Descent Principles: Part 1

Kinship is reckoned in a number of different ways around the world, resulting in a

variety of types of descent patterns and kin groups. Anthropologists frequently
use diagrams to illustrate kinship relationships to make them more
understandable. The symbols shown here are usually employed. They may be
combined, as in the example below on the right, to represent a family consisting
of a married couple and their children.

In kinship diagrams, one individual is usually labeled as ego . This is the

person to whom all kinship relationships are referred. In the case below on the
right, ego has a brother (Br), sister (Si), father (Fa), and mother (Mo). Note also
that ego is shown as being gender nonspecific--that is, either male or female.

Unilineal Descent
Most cultures severely limit the range of people through whom descent is traced
by using a unilineal descent principle. This traces descent only through a
single line of ancestors, male or female. Both males and females are members
of a unilineal family, but descent links are only recognized through relatives of
one gender. The two basic forms of unilineal descent are referred to as
patrilineal and matrilineal .

With patrilineal descent, both males and females belong to their father's kin
group but not their mother's. However, only males pass on their family identity to
their children. A woman's children are members of her husband's patrilineal line.
The red people in the diagram below are related to each other patrilineally.

The form of unilineal descent that follows a female line is known as matrilineal.
When using this pattern, individuals are relatives if they can trace descent
through females to the same female ancestor. While both male and female
children are members of their mother's matrilineal descent group, only daughters
can pass on the family line to their offspring. The green people below are related
to each other matrilineally.

In societies using matrilineal descent, the social relationship between children

and their biological father tends to be different than most people would expect
due to the fact that he is not a member of their matrilineal family. In the case of
ego below, the man who would have the formal responsibilities that European
cultures assign to a father would be his mother's brother (MoBr), since he is the
closest elder male kinsmen. Ego's father would have the same kind of
responsibilities for his sister's children.

Inheritance patterns for men in matrilineal societies also often

reflect the importance of the mother's brother. For example,
in the Ashanti Kingdom of Central Ghana, a king traditionally
passes his title and status on to his sister's son. A king's own
biological son does not inherit the kingship because he is not
a member of the ruling matrilineal family group. Women
usually inherit status and property directly from their mothers
in matrilineal societies.

Unilineal descent has been found most commonly, but not

exclusively, among materially rich foragers, small-scale farmers, and nomadic
pastoralists . The common factors for these types of societies are small
populations that usually have more than adequate food supplies. Until the early
20th century, approximately 60% of all societies traced descent unilineally. Since
then, many of these societies have disappeared or have been absorbed by larger
societies that follow other rules of descent.

Cognatic Descent
At least 40% of the societies around the world today trace descent through both
the mother's and the father's ancestors to some degree. They follow one of
several nonunilineal or cognatic descent principles. The result is usually
more varied and complex family systems than are found in societies with
patrilineal or matrilineal descent patterns. Cognatic descent is known to occur in
four variations: bilineal, ambilineal, parallel, and bilateral descent. By far the
most common pattern is bilateral descent, which is commonly used in European
cultures. It is described in the next section of this tutorial.

When both patrilineal and matrilineal descent principles are combined, the result
is the bilineal , or double, descent pattern shown below. With this rare hybrid
system, every individual is a member of his or her mother's matrilineage and
father's patrilineage .

As a result, everyone, except siblings , potentially have a unique combination

of two unilineal family lines, as shown in the diagram below. Note that parents
only share either their children's matrilineal line or patrilineal line of descent.

The Yäko of southeastern Nigeria are an example of a

society with bilineal descent. Their important portable
property, including livestock and money, are inherited
matrilineally. Fixed property, such as farm plots, pass down
through the patrilinal line as do rights to trees and other forest
products. It is not surprising that they have patrilineally
inherited obligations to cooperate in cultivating their fields.
Obligations to perform funerals and pay bride price for sons
are inherited through the matrilineal line.

The Toda of southern India also follow bilineal

descent. Their property is inherited patrilineally and
ritualistic privileges related to funerals are inherited
matrilineally.

A similarly rare combination of unilineal descent

patterns is known as parallel descent. With this
system, men trace their ancestry through male lines
and women trace theirs through female lines. Unlike bilineal descent, each
individual is a member of only one descent group.

Ambilineal descent is still another unusual descent system that, in a sense,

combines unilineal patterns. Descent from either males or females is recognized,
but individuals may select only one line to trace descent. Since each generation
can choose which parent to trace descent through, a family line may be
patrilineal in one generation and matrilineal in the next.

The reason for choosing one side over the other often has to do with the relative
importance of each family. In other words, ambilineal descent is flexible in that it
allows people to adjust to changing family situations. For instance, when a man
marries a woman from a politically or economically more important family, he
may agree to let his children identify with their mother's family line to enhance
their prospects and standing within the society.

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This page was last updated on Tuesday, June 27, 2006.

Copyright © 1997-2006 by Dennis O'Neil. All rights reserved.
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