1.

1 Biological Science

Definition of biological science. Biological science is a branch of

science which is defined as the study of life. It provides the fundamental
study for biotechnology industry. Biological science has great impact on
our lives and stands to have greater impact on them in the future.

Classification of biology. Biological science can be classified into

microbiology and macro-biology. Microbiology studies the
microstructure of organisms of living things. It focuses on cell theory
(cell structure), origins of cells (biochemistry), mechanism of disease
(medical sciences), and principles of drugs (pharmaceuticals and
pharmacology). Macro-biology studies the linkage, history, theory of
evolution of life, and genealogies between the people, between people
and animal, and between animals.

Review of terminology in biology, especially genome biology

Cell and Cell Theory

The fundamental working units of every living organism. It is

defined as a water-based compartment filled concentrated
chemicals and bounded by a thin, flexible structure called
membrane.

Each cell contains a complete copy of an organism's genome, or

blueprint for cellular structures and activities.

Cell can be classified into many different types. For example

blood, skin, nerve cells. All cells can be traced back to a single
cell, called fertilized egg.

Based on the cell structure, one has multicellular organisms such

as human contains trillion of cells and unicellualr organisms such
as yeast and bacteria. Organisms are consist cells. The smallest
organisms known today are bacteria which are about 200
nanometers, while tallest organisms known are sequoia trees
which are about 100 meters. Based on the number of cells,
organisms are classified into unicellular (one-celled) organisms
and multicellular (many-celled) organisms.
Cell is composed of 90% water. The 10 % remaining molecules,
dry weight, contains 50% protein, 15 % carbohydrate, 15%
nucleic acid, 10 % lipid, and 10 % miscellaneous.

The chemical elements are 60%H, 25%O, 12%C, and 3%N.

Status and process become the two major components for cell

theories and evolution theories.

Cell theory: Cell theories have several major components, which

can summarize the current scientific and engineering in
contemporary biology

(1) Description of cell pattern, which most of all use

experiments to observe the cell structure or dynamically
observe the mobility of cells. It relies on microscopy,
NMR, and other advanced laboratory technologies.

(2) Identification of mechanism or process that is

responsible for creating cell pattern. The cell formation is
articulated from preexisting cells. This component covers
the evolution of life, serves as the origins of genome
biology, genetics, and bioinformatics.

(3) Dynamic linkage between pattern and process is a new

revolution in biological study in order to better understand
cell microscopic structures from the view of the principles
of biochemistry, physics, and engineering. Recently with
development of computer science, combination of
microbiological studies and computational science makes
possible to simulate cell development and dynamic
interaction using advanced technology of molecular
dynamics and modeling, and well as biomechanical
engineering.

Evolution theory: Evolution theory also has pattern component

and process component. All species are related by common
ancestry and have changed over time in response to natural
selection under three conditions, i.e., (1) individuals within a
population vary in their characteristics; (2) the variable traits are
inheritable or passed on to offspring; (3) certain heritable traits
help individuals survive better or reproduced more. With these
conditions met, a population's characteristics will change over
time. The change in the characteristics of a population over time is
defined as evolution in biology.

Tree of life:

Classic model of tree of life. Based on evolution theory, biologists

reconstruct a tree of life. There are two popular theories. One is
Linnaeus's two-kingdoms taxonomy theory which classifies
organisms into two catalogs: plants and animals. Another is
Whittaker (1968)'s popular proposal of five-kingdoms taxonomy
theory which classifies organisms into five catalogs: monera (all
prokaryotes), protista (several groups of unicellular eukaryotes),
plantae, fungi, and animalia. This hypothesis is based on presence
of nucleus, ability to move, or manufacture food. eukaryotes cells
have a a membranne-bounded nucleus, while prokaryotic cells
don't.

Contemporary model of tree of life. Alternatively taxonomy was

primarily conducted by Carl Woese based on chemical
components. His research group found a common molecule that
exits in all organisms. The molecule they found is a small unit
rRNA, or SSU RNA, which is an essential part of the machinery
that cells use to grow and reproduce. SSU RNA is a large,
complex molecule made up four smaller chemical compositions
called ribonucleotides, symbolized by letters A, U, G and
C. These fourribonucleotides are arranged in a linear sequence.

A-U-A-U-C-G-A-G-...

The sequence of ribonucleotides in the molecule varies from

species to species. Woese and co-workers's search program was
based on a simple premise that if the theory of evolution is true,
then SSU RNA sequences should be very similar in closely
related organisms, but less similar in organisms that are less
closely related. The logic here is that SSU RNA sequences change
over time in response to mutation and other processes. Since then,
scientists began to analyze what the similarity and differences in
the sequences implied about relationships among species. The
goal of the research is to discover a diagram that depicts
evolutionary history by a phylogenetic tree, on which branches
that are close to one another represent species that are closely
related; branches that are father away represent species that are
more distantly related. Therefore researchers establish large data
sets and use computer program to find the arraignment of
branches that most consistent with the similarity and differences
observed in the data. By comparing SSU RNA sequences, we can
generate a rRNA tree of life, called universal tree in biology,
estimated from SSU RNA sequence data.

rRNA tree of life has three group, new taxonomic level, called
domains. They are Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya.

DNA and RNA

Deoxyribonucleotide is a nucleotide consisting of the five-carbon

sugar deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogen-
containing bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine). It can
be polymerized to form deoxyribonucleic acid.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), often called DNA molecule, is a

double-stranded double-helix of molecule of
deoxyribonucleotides which contains or carries the genetic
information of a cell; each molecule contains the sugar
deoxyribose, a phosphate group and one one of four possible
nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine. It
encodes the information for the proteins and is able self-replicate.

RNA (ribonucleic acid) is an information encoded strand of

nucleotides, similar to DNA, but with a slightly different chemical
structure. There are three main forms of RNA, each a slightly
different function. mRNA (messenger RNA) is the mediating
template between DNA and proteins. The information from a
particular gene is transferred from a strand of DNA by the
construction of a complementary strand of RNA through a process
known as transcription. Next three nucleotide segments of RNA,
called tRNA (transfer RNA), which are attached to specific amino
acids, match up with the template strand of mRNA to order the
amino acids correctly. These amino acids are then bonded
together to form a protein. This process, called translation occurs
in the ribosome, which is composed of proteins and the third kind
of RNA, rRNA (ribosomal RNA). Reference see -> Glossary of
biology
Genome, genes, genomics, and genetics

Genome: The genome of an organism is its set of chromosomes,

containing all of its genes and associated DNA. Genome is
distributed along chromosomes, which are made of compressed
and enwined DNA.

Gene: Many molecular definitions of a gene relate to their role in

directing the production of specific proteins. This stems from the
analysis of mutants where it was shown that the absence of a
specific protein was related to the mutation. Proteins are key
components in the central dogma as polymerases but they also
have other key metabolic roles. These role are: 

 Enzymatic
 Structural components
 Regulatory roles

Original Concept of the Gene: One gene = one enzyme

This concept does not hold for those proteins that are heteromeric
or consist two of two or more different subunits. 
Example: RUBISCO (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase
oxygenase)

CO2 + 5-C-sugar --------------------> 2 3-C-sugars

RUBISCO is a multimeric protein of 16 peptides

8 small subunits (nuclear encoded) 

8 large subunits (chloroplast encoded) 
--thus two genes are responsible for this enzyme 
Revised Concept: One gene = one peptide
Newest Discovery - Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase is an
enzyme found in human red blood cells. The major form this
peptide is encoded from information from two chromosomes. 
Minor form: NH4--------------------CO3 
(The sequences encoding the gene are on the X chromosome.)

Major form: NH4xx------------------CO3 

(Amino acids 1-53 are encoded on chromosome 6, and amino
acids 54-479 are encoded on the X chromosome.)
 Conclusion: This gene fits the one gene = one peptide model
stated above, if you are willing to accept that not all genes reside
on a single continuous stretch of DNA.

Protein structures and functions

Representation of molecular and protein structures

\Wika
Mula sa Tagalog na Wikipedia, ang malayang ensiklopedya

Mga istudyanteng nakikipagtalasan sa pamamagitan ng paghaharap at paguusapan.

Isang lalaki at babaeng nakikipagugnayan sa pamamagitan ng mga senyas ng kamay.

Ang cuneiform ang isa sa mga nalalamang sinaunang anyo ng nakasulat ng wika.

Ang wika ay isang bahagi ng pakikipagtalastasan. Kalipunan ito ng mga simbolo, tunog, at mga kaugnay
na batas upang maipahayag ang nais sabihin ng kaisipan. Ginagamit ang pamamaraang ito sa
pagpapaabot ng kaisipan at damdamin sa pamamagitan ng pagsasalita at pagsulat. Isa rin itong likas na
makataong pamamaraan ng paghahatid ng mga kaisipan, damdamin at mga hangarin sa pamamagitan
ng isang kaparaanang lumilikha ng tunog; at kabuuan din ito ng mga sagisag sa paraang binibigkas. Sa
pamamagitan nito, nagkakaugnayan, nagkakaunawaan at nagkakaisa ang mga kaanib ng isang pulutong
ng mga tao.
 Mga nilalaman

 [itago]

1 Kahalagahan

2 Etimolohiya

3 Mga anyo ng wika

4 Kasaysayan at teoriya

5 Mga katangian

6 Mga antas

7 Mga kagamitan

o 7.1 Kategorya ng paggamit

ng wika

 7.1.1 Pormal

 7.1.2 Inpormal o di-

pormal

8 Mga sanggunian

Kahalagahan [baguhin]
Kung wala ang wika, mawawalan ng saysay ang halos lahat ng gawain ng sangkatauhan, sapagkat
nagagamit ito sa pakikipag-ugnayan katulad ng sa pakikipagkalakalan, sa diplomatikong pamamaraan ng
bawat pamahalaan, at pakikipagpalitan ng mga kaalaman sa agham, teknolohiya at industriya.[1]Mahalaga
ang wika sa pakikipagtalasan maging sa pagtungo, paghahanapbuhay, at paninirahan sa ibang bansa. Ito
rin ang daan tungo sa pagkakaisa ng mga tao.

Etimolohiya [baguhin]
Nag-ugat ang salitang wika mula sa wikang Malay. Samantalang nagmula naman sa Kastila ang isa pang
katawagan sa wika: ang salitanglengguwahe. Tinatawag ding salita ang wika. Katulad ng language -
tawag sa wika sa Ingles - nagmula ang salitang lengguwahe o lengwahe sa salitang lingua ng Latin, na
nangangahulugang "dila", sapagkat nagagamit ang dila sa paglikha ng maraming kombinasyon ng mga
tunog, samakatuwid ang "wika" - sa malawak nitong kahulugan - ay anumang anyo ng pagpaparating ng
damdamin o ekspresyon, may tunog man o wala, ngunit mas kadalasang mayroon. [1]

Mga anyo ng wika [baguhin]

Pinakapayak sa mga anyo ng wika ang paggamit ng mga salita o pagsasalita. (Tingnan ang mga sining
na pangwika). Subalit kabilang din rito angpagsusulat, mga wikang pasenyas, larangan ng musika, sining
ng pagpipinta, pagsasayaw, at maging ang matematika. "Wika" ang lahat ng mga ito kung gagamitin ang
malawakan na kahulugan ng wika.[1] Sa ilang pagkakataon, tinatawag
ding dila (piguratibo), salita, diyalekto, o lingo (sariling-wika ng isang grupo, [bigkas: ling-gow, mula sa
Ingles]) ang wika.[2]

Kasaysayan at teoriya [baguhin]
Hindi lubos na nalalaman kung saan, kailan, at paano nagsimula ang paggamit ng wika. Subalit
mayroong mga hinuha at kuru-kuro ang mga dalubhasang nagsipagaral ng paksang ito. Isa sa mga
teoryang ito ang nagsasabing "ginaya ng mga sinaunang tao ang mga tunog na narinig niya sa
kalikasan." Halimbawa ng mga tunog na ito ang mga kahol ng mga asong-gubat o ng mga bumubukal
na sapa. Dahil sa iba't ibang interpretasyon o gawi sa paggaya ng mga "tunog ng kalikasan" na ito kaya
nagkaroon ng maraming mga wika sa mundo.[1]

Mga katangian [baguhin]
Ito ang mga karaniwang katangian ng wika:

1. may balangkas;
2. binubuo ng makahulugang tunog;
3. pinipili at isinasa-ayos;
4. arbitraryo;
5. nakabatay sa kultura;
6. ginagamit;
7. kagila-gilagis;
8. makapangyarihan
9. may antas;
10. may pulitika;
11. at ginagamit araw-araw.
Mga antas [baguhin]
Kabilang ang mga sumusunod sa mga kaantasan ng wika:

 Kolokyal/pambansa - ordinaryong wika na ginagamit ng mga kabataan sa kanilang pang-araw-

araw na pakikipag-usap na kadalasang malayang pinagsasama ang mga wikang Inglesat Filipino
 Kolokyalismong karaniwan - ginagamit na salitang may "Taglish"
 Kolokyalismong may talino - ginagamit sa loob ng silid-aralan o paaralan
 Lalawiganin/panlalawigan - wikang ginagamit ng isang partikular na lugar o pook.
 Pabalbal/balbal (salitang kalye) - pinakamababang uri ng wikang ginagamit ng tao, na nabuo sa
kagustuhan ng isang partikular na grupo na nagkakaroon ng sariling pagkakakilanlan. ito rin ay
maaring nabuo sa pag-baliktad ng mga salitang Kolokyal/pambansa.
 Pampanitikan - wikang sumusunod sa batas ng balarila at retorika.
Mga kagamitan [baguhin]
Ito ang pitong kagamitan ng wika:

 Isang proseso ng pagpapalitan ng impormasyon na kadalasan na ginagawa sa pamamagitan

ng karaniwang sistema ng mga simbolo ang komunikasyon. Ang araling pangkomunikasyon ang
disiplinang pang-akademya kung saan pinag-aaralan ang pakikipagtalastasan.
 Ginagamit ang wika sa pagpapahayag ng pangungusap. Madaling maunawaan ang
pangungusap kahit gaano pa kahaba o ano man ang anyo nito. Malinaw ito kaya madaling
naiintindihan ng bumabasa o nakikinig ang kahulugan nito.
 Pagpapaliwanag o pagpapaunawa ang tawag sa gawaing pangkaisipan upang matugunan ang
pakikipagugnayang ginagamitan ng mga pananalita o mga hudyat o senyas ng kamay, maaaring
kasabayan ng taong nakikipagugnanayan, o matapos ang bawat bahagi ng paglalahad ng taong
nakikipagugnayan. Nagaganap ang pagpapaunawa sa pagitan ng dalawa, tatlo, o higit pang bilang
ng mga tagapagsalita o tagapaglahad na hindi nakapagsasalita o nakasesenyas mula sa
pinagmumulang wika.
Kategorya ng paggamit ng wika [baguhin]
Ang dalawang kategorya ng paggamit ng wika ay pormal at inpormal o di-pormal.
Pormal [baguhin]

Ang pormal ay ang mga salitang istandard, karaniwan, o pamantayan dahil kinikilala, tinatanggap at
ginagamit ng higit na nakararami lalo na mga nakapag-aral ng wika. Ginagamit ito sa mga usapang
pormal. Narito ang mga uri nito:

1. Pambansa o karaniwan - mga karaniwang salitang ginagamit sa mga aklat pangwika o

pambalarila sa mga paaralan, gayundin sa pamahalaan.
2. Pampanitikan o pangretorika - mga salitang gamitin sa mga akdang pampanitikan,
karaniwang matatayog, malalalim, makulay, at masining.
Inpormal o di-pormal [baguhin]

Ang inpormal o di-pormal ay mga salitang karaniwang palasak at madalas gamitin sa pang-araw-

araw na pakikipagusap. Ginagamit ito sa mga hindi pormal na usapan. Narito ang mga uri nito:
1. Lalawiganin - mga bokabularyong diyalektal. Gamitin ito sa mga partikular na pook o
lalawigan lamang.
2. Balbal - mga salitang nahango lamang sa pagbabago o pag-usod ng panahon, mga
salitang nabuklat sa lansangan.
3. Kolokyal - mga salitang ginagamit sa mga pagkakataong inpormal. Ang pagpapaikli ng
isa, dalawa, o higit pang salita ay mauuri rin sa antas na ito.