Colegio Gimnasio Campestre San

Sebastián

English
Reported Speech

Reported speech is often also called indirect speech. When we use reported speech, we are usually
talking about the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The
verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.

For example:
"I'm going to the cinema".
He said he was going to the cinema.
Basic tense chart
The tenses generally move backwards in this way (the tense on the left changes to the tense on the
right):

present simple past simple

I'm a teacher.
present continuous
I'm having lunch with my parents.
present perfect simple
I've been to France three times.
present perfect continuous
I've been working very hard.
past simple
I bought a new car.
past continuous
It was raining earlier.
past perfect
The play had started when I arrived.
past perfect continuous
I'd already been living in London for five
years.
He said he was a teacher
past continuous.
He said he was having lunch with his
parents.
past perfect simple
He said he had been to France three
times.
past perfect continuous
He said he had been working very hard.
past perfect
He said he had bought a new car.
past perfect continuous
He said it had been raining earlier.
past perfect
NO CHANGE POSSIBLE
past perfect continuous
NO CHANGE POSSIBLE

Other verb forms

Other verb forms also sometimes change:

will would
I'll come and see you soon. He said he would come and see me soon.
can could
I can swim under water for two He said he could swim under water for two
minutes. minutes.
must had to
All tickets must be bought in He said that all tickets had to be bought in
advance. advance.
 shall should
What shall we do about it? He asked what we should do about it.
may might
May I smoke? He asked if he might smoke.

Time and place references

Time and place references often have to change:

now then
today that day
here there
this that
this week that week
the following day
tomorrow the next day
the day after
the following week
next week the next week
the week after
the previous day
yesterday
the day before
the previous week
last week
the week before
previously
ago
before
2 weeks previously
2 weeks ago
2 weeks before
tonight that night
the previous Saturday
last Saturday
the Saturday before
the following Saturday
the next Saturday
next Saturday
the Saturday after
that Saturday

Examples:

 I went to the theatre last night.

He said he had gone to the theatre the night before.

 I'm having a party next weekend.

He said he was having a party the next weekend.

 I'm staying here until next week.

He said he was staying there until the following week.

 I came over from London 3 years ago.

He said he had come over from London 3 years before.
 SCIENCE
Contraceptive Methods

There are so many different types of contraception available that you should
be able to find the right method. You may have to try several different things
before you choose the one you like most.

We have reached the stage where unplanned pregnancies really should be

rare, because there are so many good methods of birth control.

What are the most popular types of contraception?

According to the Office of National Statistics (ONS), the Pill remains the most popular method in the
UK. Among women aged 16 to 49, 27 per cent were using the Pill in 2007.

It’s based on the recent survey carried out by the Office of National Statistics (ONS) on contraception
among women aged 16 to 49. (The figures may differ very slightly from those in other surveys. Even
when using large samples, minor variations in results will occur.)

1. The Pill including the mini-Pill – 27 per cent.

2. Male condom – 22 per cent.
3. Vasectomy – 11 per cent
4. Female sterilisation – 9 per cent
5. The coil (intra-uterine device) – 4 per cent
6. Withdrawal method – 3 per cent.
7. Persona and other variations of the rhythm method – 3 per cent.
8. Contraceptive injection – 2 per cent.
9. Mirena (intra-uterine system) – 2 per cent.
10. Skin patch – 1 per cent.
11. The cap or diaphragm – 1 per cent.
12. Female condom – less than 1 per cent.

What works and what doesn't?

With the exception of withdrawal (coitus interruptus), the above methods have the blessing of family
planning experts because when used properly, they prevent pregnancy.

However, while the rhythm method is okay for well-motivated couples who have been trained in its
use by a qualified natural family planning teacher, for the rest of us, it’s a bit risky.

Also very risky are certain non-approved methods, for instance, using spermicides (chemical
pessaries, creams or foams), or douching your vagina after sex.

Practices like ‘doing it standing up’ or ‘coughing a lot afterwards’ or ‘trying not to come’ don’t work,
and will simply lead to unwanted pregnancy.

How effective are the various methods?

Some contraceptive methods are more effective in preventing pregnancy than others, while only
condoms offer protection against sexually transmitted infections.
The following figures will give you some idea of which kinds of contraception are the most efficient at
protecting you against pregnancy.

Contraception Methods for Women

Because women have the ability to become pregnant, the onus is generally on them to take
responsibility for birth control. There are many more options for women's contraception as opposed to
men's, and likely there is one that is right for every woman.

Hormonal Birth Control

Altering the menstrual cycle through the use of extraneous hormones is a popular method of birth
control that women use. Birth control pills have been in use for many years with a fairly high and
predictable success rate. Recently, hormone patches, injections and cervical rings that release
hormones have gained in popularity for the simple reason that they are not pills that have to be taken
daily. The effectiveness of these methods of birth control is usually above 92 percent.

Rhythm Method
The rhythm method requires a good understanding of a woman's menstrual cycle. Typically a woman
ovulates on day 14 of her menstrual cycle. Thus, intercourse within a day or two on either side of
ovulation risks pregnancy. This type of contraception only works well for women with menstrual
cycles that are predictable (regardless of whether they are 28 days long or not). There is a 25 percent
failure rate associated with this form of birth control, but women with predictable menstrual cycles
have fewer failures.

Tubal Ligation
Tubal ligation is when the fallopian tubes are severed, which prevents the egg from meeting sperm
there and being fertilized. This option is becoming less popular, as other options are becoming
available. A tubal ligation must be done surgically, and many women who have cesarean sections opt
for these because the fallopian tubes are exposed and can be easily tied off right after the birth of
their baby.

Intrauterine Devices
IUDs are devices that are placed into the uterus. Some of these contain substances that kill sperm,
and some of these simply prevent the implantation of an embryo (and so do not prevent conception).
These are about 99 percent effective and can almost always be removed if you want to get pregnant.

Cervical Caps
Diaphragms are cups that are inserted and fit over the cervix, blocking the opening of the uterus. This
prevents sperm from entering the uterus and traveling up toward the egg. The success rate is about
84 percent with diaphragms.
Spermicides
Spermicides are products that come in a gel or foam and kill sperm on contact. Used alone,
spermicides are marginally effective (about a 30 percent failure rate) but are generally used in
conjunction with another form of birth control to increase the effectiveness of each.

Abstinence
Abstinence remains the only form of birth control that is 100 percent effective. It is also the only form
of birth control available for women that also protects against the transmission of sexually transmitted
diseases.

Contraception Methods for Men

Many times birth control is left up to the female partner in a relationship. This is likely because
pregnancy is a bigger issue for women and because there are so many more contraceptive options
available for women than for men. There are a few methods, however, that men can use to take
charge of their fertility.

Condoms
Condoms are the most popular contraceptive method for men. Condoms consist of a latex (or rubber
or sheepskin) sleeve that is worn over the penis. It has a small reservoir at the end that serves to
catch the semen and prevent it from entering the vaginal canal. The success rate of condoms is
approximately 85 percent. In order to work most effectively, condoms must be worn before any sexual
contact occurs (by doing this, the success rate is much higher). Condoms also offer the advantage of
being extremely effective in preventing the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases, if used
properly.

Withdrawal
Withdrawal occurs when the penis is removed before ejaculation. The rate of failure is quite high for
this method of contraception (about 27 percent) because oftentimes pre-ejaculatory fluid can contain
sperm cells.

Rhythm method
Avoiding intercourse during ovulation is known as the rhythm method but requires that the man have
intimate knowledge of the woman's menstrual cycle. The failure rate associated with this method is
about 25 percent.

Vasectomy
A vasectomy has a high success rate (greater than 99 percent). This occurs when the vas deferens,
which is the small tube that delivers sperm from the testis to the urethra, is surgically severed. These
surgeries are relatively simple and have a high success rate. Within several weeks, the urethra is
cleared of sperm cells.

Abstinence
Abstinence remains the only contraceptive method that is 100 percent effective.

Potential
Researchers are focused on developing a birth control pill for men, but this may be significantly in the
future.
 SOCIAL
England

England is a country that is part of the

United Kingdom. It shares land borders with
Scotland to the north and Wales to the west;
the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic
Sea to the south west and the North Sea to
the east, with the English Channel to the
south separating it from continental Europe.
Most of England comprises the central and
southern part of the island of Great Britain in
the North Atlantic. The country also includes
over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of
Scilly and the Isle of Wight.

Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC, FRS (née Roberts; born 13 October
1925) served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and Leader of the
Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. She is the only woman to have held either post.

Born in Grantham in Lincolnshire, United Kingdom, she went to school at

Kesteven and Grantham Girls' School in Grantham, where she was head girl
in 1942–43. She read chemistry at Somerville College, Oxford and later
trained as a barrister. She won a seat in the 1959 general election, becoming
the MP for Finchley as a Conservative.

When Edward Heath formed a government in 1970, he appointed Thatcher

Secretary of State for Education and Science. Four years later, she backed
Keith Joseph in his bid to become Conservative Party leader but he was
forced to drop out of the election. In 1975 Thatcher entered the contest
herself and became leader of the Conservative Party. At the 1979 general election she became
Britain's first female Prime Minister.

Thatcher's tenure as Prime Minister was the longest since that of Lord Salisbury and the longest
continuous period in office since Lord Liverpool in the early 19th century.

She was the first woman to lead a major political party in the United Kingdom, and the first of only
four women to hold any of the four great offices of state. She holds a life peerage as Baroness
Thatcher, of Kesteven in the County of Lincolnshire, which entitles her to sit in the House of Lords
Thatcher became Prime Minister on 4 May 1979. Arriving at 10 Downing Street, she said, in a
paraphrase of St. Francis of Assisi:
“Where there is discord, may we bring harmony. Where there is error, may we bring truth.
Where there is doubt, may we bring faith. And where there is despair, may we bring hope”.
Thatcher was incensed by one contemporary view within the British Civil Service that its job was to
manage the UK's decline from the days of Empire and she wanted the country to assert a higher level
of influence and leadership in international affairs. She represented the newly energetic right wing of
the Conservative Party and advocated greater independence of the individual from the state and less
government intervention.

She became a very close ally, philosophically and politically, with President of the United States
Ronald Reagan, elected in 1980. During her tenure as Prime Minister she was said to need just four
hours' sleep a night.

First government (1979–1983)

New economic initiatives
Thatcher's political and economic philosophy emphasized reduced state intervention, free markets,
and entrepreneurialism. She wished to end what she felt was excessive government interference in
the economy, and therefore privatized many nationally owned enterprises and sold public housing to
tenants at cut prices.

Influenced by monetarist thinking as espoused by Milton Friedman, she began her economic reforms
by increasing interest rates to try to slow the growth of the money supply and thereby lower inflation.

She also placed limits on the printing of money and legal restrictions on trade unions, in her quest to
tackle inflation and trade union disputes, which had bedeviled the UK economy throughout the 1970s.
In accordance with her anti-interventionist views, she introduced cash limits on public spending and
reduced expenditures on social services such as education (until 1987) and housing.
Later, in 1985, as a deliberate snub, the University of Oxford voted to refuse Thatcher an honorary
degree in protest against her cuts in funding for higher education

Relationship with the Queen

As Prime Minister, Thatcher met weekly with Queen Elizabeth II to discuss government business.
She was just six months older than the Queen, and their
relationship came under close scrutiny, with the media speculating
that they did not get along overly well. While they displayed public
images that largely contrasted, Tim Bell, a former Thatcher advisor,
recalled, "Margaret has the deepest respect for the Queen and all
her family". She was said to greet the Queen with a curtsey every
time they met.

In July 1986 sensational claims attributed to the Queen's advisers

of a "rift" between Buckingham Palace and Downing Street "over a wide range of domestic and
international issues" were reported by The Sunday Times.

The immediate cause was said to be "the Queen's fear for the possible break-up of the
Commonwealth" because of Thatcher's rejection of comprehensive sanctions against South Africa.
Their relationship was characterised as "pragmatic and without any personal antagonism”. The
Palace issued an official denial, heading off speculation about a possible constitutional crisis.
However a MORI poll for the Evening Standard suggested a sharp loss of support for the government
following the controversy, giving Labour a six-point lead, reversing a previous Conservative six-point
lead, while a separate MORI poll for The Times put Labour on 41% with a nine-point lead.

After Thatcher's retirement a senior Palace source again dismissed as "nonsense" the "stereotyped
idea" that she had not got along with the Queen or that they had fallen out over Thatcherite policies.
Thatcher herself declared that "stories of clashes between 'two powerful women' were too good not to
make up ... I always found the Queen's attitude towards the work of the Government absolutely
correct”