A DEVELOPMENT OF EXERGY BASED BOND GRAPH SYSTEM

VARIABLES

Brett Spurrier

Advising Professor: Fredrick J. Carranti

Second Reading Professor: Jacques Lewalle
Syracuse University CAPSTONE Exit Paper

Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

L.C. Smith College of Engineering, Syracuse University
Syracuse, New York
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the derivation of new thermal
system variables, analogous to mechanical, hydraulic, and electrical
system variables for use via bond graphs. The system variables derived
are in the format used as the basis of bond graph modeling. There are two
system variables for each discipline, an effort variable and a flow
variable. Application of the concept of exergy (available energy) and non-
reversible thermodynamics offers a foundation for the derivation of an
exergy balance equation and its reticulation. From this, the new exergy
based system variables come naturally. Two forms of exergy transport are
noted, conductive and convective; each method has an effort variable and
a flow variable associate with it. The product of the effort variable and
flow variable has the units of power, hence is appropriate use in bond
graph modeling. An example model of a simple heat exchanger is shown
to demonstrate the implementation of exergy losses into bond graphs, as
well as quantifying and simulating exact exergy losses within the bond
graph simulation.

Introduction
Many effects in different disciplines and various technological components
govern the systems in thermal and chemical engineering. Therefore, the traditional
methods of deriving equations of motion for a complex system quickly become abstruse.
However, the difficulty of modeling and simulation of these systems may be drastically
reduced by using a power-flow tool dubbed bond graphs, which graphically represent
continuous energy flows across a system. Separately, a particular interest to the area of
energy conversion and thermal engineering is the property called exergy, and its
application to the bond graph tool as system variables. Minimal efforts have been
demonstrated with modeling thermal systems using bond graphs, and it has not been until
recently that significant progress has been made [1], [2]. The purpose of this paper is to
show the development of new system variables for the flow of thermal energy based on
the concept of exergy.

Bond Graph Introduction

A bond graph is a graphically oriented engineering tool that designers can use to
efficiently expedite modeling and accurately simulate multi-discipline, multi-port
systems. Bond graph modeling is based on the exchange of power in a system which is
normally the product of an effort variable and a flow variable. The key of bond graph
modeling is the representation of the system power by a vector-like bond connecting
energy dissipative, inertial energy and energy storage elements via junction structure
elements. As an example, it is well known in electrical engineering that the power is
equal to the voltage multiplied by the current. In the electrical case, the effort variable is
the voltage, and the flow variable is the current. Likewise, for mechanical systems, the
force multiplied by the velocity is equal to power. The same logic applies for other
disciplines such as mechanical rotation, hydraulics, electromagnetic, chemical, and
thermal. A summary of the disciplines and their associated effort and flow variables is
given in the following table.

1
 Systems Effort (e) Flow (f)
Force (F) Velocity (v)
Mechanical
Torque (t) Angular velocity (w)
Electrical Voltage (V) Current (i)
Hydraulic Pressure (P) Volume flow rate (dQ/dt)
Temperature (T) Enthalpy (h)
Thermal
Pressure (P) Volume change rate (dV/dt)
Chemical potential (m) Mole flow rate (dN/dt)
Chemical
Enthalpy (h) Mass flow rate (dm/dt)
Magnetic Magneto-motive force (em) Magnetic flux (f)
Table 1: Effort and flow variables for different systems.

The construction of a bond graph is given in detail in several references, ([1], [3],
[4]), but can be summarized with the following points.

1. The first stage is to split up a system into subsystems, creating a “word” bond
graph. When the major subsystems are represented by words, the designer can
incorporate effort and flow variables at the ports of the subsystem, and sign
conventions for power interchanges. An example of such a system is given in
Figure 1, with its word bond graph shown in Figure 2. The word bond graph
indicates the major subsystems to be considered, and the bonds with the effort and
flow variables introduce some variables which will be useful in characterizing the
subsystem later. This step is similar to the application of block diagrams, but a
word bond graph is useful in sorting true power interactions from the one way
nature of block diagram arrows.

Figure 1: Physical system with several subsystems

Figure 2: Word bond graph associated with the subsystems of Figure 1

2
 2. The second step is to reproduce the physical effects, including the inputs and
outputs of each subsystem. Consider for example the dynamometer system shown
in Figure 3a. The dynamometer is suppose to capable of setting the speed of the
motor regardless of the torque delivered by the motor. This speed, ω, is an input
variable to the motor. Thus, the torque is an output to the system and function of
motor speed, ω. Similar logic can be applied to the two voltage source shown in
the system, Figure 3b. The voltage is adjustable, hence, an input to the system.
Causal strokes should also be applied to the bonds, which are short perpendicular
lines applied to the end of the bond indicating which direction the effort signal is
directed, Figure 3c.

Figure 3: (a) Sketch of test apparatus; (b) block diagram showing input and output signal flow; (c)
causal strokes added to multiport representation.

3. The third step is to assign detail to each subsystem based on the energy storage,
inertial energy, and energy dissipative properties of the system. Take a simple
electrical system shown in Figure 4 as an example. Wherever, there is a resistive
element, assign an R element. Assign a C element to each energy storage
element. Likewise, place an I element wherever there are inertial elements. Each
series connection is represented by a series junction element, or written simply as
a 1 element. In the same manner, wherever there is a parallel connection, place a
parallel junction element, or simply written, 0. Finally connect each junction with

3
 bonds, negating the bonds that go to ground. If there is a transformer element, it
is represented by the symbol TF.

Figure 4: Electrical circuit example

4. The final step in drawing a bond graph is to assign causality to the details of the
drawn subsystems. As described above, these short perpendicular strokes define
where the effort signal is directed. Table 2 shows the options for causal stroke
locations, with their equivalent bock diagram power flow.

4
 Table 2: Causal strokes for R, C, and I elements

You now have a complete bond graph.

Certain rules, or tricks of the trade, have been developed to aid the bond graph
designers to efficiently draw a system for other disciplines, but the principles are identical
to the steps shown above. In addition, an advantageous property of bond graphs is that a
designer may cross disciplines in the same system, and following the steps above will
obtain the correct representation of the power flow for the entire system.
One of the most remarkable features of bond graphs is that the study of equation
formation may be carried out prior to writing any equations. To understand this concept,
consider the forms of equations used to represent a system. There can be a single nth
order equation in terms of one unknown variable. There can also be n first order coupled
equations in terms of n unknown variables. Or there can also be various combinations of
unknowns and equations or appropriate orders. Many important mathematical problems,
methods, and results are organized in terms of a single nth order equation, such as
common results from Newton’s Second Law as applied in dynamics. However, for the
case of bond graphs it is easier to envision the system as n state-space equations and as a
designer becomes more comfortable with the bond graph tool, it becomes easier to
deduce the equations in their head. However, in deriving the state-space equations by
hand, it is desirable to number each bond. This will make the writing of the equations
take on a very orderly pattern, as it allows each variable to be referred to ambiguously
(i.e. e4, f2, meaning the effort variable on bond 4 and the flow variable on bond 2
respectively). Details and simplifications to deriving the system equations are better
given in [4], but ultimately, the following logic is applied.

5
 1. Observe what the elements (sources, I's, C's, and R's) are giving to the system and
write down their equations looking at the causalities and their constitutive
equations. For example, an energy storage elements constitutive equation
1
is e = q , where q = ∫ f dt , and C = energy storage parameter (chosen based on
C
the system). Likewise, inertial energy elements have the constitutive
1
equation f = p , where p = ∫ e dt , and I = inertial parameter.
I

2. Write down equations for the junctions, noting the power flow. For parallel 0
junctions, each effort attached to the junction is the equal, and each flow variable
is additive. Conversely, for the series junction, 1, the flows attached to the
junction are all equal while the efforts are additive.

3. At this point, there should be an effort equation and a flow equation for each bond
in the graph. Replace the variables, which are expressed in terms of states in
other equations. Continue sorting and replacing until the right side of the entire set
of equations is expressed in terms of states and system parameters only.

4. If some equations are still not completely reduced, there is the existence of some
kind of a loop (algebraic loop, causal loop or differential causality, as is discussed
in [4]).

5. And finally, erase all trivial equations other than those for derivatives of state
variables and write them in terms of state variables.

The process of deriving the state-space system equations is known as bond graph
reticulation. It is easy to see that for large systems, there exists the possibility of
countless numbers of equations. However, because of the repetitive and systematic
nature of the reticulation, computer software packages [5] can be used to perform the
process, and the designer never has to perform the task (double checking is always a good
idea).
Thermal systems are applied to bond graphs in the same manner as each other
discipline, with temperature as an effort variable, and enthalpy as a flow variable.
However, extra steps need to be taken to accurately account for the second law and
increase in entropy [6]. It is the intent of this paper to derive and show the reader how to
incorporate available energy, exergy, into the ease of bond graphs. This avoids the
cumbersome procedure described in [6] to model heat losses; instead this paper will show
how to make simple modifications to existing thermal bond graph models by only using
the available energy – exergy.
In applying exergy analysis to bond graphs, it is possible to show how quantified
exergy may be manipulated into effort variables and flow variables. These variables as
described above are the basis for the functionality of bond graphs. As such, the scope of
this topic is beyond the realm of the novice bond graph user, and an understanding of the
tool is necessary to continue, and the reader is advised to read [4].

6
Exergy Concepts in Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics tells us that different kinds of energy are not equal. Mechanical
and electrical energy are converted unlimitedly to one another less the dissipative energy
of friction and electrical resistance. The less valuable kinds of energy of heat and internal
energy cannot be converted to other forms completely at all times. Thus, the concept of
available energy or exergy is introduced [7] and described as the part of thermal energy
which can be converted into shaft work completely. In other words, the exergy of a
system is the maximum available work to be obtained from a system at equilibrium via a
reversible process.
An expression for specific exergy of the specific internal energy of an arbitrary
fluid has been derived for closed systems. The expression is shown to be a function of
the system properties internal energy and entropy as well as environment properties
temperature, pressure, and density [8].

⎛1 1 ⎞
eu = u − u 0 − T0 (s − s 0 ) + p0 ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ (1)
⎝ ρ ρ0 ⎠

where u is the specific internal energy, and s is the specific entropy. This expression also
holds true for open systems. Noting that

p
h=u+ (2)
ρ

p 1
and the exergy of is equal to ( p − p0 ) yields
ρ ρ

eh = h − h0 − T0 (s − s0 ) (3)

The exergy EQ of a quantity of heat can be found considering a general heat engine
separated by reservoirs of temperature T and T0 , thus having a maximum efficiency
described by the Carnot factor

T0
ηc = 1 − (4)
T

The Carnot factor determines the value of the heat q entering the reversibly operating
engine at a temperature T. Only the amount η c q of the original heat may be converted to
shaft work. Therefore, the specific exergy may be shown to be

⎛ T ⎞
e q = ⎜1 − 0 ⎟ q = η c q (5)
⎝ T ⎠

7
Considering the specific exergy of the enthalpy just shown, it can be shown according to
(3), that this quantity can be used as a fluid potential. However, the exergy of a fluid
does not specify the state. It has been demonstrated [8] that a first possibility to solving
this problem is to determine eh , as a function of the two state variables h and s. If h and s
are known at any instance, then the state of the fluid is also known. It is also possible [8]
and more appropriate to express specific exergy as a function of two independent
variables temperature T, and pressure p. Such a function may be derived using Gibb’s
relationship as well as the fundamental equations of thermodynamics yielding two
independent equations for specific exergy
T
⎛ T ⎞
eT (T ) = ∫ ⎜1 − 0 ⎟ c p (T ) dT (6)
T0 ⎝
T ⎠

p
e p ( p ) = RT0 ln (7)
p0

dubbed the temperature potential and pressure potential respectively. Provided c p is

solely a function of temperature and the fluid is an ideal gas the potentials may be added

eh (T , p) = eT (T ) + e p (P ) (8)

The general balance equation for underlying system theory is given as integral form by

∂ ( ρx )
∫
V
∂t
dV = − ∫ Φ 'x' ⋅ ndA + ∫ φ x''' dV . (9)
A V

The equation applies to a continuous system. Φ 'x' Is the flux of x, φ x''' is the production rate
density of x. Also, rearranging,

∂ ( ρx )
= −div(Φ 'x' ) + φ x''' . (10)
∂t

The fundamental equations of mechanics, electricity, and fluid-mechanics are in

agreement with the two above equations. Irreversible thermodynamics is another
discipline which uses equations of this kind to describe irreversible, non-stationary
processes.
Consider the flux Φ 'x' - as it can be split up into two parts: a convective parts and
conductive part.

Φ 'x' = ρvx + φ x''c (11)

where v is the average velocity of the element dV passing dA. Rewriting (10) yields

8
 ∂ (ρx )
∂t
( )
= − div ρvx + Φ 'x' c + φ x''' (12)

Considering only the convection of mass ρv and no contact transport, we arrive at the
differential mass balance

∂ρ
= − div(ρv ) . (13)
∂t

And also from (12):

∂x ∂ρ
ρ +x = − xdiv(ρv ) − ρv ⋅ ∇x − div Φ 'x' c + φ x''' . (14)
∂t ∂t

Combining (13) with (14) gives and taking into account the rate of change, convective
time derivative, we have

dx
ρ = − divΦ 'x' c + φ x''' (15)
dt

Bond Graph Reticulation via Exergy Power Variables

The steps above derive the general form of the differential balance equation (15)
used to derive effort variables and flow variables used in bond graphs. In order to model
thermal systems using exergy analysis, several balance equations must be used of the
above form: mechanical, internal energy, total energy, entropy, and exergy. These
equations are shown below but derived in [8].

The differential mechanical energy balance equation is:

d ⎛1 2 ⎞
ρ ⎜ v + gz ⎟ = −div(ρv − σ ⋅ v ) + φ me
'''
(16)
dt ⎝ 2 ⎠

where the mechanical production rate is:

d ⎛1⎞
φ me
'''
= ρp ⎜ ⎟ − σ ⋅ ∇v (17)
dt ⎜⎝ ρ ⎟⎠

The differential internal energy balance equation is:

du
ρ = −div Φ 'H' + φu''' (18)
dt

Here, φu''' is the conversion of mechanical energy into internal energy, hence φu''' = −φ me
;;;

9
The total differential energy balance equation is:

⎜ v + gz + u ⎟ = − div( pv − σ ⋅ v + φ H )
d ⎛1 2 ⎞
ρ '''
(19)
dt ⎝ 2 ⎠

The differential entropy balance equation is:

ds
ρ = − div Φ 's' c + φ s''' (20)
dt

where

Φ 'H'
Φ ''
sc = (21)
T

and the entropy production rate is:

1 ⎡ Φ 'H' ⎤
φ s''' = ⎢ ⋅ (− ∇T ) + σ ⋅ ∇v ⎥ (22)
T⎣ T ⎦

Equations (16) – (22) are combined to form the differential exergy balance equation:

∂ (ρe s )
= − div Φ 'e' + φ e''' (23)
∂t

where es is the total specific exergy of a stagnant fluid

1 2
es = v + gz + eu (24)
2

The effort variable used in the bond graphs is a complete effort [2, 4] meaning the exergy
effort variable must include information regarding all the energy forms. Adding and
combining the balance equations listed above will yield a specific flow exergy variable.

deh
ρ = −divη c Φ 'H' + φ me
' ''
+ φ e''' (25)
dt

For the practical application of thermal system modeling via exergy analysis and bond
graphs, two system variables must be derived whose product has units of energy flow, or
power. Thus by using the exergy balance equation juxtaposed to the other reticulated
balance equations, it may be shown [8]:

10
 ( )
l m n
d
∑ dt i si ∑ j j ∑ Φ ek
m e = − ε φ + (26)

m
Considering in particular ∑ ε j φ j , it can be said that this term describes the various types

of exergy flow across the system boundary.

The various types may be grouped into two categories. Some types are of the
convective nature and are connected with ρve f . And other types are of conductive nature
and are connected with φ e''c . Thus the total exergy flux can be written as

φ e'' = ρve f + φ e'' c

(27)

or

⎛1 ⎞
φe''' = ρv⎜ v 2 + gz + eh ⎟ + η cφ H'' − σ ⋅ v (28)
⎝2 ⎠
c

The mechanical terns in the above equation bring minimal information to the discussion
and may be neglected. The resulting equation is

φ e'' = ρveh + η cφ H''

c
(29)

For a system with m + discrete ports, through which convective exergy transport takes
place and m° discrete ports which conductive exergy transport takes place, (26) may be
written as

⎛ T0 ⎞ 0
∑ε φ = ∑ e
j j
+ +
φ + ∑ ⎜ 1-
hj mj
⎝
⎟ φH
T° ⎠ j
(30)

From this relation it is clear that transport of exergy manifests itself in two ways, namely

(a) Convective exergy transport = ehφ m

(b) Conductive exergy transport = η cφ H

The mass flow rate is given to be

φ m = ∫ ρv ⋅ ndA (31)
A

Thermal system variables and their respective units are shown in the following table:

11
 Thermal System Effort Variable Flow Variable
Specific Exergy Flow Mass Flow Rate
Convective eh ( J kg ) φ m (kg s )
Carnot Factor
T Heat Flow Rate
Conductive ηc = 1 − 0
T φ H (W )
(dimensionless)
Table 3: Two different sets of exergy power variables

Both conductive exergy transport and convective exergy transport have been
expressed as products of two terms, an effort variable and a flow variable, as required by
bond graph analysis and power flow.
In order to explain the kind of system variables we expect in thermal systems, we
neglect the mechanical terms. However, in real application such as turbine blades, the
term (1 2)v 2 becomes important, as well as possible gz.
As a result of manipulating the reticulated balance equations and sorting out
sought after exergy system variables, the modeling of thermal systems can be made
simpler. Using the new exergy system variables, thermal systems may be modeled
juxtaposed to mechanical, hydraulic and electrical systems seamlessly. It was the goal of
this paper to derive the system variables, and while the use of the system variables is out
of the scope of this paper, the reader should be referred to [1] for practical applications.
In summery, the powerful tool of bond graphs aids in the modeling and simulation
of seamlessly integrated multi-discipline systems. Such systems may include mechanical
(translational and rotational), hydraulic, electrical and thermal. Much research has been
conducted in the first three disciplines, and yet the area of thermal modeling via bond
graphs has been idling at embryonic stages until recently. Thermal modeling is an
essential part of the thermal systems design process, and it has been made effortless with
the introduction of exergy analysis via bond graphs. Two state variables, whose product
is power, have been derived for each of the two-exergy transport method. First, thermal
energy transport by means of convection reticulation of the integral exergy balance
equation results in the specific enthalpy

eh = h − h0 − T0 (s − s 0 ) (32)

as the effort system variable and the mass flow rate

φ m = ρAv (33)

as the flow system variable.

The second case of thermal exergy transport by means of conduction reticulation
of the integral exergy balance equation results in the Carnot factor

T0
ηc = 1- (34)
T

12
to be the effort system variable and the heat flow rate φ H to be the flow system variable.
We have derived two cases of thermal exergy transport that are in a form applicable to
system modeling via bond graph. Using only equations (32), (33), (34) and φ H , a
designer may take his/her knowledge of bond graphs and model thermal systems using
exergy analysis.

Exergy Analysis via Bond Graphs through a Heat Exchanger Example

Heat exchangers are major components in most energy systems, and they are the
source of significant exergy losses. Heat exchangers are generally inefficient from an
exergy standpoint because they have been designed on the basis of low initial cost that
dictates a minimum-sized unit. To achieve the small sized heat exchanger, the
temperature difference of the fluids must be maximized. However, the larger the
temperature differences in the exchanger, the larger the exergy loss during the heat
transfer. The basis of exergy loss in heat exchangers is discussed here relative to certain
design and operating conditions.

Figure 5: Heat exchanger diagram

Consider a simple heat exchanger Figure 5 which has exergy losses associated
with both the hot and cold fluid flow as well as the heat transfer. This means there is an
exergy loss with the convection of the hot fluid (as well as in the cold pipe), and a
conduction loss within the heat conduction from the hot temperature fluid to the cold
temperature fluid. Therefore, the fluids at the entrance and exits of both the hot and cold
pipe have a unique enthalpy quantities as well as unique temperatures.
To simulate this model via bond graphs, the bond graph must be drawn for the
heat exchanger system as described in the preceding sections. The bond graph for the
heat exchanger system with no losses is shown in Figure 6. In this bond graph setup, the
fluid enthalpies are flow sources, and the fluid temperatures are effort sources (T1h, H1h,
T2h, H2h, T1c, H1c, T2c, and H2c). The heat transfer rate is modeled by an energy storage
element, C, with the heat flow rate as its parameter, Cw.

13
 Figure 6: Heat exchanger bond graph without exergy losses

As expected, when the system is modeled as a simple energy conservation system

without losses, the reticulated equation for the heat lost through the energy storage
element C on bond 6 (from following the rules described in the preceding sections) is
shown below.

Q& t = H 1c + H 1h − H 2c − H 2 h (35)

Because any two thermodynamic points (in this example, temperature and
enthalpy) fix a state of the fluid, this equation is equal to zero for a real fluid. Thus, for
the model to be simulated accurately in correspondence to the laws of thermodynamics,
the energy losses must be accounted for. To do this, the newly developed exergy power
variables may be used to portray the energy flow as an available energy. To implement
exergy analysis and the new variables, the designer must first choose which of the two
state variable couples to use. In the heat exchanger example, we use the Carnot
efficiency only because we know the hot temperature and the cold temperature. In this
model, there will be three adjustments for the exergy losses. The first application is in
the temperature drop of the hot fluid pipe. Likewise, the second is in the temperature
gain in the cold fluid pipe. The third exergy loss must be accounted for in the heat
transfer from the hot fluid to the cold fluid. There are two ways to implement the state
variables (in this case the Carnot efficiency), and the designer must chose the most
appropriate method. In heat transfer applications such as the heat exchanger, when there
is an exergy loss due to a moving fluid, or convection, the state variable must be applied
as a parameter to a transformer element, TF, as shown in Figure 7.

14
 Figure 7: Implementation of exergy losses due to convective fluids over a transformer element.

If the exergy loss is associated with heat conduction, the state variable must be applied as
a parameter to a resistive element, R, stemming from a series or parallel junction, as
shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Implementation of exergy losses due to heat conduction through a resistive element.

The complete model including all exergy losses is shown in Figure 9. Note the exergy
loss due to the convection in the hot fluid, ηh, and the exergy loss for the convection of
the cold fluid is noted as ηc are modeled as transformer functions from the enthalpy flow
sources. The exergy losses due to the heat conduction are modeled as a resistive element
off the position of the heat storage element (energy storage element) with the state
variable parameter η.

Figure 9: Heat exchanger bond graph including exergy losses.

15
Figure 9 represents a heat exchanger modeled using only exergy, where the quantity of
exergy is determined by the state variables derived in the preceding sections. When the
governing system differential equation (only one in this case) is reticulated, the following
equation is obtained for the heat transfer utilizing the available energy, or exergy,

⎛ Q ⎞
Q& t = ⎜⎜ H 1hη h + H 1cη c − H 1c − H 2 c − ⎟. (36)
⎝ C wη ⎟⎠

It is possible to note that (35) is similar to (36), however, exergy losses are clearly
accounted for in the latter. Any parameters may be used for system, as long as the
enthalpy flow source value corresponds to the temperature effort source value for each of
the two entrances, and two exits to the system. As an example simulation, assume 50,000
Btu/hr of heat is transferred to the cold fluid (the parameter Cw). Also assume the
following conditions:

T1h = 1150 ° F
T2h = 850 ° F
T1c = 650 ° F
T2c = 950 ° F .

From standard tables, the corresponding enthalpy values to be used as source values are:

T1h = 1150 ° F H 1h = 398.4 Btu

lb

T2h = 850 ° F H 2 h = 319.5 Btu

lb

T1c = 650 ° F H 1c = 268.5 Btu

lb

T2c = 950 ° F H 2 c = 345.5 Btu

lb .

Figure 10 shows the total exergy loss of this simulated bond graph system over a time
period of one hour.

Heat Exchanger Exergy Loss

2500
Exergy Loss HBtuL

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Hours
Figure 10: Simulated heat exchanger exergy losses for 1 hour.

16
For the period of one hour, the heat exchanger loses 2900 Btu, or overall, 2900 Btu/hr.
The bond graph system can now be used as a complete model of the heat exchanger, and
the parameters may be changed at the designer’s discretion.
A comparative example has been given in the appendix to show how textbook
exergy calculations are done for the same example. The advantage to bond graph
simulation is that the entire system is simulated; Figure 9 represents every exergy loss,
enthalpy change, and temperature change within the system as a function of time. The
temperature sources and enthalpy sources (T1h, H1h, T2h, H2h, T1c, H1c, T2c, and H2c) can
also be easily replaced and augmented to another system which has temperature or
enthalpy as an exit. Bond graphs allow the system to become very complex, and still
retain the ease of use that the simple example above has demonstrated.

Nomenclature

Symbol Description Units

EQ Exergy of a heat quantity J
Eu Exergy of internal energy J
Q Heat quantity transferred J
S Entropy J kg ⋅ K
U Internal Energy J
W Work done by a system J
ef Total specific flow exergy J kg
eh Specific exergy of the enthalpy J kg
ep Potential pressure J kg
eq Specific exergy of a heat quantity J kg
es Total specific stagnant exergy J kg
eT Temperature potential J kg
eu Specific exergy of the internal energy J kg
h Specific enthalpy J kg
h0 Specific enthalpy at T0 J kg
u Specific internal energy J kg
u0 Specific internal energy at T0 J kg
s Specific entropy J kg ⋅ K
s0 Specific entropy at T0 J kg ⋅ K
v Velocity m s
t Time s
z Height m
Φ Production rate of an arbitrary quantity − s
Φe Production rate of exergy W
ε Arbitrary effort variable -
ηc Carnot factor -
ρ Density kg m3
ρ0 Density at T0 kg m3
σ Viscous stress N m2

17
φ Arbitrary flow variable -
φH Heat flow rate W
φm Mass flow rate kg s
Φ '' Arbitrary Flux − m2 ⋅ s

18
Appendix – Heat exchanger exergy loss example

Assume a standard simple heat exchanger exchanges 50,000 Btu/hr of heat. Also,
consider the input and output temperatures as follows,

T1h = 1150 ° F
T2h = 850 ° F
T1c = 650 ° F
T2c = 950 ° F .

From standard tables, the corresponding enthalpy values to be used as source values are:

T1h = 1150 ° F H 1h = 398.4 Btu

lb Ex1h = 125.1 Btu
lb

T2h = 850 ° F H 2 h = 319.5 Btu

lb Ex 2 h = 74.9 Btu
lb

T1c = 650 ° F H 1c = 268.5 Btu

lb Ex1c = 46.3 Btu
lb

T2c = 950 ° F H 2c = 345.5 Btu

lb . Ex 2 c = 90.8 Btu
lb

The mean temperature difference is 200 ºF.

Δhhot = 398.4 − 319.5 = 78.9 Btu hr

Δhcold = 345.5 − 268.5 = 77.0 Btu lb

50,000 Btu lb
( Airflow Rate )hot = = 633.7 lb hr
78.9 Btu lb

50,000 Btu lb
( Airflow Rate )cold = = 649.4 lb hr
77.0 Btu lb

The exergy available in the hot-air inlet is

(125.1 Btu lb )(633.7 lb hr ) = 79,300 Btu hr

The exergy leaving the hot air stream is

(74.9 Btu lb )(633.7 lb hr ) = 47,500 Btu hr

The exergy picked up by the cold air stream is

(90.8 Btu lb − 46.3 Btu hr )(649.4 lb hr ) = 28,900 Btu hr

19
The exergy lost in transfer is

79,300 Btu hr − 47,500 Btu lb − 28,900 Btu lb = 2,900 Btu hr

which is 6% of the initial exergy in the hot air inlet stream.

20
References
1. Thoma, J.U., Introduction to Bond Graphs and Their Applications 1975, Oxford,
UK: Pergamon Press.
2. Thoma, J.U., Simulation by Bondgraphs - Introduction to a Graphical Method
1989, New York: Springer-Verlag.
3. Lorenz, F., A Multiformalism Modelling Approach Using Bond Graphs, Networks
and Block Diagrams Together Advanced Concepts and Techniques in Thermal
Modelling, 1994`. 36: p. pp.56-79.
4. Karnopp, D.C., D.L. Margolis, and R.C. Rosenberg, System Dynamics: Modeling
and Simulation of Mechatronic Systems. 2000, New York: Wiley-IEEE.
5. Venuti, N., Virtual Dynamics. 1999: Orsay, France.
6. Ahern, J.E., The Exergy Method of Energy System Analysis. 1980, New York:
John Wiley.
7. Rant, Z., Exergie, ein neues Wort fur "Technische Arbeitsfahigkeit" (Exergy, a
new word for "technical available work")". Forschung auf dem Gebiete des
Ingenieurwesens, 1956. 22: p. 36-37.
8. Rietman, J., New System Variables for the Flow of Thermal Energy Based on the
Concept of Exergy. Physical Structure in Systems Theory, ed. J.J.v. Dixhoorn and
F.J.Evans. 1974, New York: Academic Press. 35-67.

21