Definition: (Giori Lozanov) an approach based on

lowering the students' affective filter as much as possible

to encourage acquisition

(De)Suggestopedia Example: using baroque music, sitting in comfy chairs,

creating new identities all form part of this approach

Further Point: there is a 'receptive' 'activation' phase in

class

Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion - something that refers

back to a previously mentioned item in a text.

Anaphoric Reference Example: "Susan lives just round the corner. She's my best friend."
'She' refers back to 'Susan'

Further Point: can be seen in contrast to cataphoric reference

(refers forward) and exophoric reference (refers to something
'outside' the text, which is common knowledge)

Definition: a test of a student's natural ability to learn a language

(in this case)

Aptitude test Example: in pronunciation, a test to check the ability to

imitate/distinguish sounds in an unknown language

Further Point: clearly it is much simpler to test aptitude in systems

like grammar, pronunciation or lexis, rather than skills

Definition: an inductive approach based on drilling and

pattern practice, moving towards substitution of elements

Audio-Lingual Approach Example: Teacher: "That cat is cute." Students: "That cat
is cute." Teacher: "Dog." Students: "That dog is cute." etc

Further Point: most interaction is teacher-student,

students should 'overlearn' so that usage becomes
habitual.

Definition: the effect a test/exam has on the teaching

leading up to it

Backwash Example: a global language exam decides to include a

speaking test for the time. This causes teachers to begin
including speaking practice in their classes

Further Point: the effect of backwash can be positive or

negative
 Definition: a belief that language is learned behaviour
and we learn by imitation of good models

Behaviourism Example: the Audio-lingual Method is the classroom

approach of behaviourist ideology

Further Point: this approach works on a stimulus-

response-reward/punishment model

Definition: processing a text starting with the smaller elements of a

text (words, sounds, etc) then building upwards to decode the text
as a whole
Bottom-up Processing Example: listening or reading for the times of a particular train

Further Point: can be seen in comparison to 'Top-down'

processing, which starts from 'global knowledge' to process
meaning

Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion - something that refers

forward to another thing mentioned later in the text

Cataphoric Reference Example: "Given that it is bad for you, smoking still remains very
popular." 'It' refers forward to 'smoking'

Further Point: can be seen in contrast to anaphoric reference

(refers back) and exophoric reference (refers outside the text)

Definition: a test where a number of words have been removed from

a text. Students have to complete the text

Cloze test Example: FCE Use of English Part 2, where students have fill the
gaps left in the text

Further Point: traditionally, the missing words were every so many

words (e.g. every 9th word was missing) - there are also open and
multiple choice cloze tests

Definition: the words immediately around a particular

item in the text which help to deduce its meaning

Example: on the way back to the market (the underlined

Co-text words are the co-text of 'back')

Further Point: the co-text can be the same topic as the

context (they are about the same things) or can be a
digression away from the context
 Definition: (Charles Curran) an approach designed to
form a group identity and lower the affective filter by
building a conversation for later analysis/practice.
Community Language Learning
Example: Ss sitting in a closed circle whisper to T
(outside the circle) what they wish to say to another S
in L1. T translates, drills and S records utterance.

Further Point: a student-led process syllabus

Definition: how much a test tests what it is supposed to

and nothing else (precision)

Construct validity Example: a gap-fill where the gaps have other possible
answers, apart from the desired answers, is less construct
valid than one where there is only one answer per gap

Further Point: we can talk about a test having high

construct validity or low construct validity

Definition: to what degree a test tests what it is supposed to

(thoroughness)

Content validity Example: a test of present simple with more examples, including +,
-, ?, short answer, has higher content validity than one with few +
examples only

Further Point: content validity also refers to how thoroughly a test

reflects the course of study before it e.g. a grammar test following
an integrated systems-skills course has low content validity

Definition: the basic gist of what a text is about

Example: in a manual about how to use the internet,

Context a context might be 'running a search on the web'

Further Point: can be confused with 'co-text', which is

text around a particular item in a text, which may or
may not be about the context

Definition: a test graded according to explicit criteria

Criterion-referenced test
Example: a test marked using banded descriptors or
can-do statements, such as FCE speaking

Further Point: usually for Proficiency tests which test

 Definition: approaches which are based on the students
being given rules to apply logically

Deductive Approaches Example: the Grammar-Translation Approach is an

example of a deductive approach

Further Point: deductive approaches can save time and

some students may regard them as more adult

Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion - referring to

something that you would only understand if you were
present in the original conversation

Deixis Example: "Can you pass me that, please?" You would

only understand what 'that' was if you were present in the
conversation

Further Point: : often accompanied by hand gestures or

other body language (paralinguistic features)

Definition: a test undertaken to test strengths and weaknesses in

skills and systems

Diagnostic test Example: a list of incorrect sentences for student to put into correct
grammar, thereby testing grammatical areas they are good and bad
at

Further Point: the results of these tests are often used as needs
analyses, thus dictating future course content

Definition: a type of reconstruction activity based on natural-speed

dictation of a text

Dictogloss Example: the teacher dictates a short text at natural speed and
students just listen; on a second dictation they note key words and
phrases, then work together to reconstruct the text

Further Point: Usually holistic in language focus, but can be

discrete item

Definition: A method from the 1880s based on speaking

and listening instead of reading/writing, with lots of
teacher talk and quick-fire 'display' questions.

Direct Method Example: The teacher asking a string of questions about

what the names of things are and what we use them for

Further Point: a lot of the language content is not very

'natural'. Berlitz is the most famous proponent of this
approach
 Definition: a test of the language point or skill by
focusing just on that language point/skill

Direct test
Example: testing use of linkers with a gap fill

Further Point: High face validity for the student

Definition: a test of one particular area of grammar, lexis or

discourse

Discrete-item test Example: a test on phrasal verbs or tenses

Further Point: typical as part of a product oriented syllabus /

common in course books with a multi-layered syllabus with a
central core syllabus of discrete items

Definition: the missing out of words in informal speech or

writing. A type of grammatical cohesion.

Ellipsis Example: "Where you going?" Here, the auxiliary 'are'

has been elided or 'Having a great time' in a postcard

Further Point we commonly elide subject pronouns and

auxiliaries

Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion - referring to something

'outside' of the text, which is commonly known by all

Exophoric Reference Example: "Share prices slumped in the City today." 'The city' refers
to the economic centre of a country, which is assumed knowledge.

Further Point: can be seen in contrast to anaphoric reference

(refers back within the text) and anaphoric reference (refers
forward within the text)

Definition: requirements for learning which come from

'outside'

Extrinsic motivation Example: a need to learn to get a job, pass an exam or

because parents have made you

Further Point: can be balanced against 'intrinsic'

motivation, where the impetus comes from inside
 Definition: if a test looks like it tests what it is supposed to
test (impression)

Face validity Example: a learner may consider a pronunciation test

which requires no speaking to not have face validity

Further Point: we can talk about a test having high face

validity or low face validity

Definition: describes a learner who only sees systems in

terms of the general structure

Field-dependent learner Example: a learner who would not notice grammatical or

lexical patterns in dialogue

Further Point: we can also talk about field-independent

learners, who see things in terms of larger structures

Definition: describes a learner who notices systems in larger

structures

Field-independent learner
Example: a learner who notices verb patterns within dialogue

Further Point: we can also talk about field-dependent learners,

who only see things in terms of general structures

Definition: evaluation during a course / study programme

Formative evaluation Example: a weekly test of the grammar and lexis learnt in that
week

Further Point: can be compared to summative evaluation, which is

done after a course of study. Is also a way of assessing the course
itself.

Definition: an approach to writing that prioritises the relationship

between the reader and the writer - the purpose of the text, the
social context and intended audience

Genre Approach Example: analysing authentic examples to consider how and why
they have been written as well as language and layout

Further Point: recently there has been a move to combine

approaches - the 'genre-process approach', which combines
analysis of authentic examples of the genre with good procedures
in the writing process
 Definition: A deductive approach based on the translation of
literary texts from and into L2 with a focus on lexis lists and
grammar rules
Grammar-Translation Example: Spanish students are given a section of Don Quixote in
Spanish and piece by piece translate it into English
Approach
Further Point: Seen as a way of 'sharpening the mind' rather than
language learning. The only speaking was reading translated texts
aloud.

Definition: students work things out by themselves so that they are

more cognitively engaged and the rules are more memorable

Guided Discovery Example: giving students examples and guiding them to work out
the rules is an example of inductive guided discovery

Further Point: can be deductive (give students rules to match to

examples) as well as inductive

Definition: describes a learner who learns language through global

exposure to language

Holistic learner Example: a student who doesn't feel the need to sequentially work
through things and doesn't feel the need to make constant
connections between things

Further Point: these types of learner benefit from doing a wide

range of activities in a wide range of topics - breadth of experience
is important

Definition: the impact of the test on society, educational systems

and individuals.

Impact Example: the experience of preparing for a test will affect the
individual and how they view language and language courses

Further Point: Two further aspects of the testing system can impact
on individuals - feedback on their performance and decisions made
based on results

Definition: a test of something within the context of something else

Example: testing a student's use of linkers by getting them to write

Indirect test a discursive essay.

Further Point: Can be oral or written, often in the form of an

informal test, e.g. students talk about their holiday experiences as a
way to test their use of the present perfect / past simple tenses in
the lead in stage of a lesson
 Definition: approaches which are based on the students
initially being given examples from which they work out
the rules for themselves

Inductive Approaches Example: the Audio-lingual Method is an example of an

inductive approach - students work out form patterns
from oral repetition

Further Point: the idea is that working things out for

oneself is more memorable/has more cognitive depth

Definition: the everyday testing we do in class - not under test

conditions i.e. not timed or graded etc

Informal test
Example: eliciting, test-teach-test, monitoring etcetera

Further Point: this is the most common type of testing carried out
on a language course

Definition: a belief that we are born 'hard-wired' for

language learning i.e. with an innate capacity

Example: Chomsky's Universal Grammar theory holds

Innatism that all people from all cultures have the same innate
'rules' inside them

Further Point: many believe that this knowledge has to be

triggered within a 'critical period' and is therefore
sometimes not relevant to learning L2

Definition: desire to learn caused by the need to achieve

something

Instrumental motivation Example: needing to pass an exam or to get a career

promotion

Further Point: this kind of motivation could be either

intrinsic or extrinsic

Definition: the need to learn is based on the student's

requirement to 'fit in' inside an L2 environment

Integrative motivation Example: needing to know a language because you've

moved to another country

Further Point: this kind of motivation can be intrinsic or

extrinsic
 Definition: a test of various aspects of systems or skills at
the same time

Integrative test Example: a cloze test tests lexis and grammar and
discourse at the same time

Further Point: used as a measure of general linguistic

ability rather than knowledge of a single item

Definition: using a mixture of 'top-down' and 'bottom-up'

processing in order to decode meaning

Example: looking for your name on a list of exam results

Interactive Processing (top-down= knowing it's alphabetical, so starting roughly
in the right place; bottom up= recognising your name)

Further Point: interactive processing is, in reality, what

we normally do when trying to decode a text, although
the 'perfect mixture' of the two is still up for debate

Definition: a desire to learn based on some kind of

internal requirement or satisfaction

Intrinsic motivation Example: a learner who comes to English classes because

s/he loves learning languages

Further Point: can be balanced against 'extrinsic'

motivation, where the impetus comes from outside

Definition: a test type where two sentences are given - one

complete and one incomplete. Students must use a given
key word to complete the second sentence so that the
meaning of both sentences is the same
Key-word transformation
Example: FCE Use of English Part 4

Further Point: key word transformations are used to

gauge a student's grammar and lexis

Definition: an approach based on the belief that students need

training in 'learning' to make them more effective learners

Learner (Strategy) Training Example: by teaching a student to underline the key words in
rubric, they will become more effective at ensuring the question is
answered correctly

Further Point: Learner training also emphasises the importance of

learner autonomy and self-assessment as a means of improvement
 Definition: an overview of a learner's strengths and
weaknesses in terms of what learner styles and
intelligences they have

Learner Profile Example: Student A is a good visual and auditory learner,

but doesn't get much out of kinaesthetic activities

Further Point: learner profiles can be used to base the

needs of your students on when designing courses and
activities

Definition: the mode in which learners best acquire

information, knowledge, language, etc

Learning Styles Example: some students learn best through seeing things
(visual learners)

Further Point: We can think of styles in terms of VAKOG

(Visual, Auditory, Kinaesthetic, Olfactory and Gustatory).
Students normally have a blend of these styles

Definition: students who are motivated by the desire to improve a

skill regardless of how others are performing have mastery
orientation
Mastery orientation Example: a student who sets him/herself goals to achieve and
doesn't care if people do better in an exam is mastery-oriented

Further Point: can be balanced against performance orientation,

where students are motivated by the desire to be better than those
around them

Definition: definitions of learner styles/types divided into

different 'intelligences' conforming to a different sphere of
activity
Multiple Intelligences
Example: some people are good with numbers and
patterns - they have logical/mathematical intelligence

Further Point: 7 intelligences have been identified,

though many now include an 8th (naturalist).

Definition: a test type where students have to match two

or more sets of linked words, pictures or sentences

Multiple matching Example: FCE Reading Part 3

Further Point: this test type often relies on the student's

knowledge of lexical fields and synonyms
 Definition: a test where a number of answers are given. Students
have to choose the correct answer

Multiple-choice test Example: FCE Reading Part 1, where students have a choice of
ABCD answers

Further Point: this type of test has high reliability as it is objective

(does not involve the marker's subjective opinion)

Definition: an inductive approach formed by Krashen

that students should have as much comprehensible input
(i+1) as possible

Natural Approach Example: classes where students listen to a large amount

of language and read a lot, roughly at their level, would
be using the natural approach

Further Point: there is no focus on form in the natural

approach.

Definition: a test graded in comparison to the whole

group of exam takers

Norm-referenced test
Example: A test in which there had to be a certain
number of passes, grade Bs, grade As, etc

Further Point: usually for Proficiency tests which test

Definition: the idea that exercises which lead students to pay

attention to form will lead to noticing these forms in future input,
leading to acquisition
Noticing Example: teacher highlights 'let's face it' in a text in class and later
a student consciously notices the phrase in their reading/listening
and they acquire it

Further Point: Studies in L2 acquisition suggest that we need to

consciously notice language for input to become intake

Definition: a test that where there can only be right or

wrong answers i.e. no subjective judgement on part of the
marker

Objective test Example: a multiple-choice test, where only one of the

option is correct

Further Point: the fact that answers can only be right or

wrong means that the test will have higher reliability
 Definition: repetition of all or part of a grammatical
structure or pattern

Parallelism Example: "We will fight them on the beaches. We will

fight them on the landing grounds. We will fight them in
the fields and in the trees." Here, 'we will' has been
paralleled again and again.

Further Point: normally used for dramatic effect

Definition: a skill that allows the speaker (or writer) to report

something said in a different way, or to circumlocute difficulties

Paraphrase Example: A: "He totally blew his top."

B: "You mean he got angry? Why?"

Further Point: paraphrase is often used in academic writing to

outline what other authors have said without resorting to a quote

Definition: students who are motivated by the desire to be better

than the people around them have performance orientation

Performance orientation Example: a student who systematically goes around after a test to
see if they have the highest marks is performance-oriented

Further Point: can be balanced against mastery orientation, where

students are motivated by the desire to improve a skill regardless of
others

Definition: a test done to place a student in the correct level/class

at the start of a course

Placement test Example: a multiple-choice grammar test followed by a spoken

interview to ascertain ability

Further Point: placement tests can have a 'forward wash' effect,

rather than backwash, as they are before the course.

Definition: Presentation - Practice - Production model for

the teaching of discrete items of grammar and lexis

Example: Introducing key examples of target language in

PPP context, followed by restricted use to build
accuracy/confidence, then target language is used in a
freer context to practise accuracy/fluency

Further Point: An accuracy to fluency model which is

much criticised nowadays
 Definition: how easy the exam/test is to administer and
mark

Practicality
Example: a test that has a cover grid for the marker to
quickly see what is right and wrong has high practicality.

Further Point: increasing a test's practicality often has an

inverse effect on its reliability or validity

Definition: how much a test accurately predicts how the

student will use the language in real life

Predictive validity Example: writing a dialogue of buying something in a

shop tests what language a student would use in that
real-life situation

Further Point: we can talk about a test having high

predictive validity or low predictive validity

Definition: an approach to writing where what the writer does is of

prime importance

Process Approach Example: task analysis, brainstorming, planning, drafting, editing

and re-writing would be a typical process for writing

Further Point: the process approach still required some analysis of

genre and models before the student could decide what needed to be
written

Definition: the use of idealised model texts in order to

give students an example of what is expected in their
writing, in terms of layout and structure

Product Approach Example: giving students a model application letter for

analysis, then trying to imitate it within the confines of a
new 'question'

Further Point: this was the first systematic approach to

teaching writing

Definition: a test to discover a learner's general abilities in skills

and systems, not related to a particular course or text or programme
of study
Proficiency test Example: Cambridge Main Suite exams like PET, FCE or CAE

Further Point: Proficiency tests can be 'norm-referenced' (graded in

comparison to other test takers), or 'criterion-referenced' (graded to
explicit criteria)
 Definition: a test to find out if the aims of a course/part
of a course have been achieved, and the content absorbed

Progress test Example: A grammar test at the end of the month, testing
what has been covered in class

Further Point: also called an achievement test or can be

classed as formative testing (during a course)

Definition: the consistency of the results gained from the test

Reliability Example: 2 students of identical level should get the same result, or
the same student sitting the test on different occasions

Further Point: we can also talk about 'marker reliability' in that the
marker should also mark the same across different tests

Definition: the repeating of key lexis. A type of lexical

cohesion as it provides language links throughout a text

Repetition Example: "This year we'll be stronger because this year we

need to be. This year we deserve it." 'This year' has been
repeated again and again.

Further Point: normally used for clarity or dramatic effect

Definition: an example of a student's work to see what

their rough ability is. Not taken under test conditions

Sample Example: at the start of the course, getting students to

write a letter to evaluate their strengths and weaknesses

Further Point: you can take samples of productive skills

(writing, speaking) but not receptive skills

Definition: a reading sub-skill which involves looking

through a text very quickly to find specific information

Example: you want to find the birth and death year of a

Scanning famous person, so you look very quickly through a text
focusing on years until you find it

Further Point: often involves bottom-up processing in

that you are trying to find specific word items. You know
what you are looking for.
 Definition: a mental representation of a situation or the context of
a text

Example: If you see an article with the title 'riding a bike', you
Schemata picture the act of riding a bike, which brings to mind words and
possible situations involved with it e.g. falling off, mending a
puncture, etc

Further Point once our schemata are activated, we can predict

information and language within familiar circumstances, topics,
etc, which aids top-down processing

Definition: describes a learner that needs to analyse elements

sequentially

Serialist learner Example: a student who wants to do tenses in a strict order would
be a serialist

Further Point: serial learners can be thought of in opposition to

holistic learners who learn through global exposure

Definition: a test type where students have to provide a

short answer to a given question

Short answer Example: In what year was JFK assassinated?

____________________________________

Further Point: questions of this type have to be very

focussed to ensure they are reliable and objective

Definition: a reading sub-skill which involves moving you eyes

over the text quickly to get a general idea of the topic, content and
main ideas

Skimming Example: looking quickly over an essay you find that a) it is about
computers, b) the 1st paragraph is on advantages, c) the 2nd
paragraph is on disadvantages, and d) that the author thinks
computers are good

Further Point: involves interactive processing - through

recognition of words combined with prediction

Definition: the effect a test/exam has on the teaching that follows

the test/exam

spin off
Example: a teacher notices that students are doing consistently
poorly in the listening part of a language test, causing the teacher
to focus more on listening

Further Point: forward wash can be positive or negative

 Definition: a test that allows a variety of answers to
be given and relies on a marker to 'judge' subjectively
the correctness of the answer
Subjective test
Example: writing a letter for a marker to grade

Further Point: the fact that two markers may vary

widely in their judgement means that these tests will
have lower reliability

Definition: use of (usually) determiners and adverbs of place and

time to substitute a previous element to avoid repetition. A type of
grammatical cohesion.
Substitution
Example: "Shall we meet at the King's Head pub?" "Okay, see you
there." 'There' is substituted for 'the King's Head pub'

Further Point: very similar in function to anaphoric reference, but

that is usually demonstratives or pronouns and the definite article

Definition: evaluation after a course / study programme

Example: an end of course test

Summative evaluation

Further Point: can be compared to formative evaluation,

which is done during a course of study. Is also a way of
assessing the course itself.

Definition: describes a learner that needs the 'packaging'

and presentation of data which the teacher, syllabus or
course provides

Syllabus-bound learner Example: a student who doesn't feel s/he can learn
outside of formal education is syllabus-bound

Further Point: the opposite kind of learner is described as

a syllabus-free learner

Definition: a learner who can learn from general elements

in a learning context and outside of a classroom

Example: a learner who likes individual exercises and

Syllabus-free learner feels they work best on their own could be described as
syllabus-free

Further Point: it is considered syllabus-free learners learn

best when left to their own devices and can be restricted
by course requirements
 Definition: an approach based on the belief that students learn by
using, with a focus on being fluent first and accurate later

Task-Based Learning (TBL) Example: students try a communicative task, the teacher provides
help and upgrades language, the students have a better go at the
task

Further Point: comes out of the belief that 'teaching is not the same
as learning' - led to a move away from the PPP model

Definition: a method where you find out student ability initially,

work on problem areas as necessary and then check student
improvement
Test-Teach-Test Example: Teacher tests knowledge of articles with a gap fill, then
teaches rules, then students correct the gap fill by applying the
rules

Further Point: this can be for discrete items or for skills e.g. to test
for the presence/absence of a particular sub-skill

Definition: (Michael Lewis) marked by the belief that lexis

is the most important element - language is
' grammaticised lexis' not 'lexicalised grammar'

The Lexical Approach Example: syllabi that focus on lexical chunks and
collocation with little or no grammar input are lexical in
their approach

Further Point: at low levels there is a strong emphasis on

reading and listening

Definition: the teacher elicits and speaks as a last resort,

uses gestures, charts and Cuisenaire rods to work on
structures.

The Silent Way Example: Teacher taps Fidel chart of phonemes in 3

places repetitively. Students provide word: r-e-d. Red.

Further Point: interesting that the silent way works on a

structural syllabus, but is inductive in approach

Definition: a learner is happy to wait for a language rule and cope

with only part of the story

Tolerance of Ambiguity Example: a student accepts the reason, "that's just the way it is," is
tolerant of ambiguity

Further Point: students can be intolerant of ambiguity as well and

feel they need to know rules they can apply in any situation
 Definition: applying world or context knowledge in our decoding of
the meaning of a text

Top-Down Processing Example: looking at a title of an article and then thinking about
what is known about that 'topic' before starting to read

Further Point: can be seen in comparison to 'Bottom-up

processing', which starts at individual parts of the text (words,
discourse markers, etc)

Definition: (James Asher) an approach based on students

responding at first physically and then verbally to teacher
commands

Total Physical Response (TPR) Example: Teacher: "If you like chocolate, stand up." (all
students stand up) "If you also like crisps, sit down."
(some students sit down) etc

Further Point: there is lots of listening at lower levels

leading to more reading at higher levels

Definition: a test type where students are given a word

that they have to change the form of to complete a
sentence or longer text

Word formation
Example: FCE Use of English Part 3

Further Point: word formation tests the students lexical

knowledge