Module18: Internal Flow

Flow and Heat Transfer through

Pipes and Ducts
 Introduction to Internal Flow
• Characteristics follow I&D, Chapter 8
– primary difference from external flow is the presence of an
opposing, confining surface that constrains the boundary
layer growth
– entry (entrance) length exists (B.L. is developing)
– fully developed region eventually forms

r0 ≡ R
ref. Incropera
& DeWitt,
Chap. 8

Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer Development

 Terms and Notation
• Critical Reynolds number
umD
Re D,c = ≈ 2300
ν
 onset of turbulence
• Hydrodynamic entry length
Laminar: x fd ≈ 0.05 Re
D
D
Turbulent: 10 ≤
x fd
≤ 60
D
• Mean velocity, um such that & = ρu m A c
m
 constant for steady
incompressible flow
• Mean temperature Tm (to be defined later)
 General Assumptions

We will assume:
– steady, incompressible, Newtonian,constant
properties
– Kn (= λ/L) << 1 (continuum)
for air @ STP λ ≈ 0.1 µm
continuum breaks down for
– very low pressure
– very small dimensions
Careful using for microchannels with
gases !
 Hydrodynamics - Laminar Flow
Entrance Region: ∂u 1 ∂ (rv)
+ = 0 continuity
∂x r ∂r
⎛ ∂u ∂u ⎞ ∂p µ ∂ ⎛ ∂u ⎞
ρ⎜ u +v ⎟=− + ⎜ r ⎟ x − momentum
⎝ ∂x ∂r ⎠ ∂x r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠
⎛ ∂v ∂v ⎞ ∂p µ ∂ ⎛ ∂v ⎞
ρ⎜ u +v ⎟ = − + ⎜ r ⎟ r-momentum
⎝ ∂x ∂r ⎠ ∂r r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠
B.C.s: u(x, R) = 0 v(x, R) = 0

∂u
=0 Assume axi-
∂r r =0 symmetry

u(x = 0, r) = uo(r)

Needs numerical solution …

 Hydrodynamics - Laminar Flow
•Fully Developed Region – Poiseuille Flow (parallel
flow): ∂u
v=0 ⇒ = 0 ⇒ u(r)
∂x
• v-momentum equation yields ∂p = 0 ⇒ p = p( x) only
∂r
•x-momentum reduces to balance between pressure &
shear forces:
dp µ d ⎛ du ⎞
= ⎜r ⎟
dx r dr ⎝ dr ⎠
•B.C.s u(R) = 0
∂u
=0
∂r r =0
• Integrate twice and apply B.C.s to get
µ d ⎛ du ⎞ dp can integrate easily
∴ ⎜r ⎟ =
r dr ⎝ dr ⎠ dx since dp/dx is
independent of r

• Mean velocity
1 ⎛ dp ⎞ 2 ⎡ ⎛ r ⎞ ⎤
2

u(r) = − ⎜ ⎟ R ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
4µ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎦

R
• Velocity distribution
um =
m&
=
∫
0
ρu(2πr)dr
=−
R 2 dp
ρπR 2
ρπR 2 8µ dx

Notice
• Velocity profile u(r) ⎡ ⎛r ⎞ ⎤ 2
dimensionless
= 2 ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ velocity
um ⎣ ⎝R⎠ ⎦ distribution not a
functions of Re –
why?
 Fully Developed Laminar Flow
Pressure Drop : Expressed in terms of the Moody (or Darcy)
friction factor

D = 2R
⎛ dp ⎞ • fully developed
−⎜ ⎟D
f≡ ⎝ 2 ⎠
dx 64 • laminar
f=
ρu m / 2 Re D

ρu 2m
∆pfd = f L
2D
 ref. Incropera &
DeWitt, Chap. 8

Note: dP/dx is
constant, but f
is not, due to
funny non-
dimensionaliza
tion

For turbulent flow the analysis is not as simple as above, and the pressure
drop is very sensitive to roughness (unlike in laminar flow). For smooth
surfaces,
fturb = 0.316 ReD-0.25 (ReD < 20000)
= 0.184 ReD-0.20 (ReD > 20000)
 Thermal Considerations - Laminar Flow
Characteristics:

ref. Incropera & DeWitt, Chap. 8

r0 ≡ R
 Terms and Notation
x fd,t
•Thermal entrance length ≈ 0.05 ReD Pr
D
(unlike in laminar flow, the entrance length is nearly
independent of Pr in turbulent flow, with Lt / D ~ 10)
• The shape of the fully developed profile T(r, x) is different
depending on whether Ts or q″ is a constant
• Example:
for engine oil (Pr ≈ 6000), say D = 1 cm, um = 1 m/s,
ν = 550 x 10-6 m2/s:
ReD = (1) (0.01)/(550 x 10-6) = 18 (laminar)
xfd,t = 0.05 Re Pr = 5455 tube diameters!
i.e., a tube length of 54 m!!
(δt never reaches the centerline in pipes of reasonable length)
 Bulk Mean Temperature

• Bulk mean temperature:

rate of
thermal
energy
E& t = mC
& v Tm = ∫
Ac
ρuC v TdA c
transport

Tm =
∫
Ac
ρuC v TdA c
& v
mC

Weighted w.r.t. mass flow rate

• For a circular cross section, with constant-property flow
2
Tm =
umR 2 ∫ T(r) u(r) r dr
 Thermally Fully Developed Flow
Ts − T(x, r)
• Define a dimensionless temperature
Ts − Tm (x)
• The relative shape of the temperature profile no longer
changes if field is “fully developed”

∂ ⎡ Ts − T ⎤ ∂ ⎡ Ts − T ⎤ −∂T/∂r r =R
⎢ ⎥ =0 ⎢ ⎥ = = constant ≠ f (x)
∂x ⎣ Ts − Tm ⎦ ∂r ⎣ Ts − Tm ⎦ r =R Ts − Tm

∂T
q ′′s = h(Ts − Tm ) = k ⇒ h = constant
∂r r = R k
In thermally f.d. flow with const. props.,
local h is independent of x !
That is, Nux is independent of x
Can this happen without
hydrodynamically fully-
developed flow?
 Energy Balance
Temperature Distribution - Energy Balance

1
Energy Balance: E& in = E& out specific volume v=
ρ
⎡& d(C v Tm + pv) ⎤
dq conv + m(C v Tm + pv) − ⎢ m(C v Tm + pv) + m
& & dx ⎥ = 0
⎣ dx ⎦
thermal energy flow work
 Energy Balance (con’td)
⎡ d(C v Tm + pv) ⎤
dq conv + m(C
& v Tm + pv) − ⎢ m(C
& v Tm + pv) + m & dx ⎥ = 0
⎣ dx ⎦
Perfect gas ⇒ pv= RTm ; also dq conv = q′′s (x)Pdx
d(C v + R)Tm
q′′s (x)Pdx − m
& dx = 0 Perimeter
dx
But C v + R = Cp and d ( Cp Tm ) = di
For constant properties:
dTm
q′′s (x)P = mC
& p
dx
For a circular pipe P = πD What if it’s not a perfect gas ?

dTm πDq′′s (x)

Neglect pressure work, set Cp =Cv
= to get the same result.
dx & p
mC
Constant Heat Flux Boundary Conditions
dTm πDq′′s
= = constant
dx & p
mC
Furthermore,
q′′s = h ( Ts − Tm ) ⇒ ( Ts − Tm ) = constant
dTs dTm
⇒ = = constant
dx dx
Ts -T(x,r)
Also, recall θ= =constant with x
Tm − Ts
Since Tm − Ts =constant, Ts -T(x,r) is also constant
∂T dTs dTm
Thus, = =
∂x dx dx
All temperatures rise at the same rate axially!
Constant Temperature Boundary Conditions
dTm πDq′′s (x)
= = not constant
dx & p
mC
However, q′′s (x) = h ( Ts − Tm ) .Thus :
d ( Ts − Tm ) πD
= h ( Ts − Tm ) Careful! h is
dx & p
mC constant only in
πD fully-developed
( Ts − Tm ) = ( Ts − Tm )inlet exp(− & p
hx) region!
mC
Bulk temperature varies exponentially!
Ts -T(x,r)
Furthermore,since θ= =constant with x
Tm − Ts
∂T Ts − T dTm 1 ∂T 1 dTm
= ⇒ = = constant
∂x Ts − Tm dx Ts − T ∂x Ts − Tm dx
All temperatures tend towards Ts exponentially with x!
Axial Temperature Variation

Is bulk temperature variation linear (or

exponential) through the FD region? What about
the temperature at a point (x,r)?
Hydrodynamically and Thermally Fully Developed
Flow Solution
Energy Equation: ∂T α ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞
u = ⎜r ⎟
(f.d. vel. Profile, v=0) ∂x r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠

• Constant Surface Flux Constant Surface

Temperature
dTs
→ q′′s = constant = h(Ts − Tm ) → =0
dx
∂T Ts − T dTm
∂T dTm → =
→ = ∂x Ts − Tm dx
∂x dx

See Sec. 8.4.1 I&D for solution

 Solution for Constant Heat Flux BC

∂T α ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞
• LHS known u = ⎜r ⎟
∂x r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠
•Integrate twice to
obtain

2u m R 2 dTm ⎡ 3 1 ⎛ r ⎞ 1 ⎛ r ⎞ ⎤
4 2

T(r) = Ts − ⎢ + ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
α dx ⎢⎣16 16 ⎝ R ⎠ 4 ⎝ R ⎠ ⎥⎦

Is this known?

Since both bc are Neumann-type, temperature can

only be determined up to an additive constant. What
is the physical meaning of this?
 Nusselt Number
Steps:
∂T
1. Recall k = h (Ts − Tm )
∂r r=R

∂T
2. Find from temperature solution
∂r r=R

3. Find bulk temperature:

2
Tm =
umR 2 ∫ T(r) u(r) r dr
Known
4. Hence find h, and thus NuD
hD
Nu D = = 4.36 for q′′s = constant Notice Nusselt number
k not a function of Re or
Pr!
 Solution for Constant Temperature BC
• Solution is a bit more complicated because LHS
is not constant.
• Solution obtained numerically
• Can show that

Nu D = 3.66 Ts = constant
 Other Useful Relationships

• For the entire tube (i - inlet, o - outlet), overall energy

balance: q conv = mC& p (Tm,o − Tm,i )
• Also dTm q′′s P P
= = h(Ts − Tm )
dx mC & p mC & p

Ts=constant q′′s = constant

Ts − Tm (x) ⎡ Px ⎤
= exp ⎢ − h⎥ q′′s P
Ts − Tm,i & p
⎢⎣ mC ⎥⎦ Tm (x) = Tm,i + x
& p
mC
q = h A s ∆Tlm As = P ⋅ L q = q′′s P ⋅ L
∆To − ∆Ti
∆Tlm ≡
ln(∆To / ∆Ti )
 Developing Flow Terminology
• “Thermal entry length problem”
– Flow is fully developed, temperature is not
• “Combined entry length problem”
– Both flow and temperature are developing
• “Unheated starting length”
– There is an insulated length of duct at the entrance so
that the flow has a chance to develop while the
temperature does not
– Synonymous with “Thermal entry length”
T=Ts

T=Ts
 Convection Correlations
• Refer to the course text to find correlations for NuD for:
• – entry region (section 8.4.2)
– Hansen formula (Eq. 8.56 I&D) - assumes only thermal entry length;
for constant surface temperature
– Seider-Tate formula (Eq. 8.57 I&D) - for combined entry length; less
accurate; evaluate properties at mean temperature defined as
average between inlet and outlet
• – turbulent flow (section 8.5)
– Colburn relation for friction factor for smooth circular tubes (Eq. 8.58
I&D); Dittus Boelter (Eq. 8.59) and Seider-Tate (Eq. 8.61) correlations
for Nusselt number
• – non-circular tubes (section 8.6)
– (Laminar flow - use Table 8.1)
– Turbulent flow, use correlations for circular tubes with hydraulic
diameter: Dh = 4Ac/P, where P is the wetted perimeter
• – concentric tubes (section 8.7)
 Entry Length in Circular Pipes

• NuD at x = 0 = ?
• Why the difference between thermal and combined entry lengths?
• Notice that curves are independent of Re, Pr if x axis is scaled as
shown
• Graetz number = Re Pr/(x/D) (some texts use inverse)
Example:
•Water at 280 K enters a 1-inch diameter tube kept at
a constant surface temperature of 360 K. The tube is
2 m long and water velocity = 1 m/s.
•Find the heat transfer coefficient & exit temperature.
•Solution:
First, estimate the exit temperature to evaluate
properties. Try 350 K T = T + T = 350 + 280 = 315 K
mi mo
m
2 2
µ 631 × 10−6 ⎛ 1 10 3
3 ⎞
ν= = = 6.36 × 10 m /s ⎜Q ρ = =
−7 2
= 991 kg / m ⎟
ρ 991 ⎝ v 1.009 ⎠
Pr = 4.16 ; k = 0.634 W/mK
1* 0.0254
Re D = = 3.99 × 10 4
turbulent
6.36 × 10−7
 L 2
= = 78.7 > 10 ⇒ f .d.
D 0.0254

• Dittus-Boelter correlation (8.60)

Nu D = 0.023(Re D ) ( Pr ) (n = 0.4 for heating,Q Ts > Tm )
0.8 0.4

= 195
∴ h = 4867 W/m 2 K

• Use Eq. (8.43) to get exit temperature (Eq. 8.41

would be for qs” = constant)
Ts − Tm (x) ⎛ Px h ⎞
• = exp ⎜ − ⎟ for Ts = constant
Ts − Tm ,i ⎝ &
m C p ⎠
@ x = L, Tm (x) = Tm ,L = Tm ,o

πD 2
P = πD; & = ρ um
m
4
PL h 4L h 4L
= = St where St = Stanton #
& Cp
m D ρ u m Cp D
Nu 195
St = = = 0.0017
Re Pr 3.99×10 ×4.16
4

PL h
= − 0.3685
& Cp
m not 350K as assumed!

360−Tm,o
∴ = 0.692 ⇒ Tm,o = 304.6 K
360− 280
304.6+ 280 exercise, not
now recalculate with new T =
m
2 done here
• Total heat transfer rate,
πD 2
Q = mC
& p ∆ Tm = ρ Cp u m ∆ Tm
4
π
= 991×1× (0.0254)2 × 4179 × (24.6) = 51622 W
4
∆Tm
• Alternatively, we can calculate this as: (Eq. 8.44)
q conv = h As ∆ Tlm for Ts = constant
∆Ti −∆To 24.6
∆ Tlm = =
⎛ ∆Ti ⎞ ⎛ 360− 280 ⎞
ln ⎜ ⎟ ln ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∆To ⎠ ⎝ 360−304.6 ⎠
• giving q = 51853 W Same answer!!
(with slight calculation difference)