is a tenet of Confucius that one should be filial to one’s parents and loyal to one’s sovereign; it is the
belief of Laozi that one should be at home in the action of inaction and practice the wordless doctrine; and it is the
teaching of Buddha that one should avoid evil and do many good deeds.
Pungnyu, according to Choi, is an indigenous Korean perspective that encompasses foreign philosophies and
religions. Pungnyu was the basic philosophy for Hwarang, an elite group of male youth, in Silla. Hwarang were
educational institutions as well as social elite clubs where members gathered for all aspects of study, originally for
arts and culture steeped in Buddhism and Taoism. These groups developed into a more military organization as the
Silla court centralized political power. Practices of pungnyu can be traced to principle training methods of Hwarang
groups. Members dwelled in the mountains and enjoyed nature, singing and dancing to train the body, purify the
soul, and control the mind. Pungnyu, thus, is used as a collective term indicating an aesthetic enjoyment of nature
believed central to traditional Korean thought and in accord with Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism-religious
practices historically prevalent in Korea.
<Figure 1> Playing geomun-go
Kim Hongdo <Huwonyuyeon > (Second half of the 18th century) ⓒ Nat’l. Museum
Along with its connections to Hwarang principles, pungnyu is defined as refined and stylish recreation,
intrinsic to a tasteful lifestyle, and relevant to Korean collective and individual entertainment culture. In terms of
collective leisure, Koreans have traditionally celebrated seasonal festivals such as Seol (lunar new year’s day),
Dano (fifth day of fifth lunar month) and Chuseok (fifteenth day of eighth lunar month). By enjoying these festive
occasions, people recharged by taking a break from hard work and remembering their ancestors. While pungnyu
played a part in seasonal festivals, it was perhaps more conducive to an individual level of leisure, entertainment,
and lifestyle. As a reflective activity, pungnyu was a tool for transcending material and secular desires and
developing peace of mind. Pungnyu activities included enjoying nature by traveling and singing and dancing to
Classical Music : Instrumental 51
achieve harmony with nature. Cultivating musical skills was seen as following Do (Tao in Chinese), or the Way,
and pungnyu outlined the underlining basic assumptions. Music was a useful tool of self-discipline to achieve a
proper state of mind and cultivate culture, which by way of pungnyu, could result in harmony among people,
nature, and refined arts. Later the term pungnyu was associated with the Neo-Confucian ideology of the Joseon
period and the philosophical stance of the ruling elite of Korea. Pungnyu was deemed an important activity, and
Confucian literati cultivated their distinct pungnyu music culture accordingly.
Space, Patronage and Reception of Pungnyu
Neo-Confucianism was widely disseminated in the late Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) and became the main
political and philosophical ideology of the Joseon Dynasty. Neo-Confucianism was a philosophical Confucianism
that explained the origins of man and the universe in metaphysical terms, a view that supported the new literati
ruling class in the Joseon period. During this time, the literati were the dominant social class. They constituted the
yangban who served as civil and military officials, and society revolved around the yangban. The sole profession of
the yangban was the holding of public offices available through strict state examination. From the beginning of the
dynasty, this privileged class seized power in all sectors, including government, economy, and culture, which was
particularly emphasized. During the early Joseon period, the royal court and aristocracy officials were the main
musical patrons, and music was seen as a vehicle to achieve Confucian ideals. Exemplary music was expected to
express peace, symmetry and serenity in accordance with court and literati aesthetics.
The Joseon dynasty experienced several invasions from neighboring dynasties, and every sector of Korean
society was transformed after the Japanese invasion in 1592 and the Manchu Invasions in 1627 and 1636. The
resultant social changes led to the Silhak (practical learning) social movement, the spread of Western learning,
Catholicism, and economic growth. New intellectual ideology and economic growth also brought changes in
social-class hierarchy and modes of expression in the arts. The seventeenth century witnessed great changes in
music patronage alongside socio-cultural and economic changes. The rigid social class structure began to come
apart in the mid sixteenth century and by the nineteenth century, the Joseon dynasty was much more socially
mobile and yangban status had come unhinged. Along with shifts in yangban status, jung-in were expanding their
influence in society, politics and culture. The advent and development of a class of new private merchants is
reflective of the artistic activities of the eighteenth century and the enlightenment movement of nineteenth century.
In particular, the development of wholesale commerce and the economic success of the jung-in class made jung-in
the new cultural consumers. This shift brought about changes in power relations in the top (government-led) to
down (people-led) art and culture system. The jung-in class actually comprised diverse professions and social
classes: low ranking technicians, officers of central government, medical officers, translators, scribes, statute law
clerks, accountants, the sons of yangban by mistresses and their descendants, officers at the provincial and local
governments and local agencies, students who studies at the local educational institutions (hyanggyo), government
artists and court musicians and all were hereditary.
52 Music of Korea
<Figure 2> Pungnyu club scene <Danseong-yeonhoedo > (1725)
Album of Painting and Calligraphy of Pungsan Kim Clan by Kim junghyu ⓒ Nat’l. Museum
Although many scholars trace the development of jungin-centered musical activities back to the seventeenth
century and the rise of the jungin class, another main group of contributors to pungnyu culture was the Sarim-pa
literati of the previous century. The Sarim-pa literati was a group of Confucian scholars who returned to their
ancestors’ hometowns in the countryside to improve their hometown. They were yangban scholars who practiced
an extreme form of Neo-Confucian doctrine that emphasized righteousness, morality, and a practical ethos. Their
base in the countryside became central to Neo-Confucian Joseon in the sixteenth century. Large numbers of these
rural Sarim-pa scholars were the main consumers and patrons of pungnyu music in late Joseon. Pungnyu music,
thus, was deeply influenced by these two groups of people of mainly amateur musicians.
The new supporter-consumers tried to internalize the concept of pungnyu by enjoying “refined” music; they
re-discover geomun-go as the literati’s musical instrument of choice and developed a new pace for pungnyu music.
Pungnyu activities were mostly held at pungnyu-bang among pungnyugaek (pungnyu patrons): si-gaek (poets),
muk-gaek (painters and calligraphers), yul-gaek (instrumental musicians), and ga-gaek (singers).1 Pungnyu-gaek
gathered irregularly and to enjoy music and the arts and promote mutual friendship. They formed a mutual savings
club or guild (yul-gye) to operate their own pungnyu-bang. Usually geomun-go was played among themselves, and
sometimes they invited professional musicians of gayageum, haegeum, and daegeum to perform with them. By
participating and performing together at pungnyu-bang, professional musicians also contributed to developing
pungnyu music. Yeongsanhoesang and gagok (lyric songs) were the main repertoires at pungnyu-bang, and
Yeongsanhoesang persisted longer than lyric songs at pungny-bang.
In the late Joseon dynasty, the development of pungnyu was achieved through voluntary musical activities
and the pungnyu-bang was a very effective medium. Before the establishment of modern theatrical performance
culture, the pungnyu-bang was the only place where criticisms and creativity could be explored. The pungnyu-bang
was a non-profitable, purely voluntary-based, and spontaneous gathering space for chamber music performance.
However, during the nineteenth century, especially in Seoul, the major role and characteristics of the pungnyu-bang
Classical Music : Instrumental 53
gradually changed. Some pungnyu-bang in this period began conducting commercially oriented activities, resulting
in the commodification of pungnyu music.
With the establishment of commercial pungnyu-bang, this culture split into commercialized pungnyu-bang
managed by gwonbeon (female entertainers) groups and voluntary-based pungnyu-bang led by associations. The
former was mostly organized around public figures and amateur musicians and the latter became the center for
famous professional musicians of the period. Amateur musicians who participated in pungnyu-bang activities
sometimes transcribed the music to help memorize the melodies. These manuscripts and scores have become the
major source of research material on pungnyu music. Since these scores were written as prescriptive (memory aid)
not descriptive means, most of the pungnyu manuscripts are written for geomun-go and rarely for other instruments.
In early twentieth century, pungnyu have been spread throughout the country. Socio-historical contexts of
music reception have been changed this period which went beyond feudalistic class system and the culture of
pungnyu-bang also has shifted along with society. In musical practice of the early twentieth century pungnyu-bang
exemplifies that music already emancipated from feudalistic Confucian ye-ak cosmology as well as conventional
social class order. Pungnyu-gaek expanded and reconstructed new pungnyu culture by including variety of musical
genres which formerly performed at the court.
Yeongsanhoesang
Yeongsanhoesang represents pungnyu, and the term pungnyu itself refers to Yeongsanhoesang.
Yeongsanhoesang is a suite which consists of five to fifteen pieces of different tunes. A written record of
Yeoungsanhoesang first appears in the Akakgwebeom (1493), the first treatise on Korean music. The oldest
notation of the music is found in Isusamsanjebon-geumbo (1651). There are three existing versions of
Yeongsanhoesang: Hyeonak yeoungsanhoesang, the string ensemble; Pyeongjohoesang, the string and wind
ensemble; and Gwanak yeongsanhoesang, the wind ensemble. These are not independent pieces, but rather are
related to each other and variants of one piece. These three variants have been found in a number of old notations,
and the interpretation of these have been a major focus of study for music historians in Korea, with interpretation of
notations still open for study.2
1) History
According to Akakgwebeom book five, Yeongsanhoesang was originally Buddhist vocal music which
performed for court dance during the reign of Seongjong (r.1469-1494). Instrumental ensembles performed while
female entertainers sang seven Chinese syllables of the first line of a Buddhist sutra Yeong san hoe sang bul bo sal
54 Music of Korea Classical Music : Instrumental 55

(Mass to the Buddha on the Spiritual Mountain). Later, these texts were dropped and the music became purely 2) Ensemble types
instrumental during the seventeenth century. Few historical manuscripts have documented Yeongsanhoesang and As mentioned earlier, currently three versions of Yeongsanhoesang are performed. The first is Hyeonak
these are useful to trace its historical development. At the same time, these manuscripts exemplify that yeongsanhoesang (string yeongsanhoesang), “also known as Jul-pungnyu (jul-literally string), Geomun-go
Yeongsanhoesang became the most important pungnyu-bang repertoire and inspired new variants and directions. hoesang, or Junggwangjigok.” It is the longest version and combines string instruments with soft wind instruments.
Another seventeenth-century geomun-go manuscript, Yuyeji (Artistic Amusement), documents This piece begins slowly and speeds up gradually through its nine pieces to a fast pace at the end. In the past, this
Yeongsanhoesang in the late eighteenth century. Samjukgeumbo (early nineteenth century) documents Seyeongsan, piece was played indoors by the literati, and music was developed alongside their pungnyu activities. The
Yeongsanhoesang i-cheung jeji, and Yeongsanhoesang sam-cheung jeji. These manuscripts support claims that the instruments are the zithers geomun-go, gayageum and yanggeum, and the janggu with the addition of the fiddle
current Yeongsanhoesang was completed around this period. Yeongsanhoesang began with the prototype version haegeum, sepiri and daegeum and danso In traditional ensembles, bowed chodophones are considered to be “wind
Sangyeongsan. The rest of the pieces in the current Yeongsanhoesang suite are either newly created or variations of instruments” because they are capable of sustaining a note by producing sound with the bow. Since Hyeonak
the original melody. The pieces of the current suite comprise a number of variants of similar materials originated yeongsanhoesang was performed indoors at pungnyu-bang, the music was expected to be sedate and mediate.
from the first piece and which are also found in Hyeon-geum-o-eum tongnon and Hakpogeumbo in the late Usually a single player performed on each instrument in the ensemble. The second version of Yeongsanhoesang is
nineteenth century. Table 1 shows the development of Yeongsanhoesang. Gwanak yeongsanhoesang (wind yeongsanhoesang). This version uses the wind ensemble with winds and bowed
strings and was played outdoors at the court banquets. The suite consists of eight pieces and it eliminates Hahyeon
<Table 1> Historical Development of Yeongsanhoesan dodeuri. Since the main instruments of the piece are wind instruments, it is also called as Daepungnyu, or bamboo
15th Late 17th Late 17th Early 18th Early 18th Early 19th Early 19th pungnyu. Its Confucian name is Pyojeongmanbangjigok. It is still accompanied by dance except for the last piece,
Period
Century century century century century century century Gunak. Gwanak yeongsanhoesang is performed by a wind ensemble that combines the bowed strings haegeum and
Histori- <Akakw- <Isusamsan- <Sin- <Han- <Yuyeji> <Samjukgeum- <Hyeon- ajaeng with the strong double-reed hyangpiri, the bamboo flutes daegeum and dangjeok, the drums janggu, and
cal ebeom> jebon jeung geumsin-bo> bo> geum- o-eum
jwago. Since this instrumentation produces a loud sound, it is not suitable for indoor music.
Manu- (1493) geumbo> geombo> (1724) tongnon>
The third version is Pyeongjohoesang, in which the melody is transposed down a fourth of the first version.
scripts book 5 (1651) (1680) <Eo-eunbo> (1886)
(1779) This version is performed in the loud ensemble instrumentation. In effect, this is the combination of the string
ensemble and wind ensemble, combining string instruments with strident winds. It also eliminates Hahyeon
Pieces Buddhist Yeongsanho- Yeongsanho- Yeongsanhoe- Sangyeong Yeongsanhoe- Bonyeongsan
dodeuri. Pyeongjohoesang is usually used as court dance music accompaniment and wind part from this piece is
docume chant esang text esang sang san sang (Daeyeong-
-nted Text (without text) (Sangyeongsa Jungyeongsan Jungyeong-san san) performed as solo repertoire. Pyeongjohoesang is performed with string ensemble with strident winds including
n) Seyeongsan Seyeongsan Jungyeongsan geomun-go, gayageum, hyangpiri, daegeum, dangjeok, haegeum, ajaeng, janggu, and jwago.
Yeongsanhoe- Garakdeori Garakdeori Seyeongsan The same melodies used for court entertainment and festivals were also known by Confucian names,
sang hwanip Samhyeonhwa- Hwanip Garadeori implying another function of the music and creating confusion for musicians and scholars. <Table 2> shows the
Yeongsanhoe- nip Yeombul Samhyeonhwa-
versions of three Yeongsanhoesang with their names, ensemble types, instrumentation, functions and consisting
sang jeji Samhyeonhoe- Taryeong nip
Yeongsanhoe- ip ijang Du Gunak Hahyeonhwa-
pieces.
sang gaptan Hahyeonhwan- nip
ip Yeombul
Yeombultary- Taryeong
eong Gunak
Taryeong
Gunaktaryeong
56 Music of Korea Classical Music : Instrumental 57

<Table 2> Versions of Yeongsanhoesang Several changes were made in the process of transforming Yeongsanhoesang from vocal music into purely
Versions Other name Confucian name Ensemble Types Function instrumental pieces. The musical phrases were increased in length to match typical instrumental cadential patterns.
To meet typical instrumental ornamentation patterns, variations and elaborations are added to an original melody.
Hyeonak Julpungnyu (String Junggwangjigok String ensemble Pungnyu-bang
Some parts in wind ensembles preferred higher registers to reflect how the uniquely instrumental performance style
Yeongsanhoesang Pungnyu) with gentle winds music
Geomun-gohoesang Indoor chamber differs from the voice.
music Yeongsanhoesang demonstrates the emergence of variants and illustrates the process of creating variants. To
the original Sangyeongsan, Jungyeongsan and Seyeongsan were added. Then the pieces from popular dance music
Gwanak Daepungnyu Pyojeong Wind ensemble Court dance
Yeongsanhoesang (Bamboo Pungnyu) manbangjigok accompaniment were added, including Samhyeon hwanip, Hahyeon hwanip, Yeombul, Taryeong and Gunak. As a result, the piece
or Samhyeon (Pyojungmanbang) outdoor court gradually evolved into an extended suite. At the same time, these variants were organized by Korean-style tempo
yeongsanhoesang entertainment music schemes where the music begins slowly with dignity and serenity and gradually increases its tempo and ends with
Pyeongjo hoesang Yuchosinjigok String ensemble Court entertainment folk music energy and wit.
(yuchosin) with strident winds music The most important musical structure in Korean music is trisection, known as hwanip (or dodeuri) in Korean
music. Hwanip structure is basically variation and repetition, and these were techniques of expanding
To complete a performance of the fullest form of Yeongsanhoesang takes more than fifty minutes. The Yeongsanhoesang. Trisection structure is found in the sequencing of Sangyeongsan-Jungyeongsan-Seyeongsan.
repertoire of the first version includes Yeongsanhoesang Cheonnyeon manse and Dodeuri. These three suites are Within a suite, trisections are organic compositions and present one large motive.
individual repertoire but at the same time, are often coupled and played together. Gajeun hoesang is the title when The unit of rhythmic pattern is important in Korean music. It marks the tempo of a piece as well as the
Yeongsanhoesang and Cheonnyeon manse are played one after another. Byeolgok is the title when structure of the entire piece. Rhythmic pattern shapes distinctive musical characteristics and a rhythmic change
Yeongsanhoesang and Dodeuri are coupled. Byeolgok eliminates some pieces and adds three new pieces with a fast signals the beginning of the following piece. For example, the rhythmic pattern of Sangyeongsan and
tempo at the end. Jungyeongsan, the first and the second pieces of Yeongsanhoesang, is based on 20-beat cycle while the pattern in
According to its occasion, size, and function, the numbers of players in ensembles varies: from a single Seyeongsan and Garakdeori, the third and the fourth pieces, is based on 10-beat cycle. Samhyeon dodeuri,
performer to multiple players on most melodic instruments. In string and wind ensembles, the number of player of Hahyeon dodeuri, Yeombul dodeuri are based on 6-beat cycle and Taryeong and Gunak on 4-beat cycle. The 20-
other instruments should be multiple. In string ensembles, each of the instruments should be performed by single and 10-beat rhythmic patterns are basically mixed and asymmetrical with the duple and triple rhythms basic in
performers for timbral balance. Individual pieces or extracts within the suite can be performed as independent Korean rhythmic structure. 20-beat rhythmic patterns are divided unevenly into 6+4+4+6, and 10-beat patterns are
concert repertoire today. For example, the daegeum or piri melody of the first piece, Sangyeongsan of divided into 3+2+2+3. 6-beat dodeuri and taryeong rhythmic patterns are popularly used in folk music.
Pyeongjohoesang is one of the most frequently performed repertoires in contemporary concerts.
<Example 1> Janggu rhythmic patterns in Yeongsanhoesang3

3) Musical Features
4-1. Sangyeongsan and Jungyeongsan (20-beat rhythmic cycle, 6+4+4+6)
Pungnyu music is distinguished by subdued melodies and a very slow tempo reflective of the Confucian
mind-set of the Joseon and Taoist practice. At the same time, pungnyu music shares most of the distinctive musical
features of Korean instrumental music: 1) instrumental music derived from vocal music; 2) new pieces as variants
of one prototype or old melody; 3) long performances due to suite form; 4) single repertoire that can be several 4-2. Seyeongsan and Garakdeori (10-beat rhythmic cycle, 3+2+2+3)
depending on its instrumentation as solo, ensemble or duet; 5) tempo changes within the piece that follow the same
pattern from slow to fast; 6) no conductor and drum player or bak player lead the ensemble; 7) musicians are able
to perform more than one instrument; and 8) rhythmic patterns are the most important musical element.
58 Music of Korea
4-3. Samhyeon dodeuri, Hahyeon dodeuri and Yeombul dodeuri (6-beat rhythmic cycle)
4-4. Taryeong and Gunak (4-beat rhythmic cycle, three squares take one beat)
The beginning of Gwanak yeongsanhoesang is unique and exceptional compared to other court music. The
drums signal the beginning of the piece about half-way through the rhythmic pattern, then hyangpiri, daegeum,
haegeum begin. These three instruments produce by responding to each other. The heterophony produced by these
techniques is called as yeoneum. Yeoneum is one of the most unique musical characteristic in Korean music, and it
works efficiently in this piece. The mode of Yeongsanhoesang is distinct Korean style, based on pyeongjo and
gyemyeonjo. The melodic features of Yeongsanhoesang are unison and heterophony.
Musical expressions of pungnyu also reflect the pungnyu philosophy of literati and Confucian ideology in
the Joseon period. Music is shaped as refined and subtle by narrow vibrato and unison melody serving as a sonic
representation of Joseon pungnyu ideology. In terms of emotion based on melody, rhythm and ornamentation,
pungnyu lies between court music and folk music. Court music, or aak, is usually strict, slow, and syllabic, with the
emotional expression extremely restrained. However, pungnyu music is more melismatic, and tempo changes
gradually move from slow to fast to allow rich and highly ornamented melodies. At the same time, pungnyu is
restrained compared to folk music. It uses narrower vibrato and gentler musical expressions. In its rhythmic
patterns, it begins slow and dignified but ends with dance-like melodies that incorporate the light humor of folk
music. Perhaps this fusion was the result of pungnyu culture being cultivated by different classes and professions,
so that musical expressions were able to transcend rigid social boundaries.
4) Regional Pungnyu
Current pungnyu music is derived mostly from eighteenth century pungnyu-bang in the Seoul (capital of
Joseon) area. Pungnyu spread to other regions and music became localized into regional-specific music in the
nineteenth century. String pungnyu was passed down in Seoul and is now performed by The National Center for
Korean Traditional Performing Arts (NCKTPA) as Gyeongjje pungnyu (Seoul style pungnyu), Aak pungnyu
(elegant pungnyu) or Gugakwon pungnyu (NCKTPA pungnyu). Regional versions are called Hyangjje pungnyu
(Regional or countryside style pungnyu) or Min-gan pungnyu (people’s or non-official pungnyu). These local
pungnyu are different from one another and reflect local musical flavors. They are transmitted through yul-gye
while the pungnyu in the Seoul area is currently transmitted by the loyal court musicians and NCKTPA musicians.
Classical Music : Instrumental 59
At the end of nineteenth century, professional sanjo musicians also performed pungnyu.4 Pungnyu melodies
performed by sanjo musicians, sometimes called “Gaein (individual or personal) pungnyu,” have been passed
down through their pupils and students, yet these are also categorized as Hyangjje pungnyu or Min-gan pungnyu.
Vernacular style hyangjje pungnyu was transmitted through modernized versions of traditional pungnyu-
bang culture that is enjoyed by amateur musicians, and individual pungnyu has been performed and transmitted
through professional musicians. However, in the process of music-making in regional pungnyu-bang, professional
musicians also have contributed since they were invited to join pungnyu. Regional pungnyu was performed
throughout the country until the mid twentieth century; however, almost every form of local style music has been
lost with the dismantling of traditional culture and the modernization of Korean society.
“Hyangjje” indicates indigenous roots, and it is transmitted through local amateur literati musicians in the
countryside. This countryside style or “Hyangjje jul pungnyu” is also divided into various forms with slightly
different characteristics according to the regions: Honam pungnyu (Iri, Gurye, Gimje, Gwangju, Mokpo in Jeolla
province), Naepo pungnyu (Daejeon, Gongju, Yesan in Chuncheong province), Yeongnam pungnyu (Daegu,
Busan, Gyeongju in Gyeongsang province), and Haeseo pungnyu (Haeju in Hwanghae province in North Korea).
However, many of these regional renditions have been lost except those performed in Iri and Gurye in Jeolla
province, where they were nationally recognized as Property 83 in 1985. Iri and Gurye pungnyu still survive based
on amateur music-making practice. Up until the 1980s, these vernacular style pungnyu were performed at their
local pungnyu-bang by organizing yul-gye. Gayageum player Kang Nakseung at Iri and geomun-go and danso
player Kim Mukyu have been appointed as property holders on hyangjje pungnyu. Kang Nakseung is not only
famous for performing gayageum but also janggu, geomun-go, sijo and gagok as old pungnyu-gaek did. In 1958,
he organized Iri Yullim-gye (Iri Pungnyu-club) with other local amateur musicians like Chae Kyuhwan, Jin Yangsu,
Hwang Sanggyu, Jin Jongha, Jeong Gilseon and Yi Bohan. Later this punygnyu club was transformed into a
modern organization, Iri Jeongak-won (Iri Jeongak institution).
Sanjo masters’ pungnyu have been performed and transmitted by gayageum masters. Kim Changjo (1865-
1919), Han Sukgu (1850-1925), Paik Nakjun (1876-1930), Han Sudong (1902-1929), Han Seonggi (1889-1950),
and Choe Oksam (1902-1950) were very famous for their sanjo and pungnyu performance, and Kim Yonggeun,
Kim Yeonsu, Sin Changhyu, Im Sukyun, Choe Changro, Kwon Hakyeong were famous pungnyu patrons.
Gayageum masters, including Sim Sanggeon (1889-1965), Kim Jukpa (1911-1989), Kang Taehong (1893-1957),
Kim Yundeok (1918-1978), and Seong Geumyeon (1923-1986), have performed pungnyu, and their pungnyu
melodies are sometimes performed on concert stages today by their pupils. The melodies of “Hyangjje pungnyu”
are not as fixed as “Seoul pungnyu” since players remember different renditions of melodies transmitted through
several players. Vernacular music shows a strong attachment with local music; however, these differences have
disappeared and melodies and local flavors have standardized through exchanges among musicians and pungnyu
associations.
60 Music of Korea Classical Music : Instrumental 61

<Table 3> Renditions of Pungnyu accompaniment ensemble as well as individual instrument classes in geomun-go, gayageum, danso and yanggeum
Types of Pungnyu Seoul Pungnyu Regional Pungnyu Sanjo masters’ Pungnyu along with music theory. Unfortunately, after a few years these institutions lost their educational functions due to
financial difficulties and ended by having only three years worth of graduates. Beginning in 1935, the institutions
Current Performers NCKTPA Local associations Sanjo masters and their
merely survived by staging weekly performances.
(amateur musicians) pupils
Pungnyu music may have survived due to the activities of few performing groups. When pungnyu music
Gyeongjje pungnyu, Hyangjje pungnyu Gaein pungnyu
was in danger, it has become the new repertoire of the former court musicians. During the Japanese occupation
Other Names Aak pungnyu, Min-gan pungyu Min-gan pungnyu
period, court music was transmitted and survived by Iwangjik aakbu, Yi Dynastic Music Bureau. Iwangjik aakbu
Gugakwon pungnyu
taught court music along with general education. In their third year of study, students learned jeong-ak repertoires
Regular performance Appointed as national Recently reorganized
including gagok and Yeongsanhoesang. Thus, the tradition of pungnyu-bang culture was transmitted through
Performance repertoire properties in 1985 and reconstructed by the
pupils of sanjo masters
former members of the royal court ensemble, and pungnyu music has become a major genre in Korean music.
After 1910, the term jeong-ak has been posed as counterpart to folk music, distinguishing it from the repertoires
that were performed by folk musicians whose social class was low in traditional society. The repertoires of jeong-
The major difference between regional pungnyu and Seoul pungnyu lies in degrees of melodic elaboration. ak encompass the body of music that was performed at functions of the historical royal court as well as pungnyu
Compared to Seoul pungnyu, the vernacular pungnyu melody is much freer than the former. Embellishments in music which enjoyed and developed by the literati and the middle class. Thus, jeong-ak became the umbrella term
melody and rhythmic division are more sophisticated and numerous. Instrumentation itself is not fixed in encompassing both music of the court and pungnyu-bang. Pungnyu and other jeong-ak repertoires are well-
vernacular pungnyu because of its performance context. Another distinctive characteristic in playing “Min-gan established forms of traditional music today. Currently, pungnyu repertoires are transmitted and performed
pungnyu” is the use of instruments, especially in the case of the gayageum. For “Seoul pungnyu,” the so-called regularly by the members of NCKTPA, local amateur musicians, and professional jeong-ak performing groups, and
pungnyu gayageum or beobgeum is used which original and used in court music, while vernacular pungnyu uses sanjo masters’ pupils and associations. They are also taught in institutions such as universities that specialize in
sanjo gayageum. This marks a significant difference in the music as sanjo gayageum is smaller and much more teaching Korean music and dance.
flexible in terms of playing techniques. Thus, the sound of pungnyu played by sanjo gayageum is lighter, freer and
less serious than Seoul style music.

Modern Day Transmission and Performance Practice

Pungnyu traditions of Joseon began to wane after the corruption of the dynasty and class system. Pungnyu-
bang culture was quickly dismantled in the early twentieth century. In 1909, a few pungnyu enthusiasts have
established Joyang gurakbu (Joyang Club), a private organization to preserve pungnyu culture. Later the members
organized a sponsor association, Jeong-ak Yujihoe (Association for Preservation of jeong-ak) which was supported
by twelve nobilities. Joyang gurakbu was re-organized into Joseon Jeong-ak Jeonseupso (Joseon Private Institute
for Jeong-ak) in 1911. Joseon Jeong-ak Jeonseupso was the first private music institution and had three divisions--
voice, instrument, and instrument-making--and taught Joseon and Western music together. The term jeong-ak
(proper or elegant music) is believed to have originated from Jeong-ak Yujihoe and Joseon Jeong-ak Jeonseupso,
the predecessors of Joseon Jeong-akwon during the Japanese colonial occupation of Korea (1910-1945). These
institutions and associations were the successors of pungnyu-bang associations of the Joseon period. Two
associations were private institutions which tried to preserve pungnyu culture through the education. The
<Figure 3> Performance of String Ensemble (Hyeonak yeongsanhoesang)
curriculum of their institutions included classes in strings ensemble, winds ensemble, gagok, gasa, sijo and gagok Jeongnong-akhoe Musicians ⓒ NCKTPA
62 Music of Korea Classical Music : Instrumental 63

Further Readings

Condit, Jonathan. 1984. Music of the Korean Renaissance: Songs and Dances of the fifteenth Century. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Lee Hye-gu. 1981. Essays on Traditional Korean Music. ed. and trans. Robert C. Provine. Seoul: Royal Asiatic
Society, Korean Branch.

Pratt, Keith L. 1987. Korean Music: Its History and Its Performance, Traditional Korean Music, 4. Seoul/London:
Jungeumsa and Faber Music.

1
For detailed information of gagok, gasa and sijo, see earlier section of this chapter on classical vocal music.
<Figure 4> Performance of Wind Ensemble (Gwanak yeongsanhoesang) ⓒ NCKTPA
2
Studies on Yeongsanhoesang began in 1957 by the Korean music scholar Lee Hyegu. Many studies are primarily based on old manuscripts and

Musicians in modern days have discovered and reconstructed pungnyu music into modern concert repertoire.
Solo parts of daegeum and piri from Pyeongjohoesang and Gwanak yeongsanhoesang have, respectively, become
the major solo repertoires. These pieces were reinterpreted as solo pieces by the musicians of the early twentieth
century. In 1968, daegeum player Kim Seongjin and piri player Jeong Jaeguk were appointed as the holders of 3
Intangible Cultural Assets with their jeong-ak repertoires. With two prominent masters in jeong-ak genres, a group
of musicians organized Jeongnong akhoe, the professional group specialty in jeong-ak, mainly Yeongsanhoesang
scores. Studies have focused on the development process of the suite, musical and structural analysis, comparative analysis, and socio-cultural
analysis. Musical and structural analysis includes melodic, rhythmic structures and mode, transposition, playing techniques, aesthetics, and studies
on ensemble types.
The rhythmic cycle or pattern is given by the janggu drum. The symbols shown here are conventional janggu symbols. symbolizes striking
both heads simultaneously while symbolizes striking the leaf head of the drum with the left palm, and symbolizes striking the right skin
with the stick of the right hand. In this Jeonggan-bo notation, each square takes one beat.

performance. The members of the group include Kim Cheongheung, Kang Sajun, Jo Unjo (haegeum), Yi Seokjae,
4
For detailed information on sanjo, see Chapter 4 in this volume.
Kim Taeseop, Seo Hanbeom, Jeong Jaeguk (piri), Kim Seongjin (daegeum), Bong Haeryong (danso), Kim
Seonhan (geomun-go), Kim Jeongja, and Yang Yeonseop (gayageum). Most of the group members are professors
at universities and member of NCKTPA. After their debut in 1977, the group has performed regularly in Korea and
abroad. Their activities are not only performing but also recording and teaching Yeongsanhoesang. Another
important professional group is Han-guk Jeong-akwon (Korean Jeong-ak Institution) which is the successor of
Joseon Jeong-ak jeonseupso. Established in 1947, this group is a private institution and modern day pungnyu-bang
where people learn, perform, and promote pungnyu culture.
In modern day Korea, pungnyu music is represented as indigenous Korean music as well as elegant
aristocratic philosophy of old Korean society and sometimes it is interpreted and reconstructed as the symbol of
tranquility of Zen.