1.

0 Objective
i. To determine the internal forces and normal or axial strains in truss member by using the concept
of static equilibrium, stress-strain relation (Hooke’s law) and material properties of the truss
system subjected to a given loading.

2.0 Theory

A truss that is assumed to comprise members that are connected by means of pin joints, and
which is supported at both ends by means of hinged joints or rollers, is described as being statically
determinate. Newton's Laws apply to the structure as a whole, as well as to each node or joint. In order
for any node that may be subject to an external load or force to remain static in space, the following
conditions must hold: the sums of all horizontal forces, all vertical forces, as well as all moments acting
about the node equal zero. Analysis of these conditions at each node yields the magnitude of the forces
in each member of the truss. These may be compression or tension forces.

Trusses that are supported at more than two positions are said to be statically indeterminate, and
the application of Newton's Laws alone is not sufficient to determine the member forces. In order for a
truss with pin-connected members to be stable, it must be entirely composed of triangles. In
mathematical terms, we have the following necessary condition for stability:

M +R ≥ 2j

where

m=total number of truss members

j=total number of joints

r=number of reactions (equal to 3 generally)

When m = 2j − 3, the truss is said to be statically determinate, because the (m+3) internal member
forces and support reactions can then be completely determined by 2j equilibrium equations, once we
know the external loads and the geometry of the truss. Given a certain number of joints, this is the
minimum number of members, in the sense that if any member is taken out (or fails), then the truss as a
whole fail. While the relation (a) is necessary, it is not sufficient for stability, which also depends on the
truss geometry, support conditions and the load carrying capacity of the members.
 In a statically indeterminate truss, equation of equilibrium alone cannot be used to calculated
member force. If we were to try, we would find that there would be too many “unknowns” and we would
not be able to complete the calculations. Instead we will use a method known as the flexibility method,
which uses an idea know as strain energy.

Statically indeterminate can be two types:

i. External Indeterminate
 It related with the reaction, it could be determinate if the number of reaction of the
structure exceed than determinate structures by using static equation.

ii. Internal Indeterminate

 It related with the framework construction. Some of framework or trusses should have
an adequate number of member for stability indentions. If inadequate members were
detected, structure is classified as unstable, meanwhile, while the redundant number of
member were determined, the structures is classified as statically indeterminate.

Figure 1: Idealized Statically Indeterminate Cantilever Truss

 Basically the flexibility method uses the idea that energy stored in the frame would be the same
for a given load whether or not the redundant member whether or not. In other word, the external energy
= internal energy. In practice, the loads in the frame are calculated in its “released” from (that is, without
the redundant member) and then calculated with a unit load in place of the redundant member. The value
for both are combined to calculate the force in the redundant member and remaining members.

 The redundant member load in given by:

fnl
P= nl 2

 The remaining member force are then given by:

Member force = Pn + f
Where,
P = Redundant member load (N)
L = length of members (as ratio of the shortest)
n = load in each member due to unit load in place of redundant

member (N)

F = Force in each member when the frame is “release” (N)

Figure 2 shows the force in the frame due to the load of 250 N. Force in a statically determinate truss

-250N

0 354N 250N 354N

-500N 250N

F=250N

Figure 2: Statically Determinate Truss

Figure 3 shows the loads in the member due to the unit load being applied to the frame. The redundant
member is effectively part of the structure as the idealised in Figure 2

1
0
1

Figure 3: Forces in the Truss due to the load on the Redundant members

3.0 Appratus

Figure 4: Cantilever Truss Apparatus

i. Fixed base
ii. Roller Base
iii. Steel bar with strain sensor (strain gauge)
iv. Load controller
4.0 Procedures

Experiment 1

1. Make sure, all the apparatus at cantilever truss machine should be understand carefully.
2. Firstly, for determinate cantilever, the Redundant member thumbwheel must be loosened by
hand and don’t use any tool to loosened the thumbwheel.
3. Then, perfectly set zero at digital force display and digital strain display.
4. After that, carefully apply loads until 250 N in the increment of 50 N
5. To get the strain data, switch the digital strain display 1 until 8.
6. Then, recording the strain reading in table.
7. Do the same thing at the increment of 50 N until 250 N.

8. Assume that Esteel = 210 Gpa for all truss members and rod diameter = 6.00 mm .

Experiment 2
1. Make sure, all the apparatus at cantilever truss machine should be understand carefully.
2. Firstly, for indeterminate cantilever, the Redundant member’s thumbwheel must be tightened by
hand and don’t use any tool to tightened the thumbwheel.
3. Then, perfectly set zero at digital force display and digital strain display.
4. After that, carefully apply loads until 250 N in the increment of 50 N
5. To get the strain data, switch the digital strain display 1 until 8.
6. Then, recording the strain reading in table.
7. Do the same thing at the increment of 50 N until 250 N.

8. Assume that Esteel = 210 Gpa for all truss members and rod diameter = 6.00 mm .
5.0 Result and Data

Experiment 1: Forces in a Statically Determinate Cantilever Truss

Load Member strains (με)

(N)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 5 1 -3 -4 1 - 6 2
50 3 -17 -19 -25 -7 - 4 2
100 8 -25 -27 -43 -6 - 17 15
150 16 -32 -35 -58 -6 - 29 27
200 25 -39 -42 -73 -5 - 40 37
250 36 -49 -52 -94 -4 - 56 54
Table 1: Strain Readings and Frame Deflection

Load Member strains (με)

(N) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0 0 0 0 0 0 - 0 0

50 -2 -18 --17 -21 -8 - -2 0

100 3 -26 -24 -39 -7 - -2 13

150 11 -33 -32 -54 -7 - 23 25

200 20 -40 -39 -69 -6 - 34 35

250 31 -50 -49 -90 -5 - 50 52

Table 2: True Strain Readings

Load Member strains (με)

(N)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 0 0 0 0 0 - 0 0
50 8 -8 -8 -17 0 - 12 12
100 17 -17 -17 -34 0 - 24 24
150 25 -25 -25 -51 0 - 36 36
200 34 -34 -34 -68 0 - 48 48
250 42 -42 -42 -85 0 - 60 60
Table 3: Theoretical Member Strains Results for an Idealized Cantilever Truss
 Member Experimental Forces (N) Theoretical Forces (N)

1 213.72 250

2 -290.90 -250

3 -308.71 -250

4 -558.05 -500

5 -23.74 0

6 - -

7 332.46 353.55

8 320.58 353.55

Table 4: Comparison Between Experimental and Theoretical Forces at 250N

Graph Strain vs Load at Member 2

Member Strain VS Load

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

-10
Member Strain (με)

-20 Strain Reading

-30
True Strain
-40

-50

-60
Load (N)
Sample of Calculation

Find the cross sectional area, A:

Diameter, D = 6.0x 10-3 m

D 2
A
4

 (6.0 x10 3 ) 2

4

 2.827 x10 5 m2

Calculation of True Strain Readings (Load=250N)

True Strain Reading for member 4 = -90 – (-4) = -90

Find the force of each member for experimental data (Forces at 250N):

Member 1;

F=AEε

= (2.827 x 10-5) x (210 x 109) x (36 x10-6)

= 213.72 N

Member 2;

F=AEε

= (2.827 x 10-5) x (210 x 109) x (-49 x10-6)

= -290.90 N

Member 3;

F=AEε

= (2.827 x 10-5) x (210 x 109) x (-52 x10-6)

= -308.71 N

Member 4;

F=AEε

= (2.827 x 10-5) x (210 x 109) x (-94 x10-6)

= -558.05 N
Member 5;

F=AEε

= (2.827 x 10-5) x (210 x 109) x (-4 x10-6)

= -23.74 N

Member 7;

F=AEε

= (2.827 x 10-5) x (210 x 109) x (56 x10-6)

= 332.46 N

Member 8,

F=AEε

= (2.827 x 10-5) x (210 x 109) x (54 x10-6)

= 320.58 N

Calculation For Theoretical Force (N);

FAY

A
1 B
FAX

8 7
5 2

FEX
D C
E 4 3
250 N

+ΣMA = 0

250(0.68) + FEX(0.34)= 0

FEX = 500 N
 + ΣFX = 0

-FAX + FEX = 0

FAX = 500 N

+ ΣFY =0

FAY – 250 = 0

FAY = 250N

Point E A

FEX D
E

+ ΣFY =0

FAE = 0 (Member 5)

+ ΣFX = 0

FEX + FED = 0

FED = -500 (Member 4)

Point A

FAY

A
FAX B

D
E
 + ΣFY =0

-FEA + FAY – FAD sin45o = 0

0 + 250 – FAD sin45O = 0

FAD = 353.55 N (Member 8)

+ΣFX = 0

-FAX + FAB + FAD cos45o = 0

-500 + FAB + 353.55 cos45O = 0

FAB = 250 N (Member 1)

Point D
B
A

E C
D

+ΣFX = 0

-FED – FAD cos45O + FDC = 0

-(-500) – 353.55 cos450 + FDC = 0

FDC = -250 N (Member 3)

+ ΣFY =0

FDB + FAD sin450 = 0

FDB = -353.55 sin450

= -250 N (Member 2)
 Point C
B

+ ΣFY =0
D C
FBC sin450 – 250 = 0

FBC = 353.55 N (Member 7)

250 N

Calculation for Theoretical strain in each member (Force =250N)

Member 2:

F=AEε

ε=F/AE

= -250/ (2.827 × 10-5)(210G)

= -42 μ

Experiment 2: Forces in a Statically Indeterminate Cantilever Truss

Load Member strains (με)

(N) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0 31 20 1 22 10 -31 11 -30

50 50 33 -16 10 42 -73 9 -59

100 62 29 -23 -3 46 -77 20 -52

150 75 25 -32 -12 51 -82 33 -45

200 84 21 -38 -28 54 -86 42 -39

250 101 16 -48 -38 59 -92 57 -31

Table 5: Strain Readings and Frame Deflection

Load Member strains (με)

(N) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

50 19 13 -17 -12 32 -42 68 -29

100 31 19 -24 -25 36 -46 -2 -22

150 44 15 -33 -34 41 -51 22 -15

200 53 1 -39 -50 44 -55 31 -9

250 70 -4 -49 -60 49 -61 46 -1

Table 6: True Strain Readings

Load Experimental strains (με) Theoretical strains (με)

(N)

0 0 0

50 -12 -16

100 -25 -34

150 -34 -50

200 -50 -67

250 -60 -84

Table 7: Experimental & Theoretical strains against loads for member 4

 Member Experimental Forces (N) Theoretical Forces(N)

1 599.61 375.1

2 94.99 -124.9

3 -284.96 -250

4 -225.59 -374.9

5 350.27 125.1

6 -546.18 -176.9

7 338.39 353.55

8 -184.04 177.1

Table 8: Comparison of Experimental and Theoretical Forces at 250N

Graph Strain vs Load at Member 3

Member Strain vs Load

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

-10
Strain (με)

-20
True Strain
Reading Strain
-30

-40

-50

-60
Load (N)
 Member Length F n Fnl n2l Pn Pn+f

1 0.34 250 -0.708 -600.95 0.17 125.03 375.03

2 0.34 -250 -0.708 600.95 0.17 125.03 -124.97

3 0.34 -250 0 0 0 0 -250

4 0.34 -500 -0.708 120.19 0.17 125.03 -374.97

5 0.34 0 -0.708 0 0.17 125.03 125.03

6 0.48 0 1 0 0.48 -176.6 -176.6

7 0.48 352.94 0 0 0 0 352.94

8 0.48 352.94 1 169.41 0.48 -176.6 352.94

Total 289.6 1.64

Table 9: Table for calculating the forces in the Redundant Truss

−𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑛𝑙
P=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛2 𝑙

= -289.6 / 1.64

P = -176.6 N

* - sign indicated it is in compression

Sample of Calculation

Calculation of True Strain Readings (Load=250N)

True Strain Reading for member 4 = -38 - 22 = -60

Find the cross sectional area, A:

Diameter, D = 6 x 10-3 m

D 2
From equation ; A 
4

 (6 x103 ) 2

4

1.131x10 4

4

 2.827 x10 5 m2

Find the force of each member (Forces at 250 N):

Member 1;

F=AEε

= (2.827 x 10-5) x (210 x 109) x (101 x10-6)

= 599.61 N

Member 2;

F=AEε

= (2.827 x 10-5) x (210 x 109) x (16 x10-6)

= 94.99 N

Member 3;

F=AEε

= (2.827 x 10-5) x (210 x 109) x (-48 x10-6)

= -284.96 N
Member 4;
F=AEε

= (2.827 x 10-5) x (210 x 109) x (-38 x10-6)

= -225.59 N

Member 5;

F=AEε

= (2.827 x 10-5) x (210 x 109) x (59 x10-6)

= 350.27 N

Member 6;

F=AEε

= (2.827 x 10-5) x (210 x 109) x (-92 x10-6)

= -546.18 N

Member 7;
F=AEε

= (2.827 x 10-5) x (210 x 109) x (57x10-6)

= 338.39 N

Member 8;
F=AEε

= (2.827 x 10-5) x (210 x 109) x (-31 x10-6)

= -184.04 N
Calculation for Theoretical strain in each member (Force =250N)

Member 2:

F=AEε

ε=F/AE

= -124.9 / (2.827 x 10-5) (210 x 109)

= -21 x 10-6 ε

= -21 με

Calculation for Real Force (N) (At 250N);

0.34 m

0.34 m 0.34 m

+ΣMA = 0 ; 250 (0.68) - RBX(0.34) = 0

RBX = 500 N
By Using Method of Joint

+ ΣFX = 0

500 + FBC = 0

FBC = -500 N (Member 4)

+ΣFY = 0 ;

FBA =0 (Member 5)
+ΣFY = 0

-250 + FDE (0.34/0.48) = 0

FDE = 352.94 N (Member 7)

+ ΣFX = 0 ;

-FDE (0.34/0.48) - FDC = 0

FDC = -352.94 (0.34/0.48)

= -250 N (Member 3)
+ΣFY = 0 ;

250 + FCE = 0

FCE = -250N (Member 2)

0.34 / 0.48
0.34 / 0.48

+ΣFY = 0 ; -

250 + FCA (0.34/0.48) = 0

FCA = 250 / (0.34/0.48)

= 352.94 N (Member 8)
 FAC (0.34/0.48)
FAC (0.34/0.48)

+ ΣFX = 0 ;

500 - FAC (0.34/0.48) = FAE

FAE = 500 – 352.94 (0.34/0.48)

= 250N (Member 1)

Calculation for Theoretical Force (N) and value of n;

ΣFY = 0

FAB+(1/0.48) x 0.34=0

FAB= -0.708 N
ΣFX = 0

FAE + (1/0.48) x 0.34=0

FAE=-0.708 N

At point B:

ΣFY=0

FAB-FBE (0.34/0.48) =0

0.708-FBE (0.708) =0

FBE=1

ΣFX=0

FBC+FBE (0.34/0.48) =0

FBC+FBE (0.708) =0

FBC= -0.708

At point C:

ΣFX=0

FBC+ (1/0.48) x 0.34 + FCD (0.34/0.48) =0

0.708+(-0.708) + FCD (0.708) =0

FCD=0

ΣFY=0

-(1/0.48) x 0.34 -FCE -FCD =0

-0.708 - F -0 = 0

FCE=-0.708
At point D: Zero Bar

At point E: ΣFY=0

(1/0.481) x 0.34 - FCE =0

0.708-0.708=0

0 = 0 (recheck)

ΣFX=0

FAE + FED - (1/0.48) x 0.34 =0

0.708 + FED -0.708 =0

FED=0

Calculation of Internal Forces AC

ΣF′nl/AE
P value, internal forces AC = P = Σn2 l/AE

−854.06
=
4.828

= -176.9N (compression)

Example of calculation for member 1 (Pn + f)

Given; Length, L = 0.34 m Force, F = 250N

Load in each member due to unit load in place of redundant member,

n = - 0.708N

Area, A = π(d²/4) = π (6.00) ²/4 = 2.827x10-5

Fnl = (250) (- 0.708) (1) = -177 N.m

n2l = (0.708)2(1) = 0.5 m

Pn = (-176.9) (-0.708) = 125.2

Pn + f = 125.2 + 250= 375.2 N = Theoretical Force (N)

6.0 Discussion

From the structure that been used, there were two type of experiment that needed to be conduct
which were force in a statically determinate cantilever truss (experiment 1) and force in a statically
indeterminate cantilever truss (experiment2). The different between these two experiments was about
Redundant Member’s thumbwheel. In experiment 1 the Redundant Member’s thumbwheel was loosened
while in experiment 2 was being tightened. There seems that in these two experiments, those truss
members exist in tension force while some in compression force. The forces were existing in two different
force because they were joint together in certain place that were labelling as channel 1, 2, ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6 7,
and 8. The value of force in each member were depending by the value of load that applied on it which
were 50N, 100N, 150N, 200N, and 250N. from here, it seems that the value of force in each member was
different when the value of load applied on it also different. When the value of force applied increase the
value of force in each member also increase.

In the result of experimental and theoretical data values that were taken lately in experiment 1,
the values were different and some of it got almost same values. Its mean that the values from
experimental and theoretical data were different. In experiment 2, the result of experimental and
theoretical data values that were taken lately were totally different and only few of it got almost same
values. The different result maybe causes by some error that cannot be avoided and lack of efficiency
from the equipment.

In experiment 1, truss member 1 was in tension because it was pulled by truss member 2 and 7.
Truss member 2 was in compression its was pulled truss member 1. Truss member 3 was in compression
because its need to pull the force that given by load F and tension from truss member 7. Truss member 4
was in compression because it was also need to pulled the force that also pulled from truss member 2 and
3. Truss member 5 was in compression because its need to pull the fix support and roller. Truss member
6 was not count on because it was not connected successfully during this experiment and the Redundant
Member’s thumbwheel also was loosened. Truss member 7 was on tension because it was pulled by force
of the load F that been given. Truss member 8 was in tension also because the truss member was pulled
by truss member 4, 2, and 3 that were in compression.

In experiment 2, truss member 1 was in tension because it was pulled by truss member 6. Truss
member 2 was in tension because it also pulled by truss member 6 that was same like truss member 1.
Truss member 3 was in compression because it need to pull force from truss member 7 and force from
load F applied in the experiment. Truss member 4 was in tension because it was pulled by truss member
8 and 3. Truss member 5 was in tension also because it was pulled downward by the roller support and
compression force applied in truss member 6. Truss member 6 was in compression because it need to pull
then force that applied from truss member 1, 2, 4, 5, and force downwards by roller support. Truss
member 7 was in tension because it was pulled by load F applied in this experiment and compression
force from truss member 3. Truss member 8 was in compression because it need to pull the force that
applied from truss member 4 and 2 also from truss member 1.

In this experiment, it seems there were many errors that occurs and made some data slightly
different with theoretical values. Systematic error may be occurred that cause by how the experiment
been conducted such as the load that put on the experiment not same as tough is the procedure. Random
error also may produce due to sudden change in experimental condition such as change in humidity and
change of temperature. It may cause when before starting the lab experiment the temperature higher
than before it been conduct because the air-conditioner was switch on right before the experiment been
conduct. Moreover, lack of efficiency from the equipment maybe cause the reading was not get perfectly
as theoretical result. Other than that, the equipment was already used by other group and maybe the
setting was not same like before. This cause the result of the data was different from the theoretical value.

7.0 Conclusion

Based on this experiment, the internal forces and normal or axial strains in truss members was
determined by using the concept of static equilibrium, the stress-strain relations (Hooke’s Law) and
material properties of the truss system that was subjected to the given loading. In this experiment, it was
divided into two parts, which was by using a Statically Determinate Cantilever and a Statically
Indeterminate Cantilever. A graph of Load against True Strain was plotted. According to the experimental
data in part experiment part 1, truss members at channel (3, 4, 6 and 8) were in compression because of
its negative value while truss members at channel (1, 2, 5 and 7) were in tension because of its positive
value. According to the experimental data in part experiment part 2, truss members at channel (2, 3, 4
and 5) were in compression because of its negative value while truss members at channel (1, 7 and 8)
were in tension because of its positive value. The value of experimental force for each member in the
truss was compared with the theoretical force in the cantilever truss. Next, the differences between the
experimental and the theoretical result were explained. Moreover, the truss members were identified
whether it experience tension or compression. Lastly, the factors of errors or discrepancies for this
experiment and the ways of eliminating or minimizing it were also suggested.
References

i. “Structural Use Of Steelwork In Building”:British Standard.

ii. Plane Frame Example – http:// www.amazon.com

iii. http://web.itu.edu.tr/~ustunda1/course/restlecturesys.pdf

iv. http://www.engineersdaily.com/2011/01/3-methods-for-truss-analysis.html

v. https://phsengineering.wikispaces.com/file/view/truss+theory.PDF