Protecting the Sky

Signal Monitoring of Radio

Controlled Civilian Unmanned
Aerial Vehicles and Possible
Countermeasures

Whitepaper
This whitepaper provides insights into the use, specifications, and impact of Radio Controlled (RC) Unmanned Aerial
Vehicles (commonly referred to as “drones”). UAVs intended for recreational use are increasingly being used for other
(sometimes hostile) purposes. These include: observing/disturbing public events, spying in protected areas, smuggling
contraband into prisons, endangering/threatening commercial air traffic, and entering restricted airspace. A technical
approach for countering the threats posed by such drones is described, and includes: monitoring the spectrum for
relevant signals, identification of frequency-agile RC signals, direction finding, and possible defensive countermeasures.

Whitepaper
Signal Analysis 8GEP
10.2015 - V02.00
Whitepaper
Protecting the Sky
Table of Contents
1 Protecting the Sky .................................................................. 3
1.1 The Highlights .............................................................................................. 3

2 Civilian (Commercial) Drones Overview ............................... 5

2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 5
2.2 Categories of Civilian (Commercial) Drones ............................................. 5
2.3 Specifications ............................................................................................... 6

3 Conceptual Solution for Monitoring and Countermeasures7

3.1 Key Features ................................................................................................. 7
3.2 Conceptual Approach .................................................................................. 8

4 FHSS Drones ........................................................................... 9

4.1 Detection, Recognition and Analysis ......................................................... 9
4.2 Direction Finding ........................................................................................ 10
4.3 Jamming ...................................................................................................... 11

5 WLAN Drones ........................................................................ 12

5.1 Detection, Recognition and Direction Finding ........................................ 12

6 Summary................................................................................ 13

7 Reference............................................................................... 13

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1 Protecting the Sky

1.1 The Highlights

The use of Radio Controlled (RC) Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) for civilian and commercial purposes
has been growing steadily for the past decade. As early as 2011, research indicated that approximately
50,000 drones were in use by amateurs, worldwide. In the USA, some researchers claim that up to 30,000
civilian and commercial drones could be flying in the skies over US cities within the next decade. Experts
estimate that, during this time frame, cumulative global spending on aerial drones will reach $98 billion
and around 12% of this will be for commercial purposes. These Unmanned Aircraft (UA) systems are an
advancing technology with a proven record for providing beneficial “eye in the sky” services, but which
also raise serious concerns with regard to privacy and safety.

This paper provides an overview of the different types of UAV and their communications behavior. A
conceptual solution for both monitoring and countermeasures is also presented.

Fig 1. Illustration of a drone in the sky over Paris (SPIEGEL 4th Mar 2015)

Undeniably, surveillance technologies and applications have burgeoned during the last several decades.
The existence of drones adds a further dimension to surveillance, both in terms of capabilities and potential
threats. Beyond the well-known problems of data privacy, drone-based surveillance threatens another
vital human concern: behavioral privacy. As public concern continues to rise, policy and regulatory
responses become more necessary.

Clearly not all use of UAVs is threatening. Examples of the legal and beneficial use of drones include:
park ranger drones, drones for area mapping, search and rescue drones, drones for archaeological and
agriculture research, drones for detecting land mines, and ambulance drones. In addition, the use of
drones for recreational purposes has become extremely widespread.

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However, the number of incidents involving the irresponsible or illegal use of drones is growing fast. The
list below provides a typical cross-section of news items dealing with the use of civilian and commercial
drones. The types of drones mentioned can be easily bought and operated for criminal or even hostile
purposes.

Japan (22th Apr 2015)

• Drone laced with traces of radioactive radiation was found on the roof of the
prime minister's office, sparking concerns about drones and their possible use
in terrorist attacks when Japan hosts a Group of Seven summit and the 2020
Olympics in Tokyo

UK (22th Mar 2015)

• Prison smuggling with drone: criminals in Bedford, England intended to use a
drone to smuggle drugs, mobile phones and weapons to their counterparts in
the prison. Even though the plan failed (the drone got stuck in barbed wire on
the outside wall), it highlights the need for security measures to be
implemented in British prisons to prevent drones being used in this way

France (4th Mar 2015):

• Dozens of drones were seen hovering near the Eiffel Tower and several other
areas. Since October, the authorities have counted 60 drones over Paris and
the French nuclear facilities. Besides, drones were also spotted on strategically
sensitive areas such as the Eiffel Tower, the Presidential Palace and the US
Embassy

USA (17th Feb 2015):

• Drones alarm in Washington, after the crash landing of a unknown drone in the
garden of the White House, thus stricter rules for radio controlled aircrafts are
anticipated

France (31th Jan 2015):

• Small drones were seen near a bay in Brittany, France that houses four nuclear
submarines, which is one of the most protected sites in the country

Germany (24th Jan 2015):

• A drug-loaded drone (with marijuana, an iPhone and a USB flash drive),
intended smuggled into the detention center at Holstenglacis, Hamburg
crashed on a cell window during the approach to the roof

Mexico (21st Jan 2015):

• Meth delivery drone crash, where a drone carrying more than 6 pounds of
methamphetamine crashed near the U.S.-Mexico border

UK (7th Dec 2014):

• A first near miss between a passenger jet and a drone near Heathrow airport,
amid fears that drones could pose a danger to commercial flights. The pilot of
an Airbus A320 spotted the drone, which failed to show up on air traffic control
system

USA (27th Sep 2014):

• An unauthorized drone helicopter with a camera attached was seen flying over
Kansas University’s Memorial Stadium, before the Texas-KU football game.
The KU Public Safety Office is justifiably concerned about the unauthorized
drone that flew over the stadium for about 15 minutes

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2 Civilian (Commercial) Drones Overview

2.1 Introduction
As the name suggests, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are aircraft without a human pilot on board.
The flight is controlled remotely by a pilot on the ground or by means of an onboard navigation system
flying a predefined route. UAVs typically fall into one of six functional categories: Civilian and Commercial,
Target and Decoy, Reconnaissance, Combat, Logistics, and Research and Development.

Our focus here is aimed on radio controlled civilian (commercial) drones, where the UAVs specifically
designed for civil and commercial applications. The trend for the use of UAV technology in civilian and
commercial uses is expanding rapidly with increased development of automated object detection
approaches and the lowing of cost. The increasing amount of affordable civilian drones capable of carrying
payloads of some 100g up to a few kg leads to an emerging threat for critical infrastructures, VIPs and
public events. Threats may involve simple disturbances (privacies), spying or even incur severe harms
(terror attacks). Facing with the challenges and difficulties of intercepting radio controlled drones as well
as their operators, many authorities have been striving to achieve a solution in drones monitoring and
countermeasures.

2.2 Categories of Civilian (Commercial) Drones

There are two main types of civilian drones, explicitly multi-copter and fixed-wing.
 Multi-copter drones are able to hover and fly at very low speeds and altitudes, making them suitable
for applications such as aerial photography, power line inspections, aerial video and real estate
photography
 Fixed-wing drones are useful for higher altitude or longer range applications such as search and
rescue, surveying and mapping large areas
Furthermore, these can be generally categorized in terms of their size, payload, speed, endurance,
altitude, and range, which range from mini, micro to nano drone type.

Drone type Payload (g) Speed (km/h) Endurance (min) Altitude (m) Operating Radius (km)
Mini 600 - 3000 30 - 100 15 - 90 2000 - 3000 < 15
Micro 50 - 600 < 50 < 30 < 600 <2
Nano
V02.00 < 50 < 20 < 10 Protecting the Sky
Rohde & Schwarz < 300 < 0.1 5

*mini drone is corresponding to fixed-wing aircraft UAV with weight around 5-6kg
2.3 Specifications
The table below provides a summary of the typical characteristics and specifications of drones available
on the market today. The implicit low-weight requirement of a drone has the natural consequence that
transmission power is limited and combined with the high frequencies used, which makes detection and
monitoring difficult. The use of frequency hopping and spread spectrum transmission systems is intended
to reduce the impact of interference, which makes detection and monitoring a challenge.

Parameter Specification Remarks

Frequency Band 2.4 GHz ISM band* Mainly used
433 MHz Rarely used
27 MHz, 35 MHz, 40 MHz, 72 MHz Very rarely used (outdated)

Radio Controlled (RC) FHSS Systems (e.g. HOTT, FASST, M- Frequency-agile short-time communication, low
Transmission System Link, DSMX) probability of interception (LPI)
WLAN Standard wireless LAN technology

Typical max. 2.4 GHz ISM band FHSS: up to approx. The drones have to be in the visibility of the
communication 3 km controller. To see a typical drone with the naked
range between drone eye becomes difficult at approx. > 300m**
and control station WLAN: 500m The drones have to be in the visibility of the
controller. To see a typical drone with the naked
eye becomes difficult at approx. > 300m**
433 MHz: several km The drones have to be in the visibility of the
controller. To see a typical drone with the naked
eye becomes difficult at approx. > 300m**
27.12 MHz, 35 MHz, 40.68 MHz: several The drones have to be in the visibility of the
km controller. To see a typical drone with the naked
eye becomes difficult at approx. > 300m**

5.8 GHz: Line of Sight (LOS) Used often by video downlink purpose but not for
radio control
Control Route Direct user control (line of sight or Viewing through a mounted cameras’ output also
viewing through the mounted camera’s needs line of sight between drone and controller
output) to transfer a video stream (FPV)
Pre-defined GNSS route (waypoints) Using a space-based satellite navigation system,
e.g. GPS, GLONASS
Positioning GPS, Glonass Could be used for autonomous flight via pre-
programmed waypoints
Spreading Mode FHSS, DSSS

Modulation Type FSK2, MSK, PSK, Analog

Burst Length 0.5 ms - 5 ms

Hop Rate 90 hops/s - 300 hops/s

Burst Bandwidth 300 kHz - 2500 kHz

Symbol Rate 250 kBd - 2000 kBd

* The ISM (Industrial, Scientific and Medical) radio bands are the range of the radio spectrum reserved internationally for the use of RF (radio frequency)
energy for industrial, scientific and medical purposes other than telecommunications. The ISM band is the frequency band open for varied services,
which include Bluetooth, wireless LAN, IEEE 802.15.4-ZigBee, audio and video broadcasts, microwaves, remote controls and others. Most of the ISM
applications are operating between 2.4 and 2.485 GHz, which is commonly called “2.4GHz ISM band”.

**First Person View (FPV) is the function that provides the user with a true pilot’s eye view via video camera on the drones and video display on a head
mounted display while flying the drones. In the case of FPV, the eye contact to the drone is not a limiting issue anymore. It is not so applicable for
WLAN controlled drones and in the band of 27.12MHz, 35MHz and 40.68MHz.

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3 Conceptual Solution for Monitoring and
Countermeasures
The main challenge in the field of radio controlled drone monitoring and countermeasure is response time.
It is essential to detect, identify, locate and counter the targeted signals, in the shortest possible time. With
long standing experience in the field of radiomonitoring and radiolocation, Rohde & Schwarz is able to
offer an optimized solution ensuring that the radio controlled drone activity is optimally monitored and
surveilled. The section illustrates the conceptual solution for radio controlled drone monitoring and
countermeasures.

3.1 Key Features

The key features of the targeted R&S solution are:
 Fast response: detection, identification, directing finding and jamming of threats in less than 20s,
including the decision time by the operator. Capable of identifying the radio control emission of the
drone immediately after switching on (even before take-off)
 Frequency range: covers all the relevant frequencies used by modern drones 433 MHz, 2.4 GHz,
and 5.8 GHz
 Automatic workflow: online detection of frequency-agile short-time signals, hop analysis,
classification of hop parameters (i.e. hop duration, hop rate, modulation and other parameters)
 Excellent time resolution: min burst duration = 500 µs
 Wideband hopper detection: max hopper bandwidth = 2.5 MHz
 Wideband direction finding: max realtime bandwidth = 80 MHz
 Advanced DF: multi-element direction finding antennas with superior DF accuracy, sensitivity and
immunity to reflections
 Effective jamming: advanced exciter for jamming purpose, only the radio controlled drone signal
should be jammed and other legal signals in the same band should not be affected
 Automatic IQ recording: IQ recording for detailed analysis of the recorded complex signal scenarios
by technical signal analysis software to explore new types of drones. Concurrently, it also conserves
as the assurance of evidence

Fig 2. Various field trials carried out by Rohde & Schwarz in monitoring, locating and jamming of radio controlled drones

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3.2 Conceptual Approach

Action Benefit Remarks

Signal monitoring over a
wide area to detect the
appearance of radio
controlled drones. Its aims
are to improve situational
awareness and to detect the
radio control signals of
interest as early as possible
- Achieve immediate detection
of the drone’s RC once it
switches on (even before
take-off)
- Achieve an overview of all
the active RC or WLAN
controlled drones in the area
covered by the monitoring
stations
- Drones that are flying autonomously (via
GNSS) may or may not have a simultaneous RC-
link. If such RC-link is established, surveillance
and monitoring on the RC signal can be achieved.
Otherwise, the drone is controlled by pre-defined
waypoints that dependent on satellite based GPS
(vulnerable to GPS jamming). Detection of this
kind of drones can be achieved by having an
additional strategy (i.e. radar, optical, acoustic)

- Obtain the parameters and

Direction finding and
locating of radio controlled
drone through one or more
direction finding station(s) in
order to geo-locate the
corresponding radio controls
of interest
Jamming is triggered if the
radio controlled drone has to
be stopped
Detailed analysis of the
recorded (new types of)
FHSS drone control signals
Detailed analysis of the
recorded (new types of)
WLAN drone control signals
classification of the active
radio controlled drones
- Achieve the approx. direction - It is possible while the RC signal and/or
from where the drone is downlink is active
approaching - For WLAN controlled drones, the radiolocation
- Achieve the exact position of performance depends on the number and signal
the person that is controlling level of the other WLAN transmitters in the vicinity
the drone of the DF station(s)
- The hostile mission is - In all cases, jamming the drone can lead to a
prevented and the drone will non-predictable behavior of the drone and thus
no longer be under the control can even lead to a crash of the drone
of the remote operator - The home position will normally be the position
- Almost all drones have a the drone came from but can also be set to any
selectable fail-safe-procedure other pre-programmed position (rare case)
in case they lose their control - Jamming the connection of autonomous flying
signal. They will drone will typically lead to its “fail-safe” mode (e.g.
a) immediately slowly return to home, landing). It is also possible that
descend to the ground the drone will continue the pre-programmed path
b) return to home position after the transmitter is switched off.
(requires that the drone - Jamming GPS will influence all other GPS-
can receive GPS) devices in the area
- The GPS signal can also be - For WLAN drone, it is possible to generate a link
jammed. Normally the GPS- interruption or take over the control. It is a
controlled drone will stay preferred/ recommended solution because the
where it is or descend down drone remains under control
- Extend the library of known
drone types for the monitoring
and jamming process
- Analysis of the IP data
stream

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4 FHSS Drones

4.1 Detection, Recognition and Analysis

The radio control connections to drones should be monitored in order to detect threats within an area of
interest. The target RC links are recognized by the monitoring operator in terms of modulation as well as
hop parameters (e.g. hop-length, hop-rate, modulation type, symbol rate). Monitoring of drones essentially
encompasses:
 Detection of RC links in the surroundings
 Separation of the targeted RC link from other signals within a dense signal scenario (WiFi, Bluetooth)
 Measurement of the hop parameters
 Identification of the specific type of RC link

A preliminary task is monitoring the relevant ISM bands with the aim of detecting all active RC in the
vicinity of the antenna. A wide bandwidth (i.e. planned performance up to 80 MHz) monitoring would be
beneficial in establishing a comprehensive list of all frequencies used by the RCs and ensuring a higher
probability of interception (POI). Detected signals can be analyzed online (e.g. if an immediate threat is
suspected) or recorded for later offline analysis in order to measure the hop parameters. This is a
prerequisite step if the profile for a new or unknown radio control transmission is to be determined.

The R&S multichannel Signal Analysis solution possesses a powerful short-time detector for automatic
detection and analysis of frequency-agile short-time signals in wideband signal scenarios. The detected
hops are automatically analyzed, sorted and matched to transmissions system profiles. A short-time signal
detector has been optimized to detect the hops in the 2.4GHz ISM band. The RC of the drone may be
immediately detected and identified as soon as it is switched on (even before take-off). Any required
countermeasures can therefore be deployed without delay. This unique capability offered by signal
analysis clearly superior to other solutions (i.e. radar, optical, acoustic).

Profile separation of different RC communications

Histrogram result – hop parameters

User
defined
profile

Fig 3. Short time detection with histogram result of hop parameters (i.e. duration, symbol rate, modulation etc.). The
recognition of different radio control links by using profile separation or automatic separation.

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 The detected hops are further analyzed to determine the relevant technical parameters (e.g. duration,
bandwidth, level, modulation, symbol rate) of each individual hop. This enables the classification of the
short-time emissions. By displaying the results in statistical histograms, the operator receives a full
overview of all detectable RC links in a wideband signal scenario. Profile separation enables online
separation and recognition of both known and unknown RC transmitters. The separator filters and sorts
the hops according to their measured technical parameters, such as duration, modulation type and
modulation parameters. The user can define profiles of RC transmission systems with their relevant
technical parameters. For each cluster of hops, the separator will automatically compare and match the
user defined profiles which fit to the hop parameters. With the profile trigger functionality, automatic
processing workflows can be generated based on user defined rules. Once a target RC has been
identified, automatic alarming can be triggered and the operator will be instantly notified about the
existence of the targeted RC and is therefore forewarned of imminent drone activity within the area of
interest.

For analysis of unknown/new drone communication signals, it is necessary to use our detailed technical
analysis specialized for frequency-agile transmissions. It provides time/frequency domain signal analysis,
timing analysis and modulation analysis for determining technical parameters. New profiles for the
separation/recognition and the countermeasures processes can be defined from the measured
parameters.

4.2 Direction Finding

In order to take countermeasures against radio controlled drones it is very helpful to know the direction
from which a drone approaches and the direction to or even the location of the person remote controlling
it. The radio controlled drone direction-finding and/or locating is carried out by high performance mobile
or stationary direction finders. The signals are detected by a very sensitive and accurate DF antenna,
which has a high immunity to reflections due to the large number of antenna elements. Direction finding
of signals is possible in the frequency range up to 6 GHz.

A wideband direction finder is used to take bearings of all relevant RC hopping signals in parallel.
Thanks to the fast DF scanning, it is possible to DF targets in several frequency ranges quasi-
simultaneously. Intelligent graphical user interfaces allow for a user-friendly operation and for connection
and transfer of measurement results to other systems. Compact DF antennas, for mobile and portable
operation, are available as well as stationary DF antennas.

Fig 4. Direction finding result of RC that shows a drone RC in the direction of 183°. The diagram in the center (RF-Azimuth)
shows the DF results for the individual hops coming from the same direction

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4.3 Jamming
Effective jamming of the RC link may have various consequences – e.g. forcing it to the ground,
reprograming it to a fix position, causing its controlled landing or eventually leading to the activation of a
return-to-home mode. The key purpose of jamming is to create interruption or at least strong interference
of the targeted RC link in order to disable the opponent’s communications and disrupt any further hostile
actions. The highly effective R&S follower jammer needs much lower power than required by a wideband
jammer (e.g. a non-responsive barrage jammer). With this low power approach, jamming is possible from
about 2/3 distance to the remote control under line-of-site conditions.

1/3 2/3

i.e. 300m i.e. 600m

Fig 5. Successful jamming of RC link

The key to success of RC jamming is equipped with prior comprehensive reconnaissance. A list of RC
links (FHSS) with potential threats is known to the user of the jamming system including their main
modulation parameters (e.g. hop set/frequencies, timing, hop rate, channel bandwidth, modulation type,
symbol rate). The jammer is especially tailored and useful towards counter drone application, where each
of the hops contains the RC information of the drone and all must be jammed.

Instead of a barrage jamming, which needs much higher transmitting power, the unique solution provided
by R&S is based on a “follower” jamming mode, where each single burst of the RC signal is jammed but
not the other legal signals. This allows the jamming of the targeted RC with almost no disturbance of other
communication signals within the same frequency band (e.g. WLAN/ WiFi communications). Timing is a
very critical criterion in drone jamming. Once the targeted RC link is detected within the realtime
bandwidth, the exciter response has to be fast enough to hit the hop while it is still on air. The R&S jamming
solution is able to detect and respond to a single active burst. Once the next hop is active, the system
detects it immediately within the 80 MHz realtime bandwidth and responds to it accordingly. All detected
emissions and each jamming transmission are displayed in statistic diagrams and can additionally be
observed in a RF spectrum.

Fig 6. Statistic tab: display of detected emissions and exciters activities; Spectrum tab: RF Spectrum with active FHSS signal

V02.00 Rohde & Schwarz Protecting the Sky 11

5 WLAN Drones

5.1 Detection, Recognition and Direction Finding

Some drones are controlled via a WLAN connection. In this case, the radio control cannot be detected by
analyzing the physical layer. It is necessary to analyze the WLAN protocol itself. Reading out the SSID of
a given WLAN connection is in many cases sufficient to distinguish a remote control from any other WLAN
connection. Solutions are available to track the azimuth of the drone (typically by combining a certain
number of directional WLAN antennas and perform a so called “amplitude based direction finding”).
Access points with fast movements may be a good hint for a drone, even if its SSID doesn’t allow a clear
identification.

After a WLAN radio control link had been identified, two further options are available:
a) The first option is to interrupt the WLAN link that will force the drone to enter into its “fail-safe” mode.
This may result in a “shut down” of the rotors.
b) The second option is to broadcast RC commands on the identified WLAN (the drone being the “access
point”) and to take over the control of the drone. It is necessary to know the type of drone in order to
pre-program the command set necessary for this take-over procedure.

V02.00 Rohde & Schwarz Protecting the Sky 12

6 Summary
With the rapidly increasing popularity in the use of civilian and commercial drones, there is an urgent need
for monitoring and countermeasures solution. Our aim is to provide an all-in-one solution for coping with
the increasing challenges and requirements in the field of radio controlled drone monitoring. The strategic
solution range from detection, recognition, analysis, direction finding to counter measuring of drones in a
very effective and efficient approach. The above mentioned solution, the WLAN drone monitoring is under
intensive investigation. For further information and about the availability, please contact the Rohde &
Schwarz local representatives.

7 Reference
[1] The drones military (2015) Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/world/drones (Accessed at 27th April 2015)

[2] Drones (2015) Available at: http://gizmodo.com/tag/drones (Accessed at 27th April 2015)

[3] Drones, pros-and-cons (2015) Available at: https://flipboard.com/@gitten4/ drones%3Apros-and-cons-

7sumklfdz (Accessed at 27th April 2015)

[4] Krueger, K (2015) 'World Cup of drones' offers $1m for innovative uses of unmanned aircraft. Available at:
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/ feb/06/world-cup-of-drones-dubai-unmanned-aircraft (Accessed at 27th
April 2015)
[5] Holenwinski, S. and Liz, L. (2012) ‘The civilains impacts of the drones’, Center for civilians in conflict, 83, pp. 1-
18. (Accessed at 27th April 2015)
[6] Drone threats (2014) Available at: http://loganbanner.com/news/opinion/ 150094270/Drones:-Pro-and-Con
(Accessed at 27th April 2015)
[7] Tests, Vergleiche, Technik of Drones (2015) Available at: http://www.drohnen.de/ (Accessed at 27th April 2015)

[8] Humphreys, T (2015) Research Team Demonstrates First Successful GPS Spoofing of UAV. Available at:
http://www.ae.utexas.edu/news/features/todd-humphreys-research-team-demonstrates-first-successful-gps-
spoofing-of-uav (Accessed at 27th April 2015)

[9] Wikipedia Unmanned aerial vehicle (2015) Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Unmanned_aerial_vehicle
(Accessed at 27th April 2015)
[10] Wikipedia List of unmanned aerial vehicle (2015) Available at: http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/List_of_unmanned_aerial_vehicles (Accessed at 27th April 2015)

[11] UT Austin Researchers Successfully Spoof an $80 million Yacht at Sea (2013) Available at:
http://news.utexas.edu/2013/07/29/ut-austin-researchers-successfully-spoof-an-80-million-yacht-at-sea
(Accessed at 27th April 2015)

V02.00 Rohde & Schwarz Protecting the Sky 13

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