Revision Guide Certain tare l= (3 International AS and A Level NEW for 2016 elt Second Edition Physics ' * *. Gs HODDERRevision Guicle eee Scography Psychology If you found this guide helpful you can get the same quality revision support for your other exams. ¢ Plan and pace your own revision ¢ Improve your exam technique © Get advice from experienced examiners Visit www.hoddereducation.com/revision to discover our complete range of revision material.Revision Guide Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Second Edition Richard Woodside Series editor: Mary Jones 6 BRON ER LEARN MOREHodder Education, an Hachette UK company, Carmelite House, 90 Victoria Embankment, London EC4Y ODZ Orders Bockooint Ld, 130 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire OX14 458 tel 01235 977877 fax: 01235 400401 ‘e-mail education@bookpoint co.uk Lines ate open 900 am.~5.00 pn, Monday to Saturday, with a 24-hour message answering service You can aso order through the Hodder Education welssce: vnvwhoddereducation cou. @ Richard Woodside 2015 ISBN 978-1-4718-2043-7 Fist printed 2005 Impression number 43 21 Year 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015, [Aighes reserved no part of cis publication may be reproduced, scored ina reteeval system, or transmitted in any form of by any mers, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of Hedder Education ora licence permitting restricted copying in the Unived Kingdom ised by che Copyright Licensing Agency Lid, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Stree, London ECIN BTS. Cover photo reproduced by permission of Uadeimir Bakunovich/Forolia “Typeset by Greenhill Wood Studios Printed in Spain “This text has not been through the Cambridge endorsement process. Hacheste UK's policy isto use papers that are natura, renewable and recyclable products and made from wood grown in sustainable forests. The logging and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin.Everyone has to decide his or her own revision strategy, but it isessential to review your work, lean it and test your Understanding, This Revsion Guide will help you to do that ina planned way, copic by topic. Use the book as the ‘comerstone of your revision and don't hesitate to write in it — personalise your notes and check your progress by ticking ‘off each section as you revise 1 Tick to track your progress Use the revision planner on pages 4 art 5 to plan your revision, topic by topic. Tick each box when you have: ‘@ revised and understood a topic © tested yourself ‘© practised the exam-style questions ‘You can ako keep track of your revision by ticking off each ‘topic heading in the book. You may find it helpful co add_ your own notes as you work through each topic. Features to help you succeed xz> —~—~—~S Throughout the book there are tips from the experts on. how to maximise your chances, kkxe:m>” —UCUCUC~«d ‘Advice is given on how to avoid the typical mistakes students often make cx PoE Clear, concise definitions of essential key terms are provided on the page where they first appear. Key words from the sylabus are highlighted in bold for yu throughour the book. Emerton Bxam-style questions are provided for AS and A level. Use them to consolidate your revision and practise your exam skil | PEMEres ee ‘These short, knowledge-based questions provide the firs: step in testing your learning, Answers are atthe back of the book. (aimcnee a ‘These activities will help you to understand each topic in am interactive way.My revision planner eed - . | Revised Tested Bam 1 Physical quantities and units ready 9 Sl units L_] 4 u 11. Scalars and vectors 2 Measurement techniques 414 Measurements sl WR st Ht LJ 17 Errors and uncertainties 3 Kinematics 19. Equations of motion 4 Dynamics 27 Momentum and Newton's laws of motion 30 Linear momentum and its conservation 5 Forces, density and pressure 33 Types of force. . 34 Turing effects of forces 35 Equilibrium of forces 38. Density and pressure 6 Work, energy and power 40 Work and efficiency. . 41 Energy conversion and conservation... 42. Potential energy and kinetic energy. 43 Power. Lt Oo Oo 4 7 Deformation of solids 45. Elastic and plastic behaviour. a Hf LI 46 Stress and strain. 8 Waves 48. Progressive waves 50 Transverse and longitudinal waves. 50 Determination of frequency and wavelength of sound waves.. 51 Doppler effect. H 52. Electromagnetic spectrum 9 Superposition 54. Stationary waves 57. Diffraction. i 57 Interference... 10 Electric fields = _ 61. Concept of an electric field i Mat J 61. Uniform electric fields. ® Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide11 Current of electricity 63 Electric current. 64 Potential difference and power. 65. Resistance and resistivity. 12 D.C. circuits 68. Practical circuits. 70 Kirchhoff's laws. 72 Potential dividers... vos 13 Particle and nuclear physics 75. Atoms, nudei and radiation. 78 Fundamental particles... AS experimental skills and invesiigarions 81 Making measurements. . 83. Presentation of data and observations 86 Evaluation of evidence 88 Evaluating the experiment. 90 AS exam-style questions and answers Revised Tested Exam reads 97 Kinematics of uniform circular motion 99. Centripetal acceleration and centripetal force 15 Gravitati nal fields 101 Gravitational forces between point masses. 104 Gravitational potential 16 Ideal gases 107 Equation of state 107 Kinetic theory of gases 109 Kinetic energy of a molecle......oesennennerene 47 Temperature 411 Thermal equilibrium. ANT Temperature scales... ccsersenentuennnennennene 418 Thermal properties of materials 113 Specific heat capacity and specific latent heat 119. Internal energy and the first law of thermodynamics. 19 Oscillations 121 Simple harmonic oscillations. My Revision PlannerMy revision planner Revised Tested i 124 Energy in simple harmonic motion 125. Damped and forced oscillations, resonance... 20 Waves 128. Production and use of ultrasound in diagnosis....... 21 Communication 132. Communication channels. 134. Modulation 136 Ly 138 Relative merits of channels of communication. ~ LJ 140 Attenuation O 22 Electric fields 142. Electric forces between point charges A Oo 143. Electric field of a point charge 143. Electric potential... 23 Capacitance 146 Capacitors and capacitance. 149. Energy stored in a capacitor . 24 Current of electricity and D.C. circuits 150 Sensing devices and potential dividers... 25 Electronics 152. The ideal operational amplifier 153. Operational amplifier circuits. 156 Output devices. 26 Magnetic fields 158. Concept of magnetic field .. ss 160 Force on a current-carrying conductor......... i ee Manco 162. Force on a moving charge H ‘a 168 Magnetic fields due to currents. 168 Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging........e0 27 Electromagnetic induction 170 Laws of electromagnetic induction 28 Alternating currents 172 Characteristics of alternating currents. 174 The transformer. L_] H: LJ 175. Transmission of electrical energy . 176 Rectification 29 Quantum physics 179. Energy of a photon. © Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide181 Energy levels in atoms and line spectra......... 183 Wave-particle duality... 185 Band theory 187. Production and use of X-rays. 30 Particle and nuclear physics 198 Mass defect and nuclear binding energy 196 Radioactive decay A level experimental skills and investigations 199. The examination questions... cess 200 How to get high marks in Paper 5 204 A level exam-style questions and answers Tested po ooo 215 Now test yourself answers My Revision Planner @Countdown to my exams 6-8 weeks to go Start by looking atthe syllabus — make sure you know exactly what material you need to revise and the style of the examination. Use the revision planner on pages 4 and 5 to familiarise yourself with the topics, ‘Organise your notes, making sure you have covered everything on the syllabus, The revision planner will help you to group your notes into topics Work outa realistic revision plan that will allow you time for relaxation, Set aside days and times for all the subjects that you need to study, and stick to your timetable, Set yourself sensible targets. Break your revision cdown into focused sessions oF around 40 minutes, divided by breaks, This Revision Guide organises the basic facts into short, memorable sections to make revising easier rn Pane Read through the relevant sections ofthis book and refer to the expert tips, cypical miscakes and key terms, Tick off the topics as you feel confident about them, Highlight those topics you find difficult and look at therm again in detail ‘Test your understanding of each topic by working through the ‘Now test yourselP questions in the book. Look up the answers at the back of the book. Make a nowe of any problem areas as you revise, and. ask your teacher to go over these in class. Look at past papers. They are one of the best ‘ways to revise and practise your exam skills. Write cr prepare planned answers to the examstyle ‘questions provided in this book. Check your answers with your teacher. Try different revision methods. For example, you ‘can make notes using mind maps, spider diagrams or flash cards, ‘Track your progress using the revision planner and sive yourself a reward when you have achieve! your target ARN La one) Try to fic in at east one more timed practice of an entre past paper and seek feedback from your teacher, comparing your work closely with the ‘mark scheme. Check the revision planner to make sure you havent missed aut any topics. Brush up on any ateas of difficulty by talking them aver with a friend or getting help from your teacher. ‘Attend any revision classes put on by your teacher, Remember, he or she isan expert at preparing people for examinations. Revise The day before the examination Flick through this Revision Guide for useful reminders, for example the expert tips, typical mistakes and key terms. ‘© Check the rime and place of your examination. ‘© Make sure you have everything you need — extra pens and pencils, a calculator, tissues. a watch, bottled water, sweets. ‘Allow some time to relax and have an earty ‘ight to ensure you are fiesh and alert for the examinations Paper 1 Date: Location:.. Paper 2 Date: Location: Paper 3 Date: Location: Paper 4 Date: «. Location: Paper 5 Date: Location:.. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide1 Physical quantities and units SI units Base quantities ez) { } ‘All quantities in science consist ofa number anda unit. SI units are based on the units of sx SI base quantities: ‘© mass — kilogram (kg) mera mene (r) [suits Syste nteational ) all «'Unités) are carefully defined units that © temperature — kelvin (K) ae used throughout the scientific world electric current — ampere (A) ‘or measuring al quantities. ‘© amount of subscance — mole (mol) ‘Base quantities are fundamental ‘uartities whose units are used to ‘The moleis included for completeness. Itis nota required unit for AS— only | GATE AIAN for level. The mole is ciscussed in Topic 16, together with the Avogaclo constant. \ Although icis not formally an i unit, the degree Cebius (‘C) is often used as a ‘measure of temperature, Each of these units has a precise definition, You do not need to remember the details of these definitions. The units ofall ocher quantities are derived from the base units. For example, speed 5 found by dividing the distance travelled ty the time taken, Therefore, ‘the unit of speed is metres (m) divided by seconds (@). At O-level or IGCSE you ‘wll probably have written this unit as m/s. Now that you are taking your scudies ‘a stage further, you should vate it as ms" Base units are the units of the base quantities. Derived units are combinations of base unis een ‘The uni of force isthe newton. What is thisin base SI units? Answer The newton is defined from the equation: Giz ‘When a unit ike watts is asked for in force = mass x acceleration unit oF mass = ke | base units take extra care ' Uunicof acceleration = ms watt = Ils / Princo the definaequation | Change from this format tos“ then a substitute Nm for and concn a, Units ofnewion = kg xm x sor kans? nome Homogeneity of equations = {_ } IF you are not sure ifan equation is correct you can use the units of the different quantities to check it. The units on both sides of the equation must be the same Physical quantities and units (@))Worked example ‘When a body falls in a vacuum, all its gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. By comparing units, show thatthe equation mgh = mv is a possible solution co this equacion. Answer (Write dawn the units ofthe quantities on each side ofthe equation. Lefchand side: unit of m = kg: unit of g= ms7% uric of =m Right-hand side: unt of & = none unit of m= kg: unit of v= Compare the two des (expert tip } Units of mgh = ke, x ms"? sm =kgm?s? ‘There are lots of worked examples in units of Yarnv? = kg x (mst? = kgmn?s? this book. Try them before reading the answer and then compare your answer Both sides of the equation are identical. TRON oe Hed a 4 = 5 a = a a i = r=] = S ej > a E ES i a Using standard form ‘One way to deal with very large or very small quantities is to use standard form, Here, the numerical part of quantity is wricten asa single digc followed by 2 decimal point, and as many digits after the decimal point as are justified thisis then multiplied by 10 to the required power. Worked example {@ The ourput from a power station is 5600000000WW. Express this in watts, using standard form. {© The charge on an electron f 000000 000000000000 16C. Express this in standard form Answer (9 Seoacooan0w =56x 10° Ww {8.0000 000000000000000 16¢ = 16x 10°C 10" means that Ue ube, ths case 1.6 ive by 10% ‘Mistakes are often made when dividing ‘An added advantage of using standard form is that it also indicates the degree trenton oer tease ‘of precision to which a quantity is measured. This will be looked at in more Dee he ne ee « detail in the section on practical skills De EE Ure RTT ol Reg Cry Sometimes, the base unicis either too large or too small. Prefixes are used to alter the size ofthe unit. Table 1.1 shows the prefixes that you need to know. Remember hat Ie? 2g (noe p00 ‘These are the recognised SI prefixes. The deci- (@) prefixis often used in of 1ms is really (dm). Hence itis measuring volume — decimetre cubed (dr) is particularly useful eget 0" * 10 * 10 Making estimates of physical quantities ‘There are a number of physical quantities where you should be aware of the ‘rough values, for example the speed of sound in air ( 300m”). Lists of such ‘values are given in appropriate parts of this guide — for example, Table 8.1 on page 52. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideTable 11 Prefix | symbol | Meaning pico |p + 1000000000000 | x 10° anon + 1000000000 |x 102 micro | + 1000000 |x 10% mili | m. +1000 |x 107 enti_ |e +100 | x 10 ded |d =10 |x 107 kilo |k x 1000 |x 10? mega_|M x 1000000 | x 105 giga |G % 1000000000 | x 10? ter |T x 1000000000000 | x 107 Scalars and vectors Scalar quant Ascalar quantity has magnitude only, Examples are mass, volume and energy. PE Ryra come eel ty Avector quantity has magnitude and direction. Examples are force, velocity and acceleration. When scalars are added, the total is simply the arithmetic total. For example if there are two masses of 24kg and 5.2kg, the total mass is Z6kg, ‘When vectors ae added, ther directions must be taken into account. Two forces of 3N and §N acting in the same direction would give a total force of 8N. However, if they actin opposite directions the total force is (5 - 3)N = 2N, in the direction of the SN force. fchey act at any ocher angle co each ather the triangle of vectors is used. Constructing a vector diagram Ina vector diagram. each vector is represented by a lin. The magnitude of the ‘vector is represented by the length of the line and its direction by the direction ‘ofthe line. If two vectors act aca point, their resultant can be found by drawing ayector triangle. The folowing rules will help you co draw a triangle of vectors (Figure 11) 1 Choose a suitable scale. Draw line to represent the first vector (V4) in. both magnitude and direction. Draw a second line starting from the tip of the first ne, to represent the second vector (Vy) in both magnitude and direction. 2. Draw alin from the beginning ofthe frst vector to the end of the second line to complete a triangle. 3. The resultant vector is represented by the length ofthis line, and its direction 1 2 ve 3 ve v, v/ / : f Resultant Figure 1.1 Drawing a triangle of vectors fea i 7 © Make. copy of this table ona plece of card to refer to during the course, ‘The larger the scale you choose, the ‘greater precision you should achieve in your answer itis ood practice to include your scale on the diagram. ‘When measuring distances use a ruler, and when measuring angles use a protractor, a a ie E ae) al a o = =] i S = Ga 3 = oh a a Physical quantities and units @)(eos ‘An aeroplane ying with velocity relative to the ar of B0kratt 200k in a direction due north. There is a wind blowing tly from a direction of 30 degrees north of west at 80 mh“! (Faure 12). Calculate the velocity of the aaft eave tothe ground. Figure 1.2 Answer Draw vector diagram to ascae of LOcm:40kmhr* (Figure 13). length of the resulranc'= 435cm Muley by the scaling: velocity = 435 x 4Dkmb-! = 174kmbh+ Measure the ange @, using a protractor (0 = 23; so the direction is 23” east of north, a 4 = 5 a = a a i = r=] = S ej > a E ES i a ‘You vill observe that the directions of the original vectors go round the triangle (GEEaSUa in the same direction (in this example clockwise). The direction of the resultant | Ifyou ried to work aut the answer _g086 in the opposite direction (anticlockwise). the original vectors had gone {0 this worked example for yourself round che triangle in an anticlockwise direction, che resuitanc would have been _ before looking at the one supplied, dodnise. compare the layout of your answer with Figure 13. 1s your layout dear? Gan the examiner see what you have tried to.do? This is most important in ‘akculations, where some credit will be given even if an arithmetic error leads to your giving the wrong answer. Resolving vectors Just asit is useful to be able to combine vectors itis ako useful to be able to resolve vectors into components at right angles to each other. Figure 14 shows a vector, V, acting at an angle @ to the horizontal @ tb) Z\ Va Figure 14 ‘The triangle of vectors in Figure 14(@) shows that this vector can be considered ‘0 be made up from a vertical component (V,) and a horizontal component (Vj). tis sometimes easier to use a diagram similar to Figure 14(b) when resolving vectors — this emphasises that the vectors are acting at the same point. By inspection you can see that cos 6 = V/V. Therefore, Vy = Veos and V, = Vsind @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuidePes A box of weight 20N lies ac rest on a slope, which sat 30* 0 the horizoncl, Calculate the frictional force on the box up the slope Answer Resclye the weight (29N) into components parle! to and. perpendicular to the slope (Faure 15) The fictional force, is equal to che component of the weight down the slope: F=20sn30= 10N [oes ed Which of the following are base quantities? time, speed, volume, energy Which of the following are base units? kilogram, metre squared, joule, kelvin The unit of potential difference isthe vol. Give this in base units. The pressure exerted beneath the surface of aliquid i given by the equation: p=heg ‘where p is pressure his depth below the surface, ps density ofthe liquid and gis the acceleration due to gravity. Show that the equation is homogeneous. 5 Calculate the number of micrograms in a kilogram. Give your answer in standard form: 6 Use standard form to show how many metres there are in a nanometer. Answers on p.215 Physical quantities and units @)PACU a cence (ees Measurements Physics is science of measurement so you will need ro develop the ability 1 use a variety of diferent instruments. Belov is a list of instruments and techniques that you should to be able to use. You will have used most of these ‘during the course ard this book refers to them where relevant. Nevertheless, it ‘would be a good idea to copy the list and, once you feel confident that you can Use the inserument proficient, tick it off You should be able co use a ruler, verner scale and micrometer to measure length ‘atop pan balance and a spring balance to measure weight a protractor to measure angles a clock and stopwatch to measure time intervals «a cathoce-ray oscilloscope to measure potential difference a cathade-ray oscilloscope with a calibrated time base to measure time intervals and frequencies, 1a thermometer to measure temperature ‘an ammeter to measure current voltmeter to measure potential difference a galvanometer in null methods Vannes Rulers can measure to the nearesc milimetre, Vemier calipers measure to the nearest ofa millmete To ead an instrument with averier scale igure 21): 11 Read the milimetres from the main scale marking, which is just before the zero on the veriet, 2 Take the next figure (enths of a milimente) from the fist vernier mark to ‘coincide with a main scale mark. Vernier scale os al Main scale (asneaetmemuestaeniiaala Figure 2.1 Vernier scale Cans What isthe reading on the instrument shown in Figure 21? Answer rain sale racing = 11mm vvernier reading = 04mm Calculate the final reading by adding the two readings. final reading = TL4enm Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guideae) Verrier sales can be used to measure 0 the nearest of rilimete Micrometer can messure tothe nearest 1 of millet Micrometers have an accurately tumed screw thread (Figure 2.2. When the thimble is urned through one revolution, the jaws are opened (or closed) by a predetermined amount. With most micrometers ths is 050mm. There will be 50 divisions on the thimble, so turning it through one division clases, or opens, the jaws by 050mm divided by 50 = 0.01 mm. Jaws Barrel Thimble Ratchet Figure 2.2 A micrometer screw gauge To measure the diameter or thickness of an object the jaws are closed, using the ratchet, until they just apply pressure on the object. To read the micrometer: 1. Take the reading of the milimecres and half milimecres from the barrel 2 Take the reading from the thimble. 3. Add the readings together Toes Cnn What isthe reading on the micrometer in Figure 22? ‘The 0 is often missed, so the worked example answee would be given as ag 322mm, Some careless students reading on the barre = 35mm might add the 22'to the 35 to givean answer of 3522mm. reading on the thimble = 022mm. (Calculate the final reading by adding the two readings final reading = 372mm (© Trace the diagram of the scaleand. vvernier. Cut them apart, then slide the vernier along the rain scale and practise taking readings. Ten lee ‘Accathode-ray oxtilloscope (Cro) can be used to measure both the amplicude ‘of signals and short time intervals. A potential difference applied to the y-input ‘controls the movement of the trace in a vertical direction. A potential cifference applied across the xinput controls the trace in the horizontal direction, Measurement of potential difference The y-sensitivity is adjustable and is measured in volts per cm (Vem) or volts pet division (Viv). Inthe example in Figure 23 the y-sensitvitys set at 2.V dv" A de. supply is applied across the y-input. No voleage is applied across the x input. The trace ‘appears as 2 bright spot. Pa & = = < < oS ey 2 my = Fy = 2 = FA 2 bi P= atert ty < = So 2 2 Pry < 7] 5 2 = FA cs bi P= 7 Figure 2.3 Usinga cathode ray oscilloscope to measure potential ifference In Figure 23; ‘© Screen 1 shows the cathode-tay osciloscope with no input, ‘© Screen 2 shows a deflection of 0.75 of a division, The voleage input across the y-platesis 0.75 x 2= 15V. ‘© Screen 3 shows a deflection of 15 divisions, The voltage input across the yplatesis 15 x2 = 30V. ‘© Screen 4 shows a deflection of -0.75 divisions. The voltage input across the _yeplates is -075 x 2 = ~15,, in other words 15V in the opposite direction. Measurement of time intervals ‘To measure time intervals, a time-base voltage is applied across the xinput (Figure 24), This drags the spot across the screen, before flying back to the beginning again, The rate at which the time-base voltage drags the spot across the screen can be measured either in seconds per division (scl) or divisions per second (divs™), You must check which method has been used. Figure 2.4 Application ofa time-base voltage across the s-input ofa cathode-ray oscilloscope In Figure 24 ‘© Screen 1 — the spot moves slowiy across the screen before flying back to the beginning and repeating the process. ‘© Screen 2— with a higher frequency time base, the spot moves across the screen more quickly The fluorescence on the screen lasts long enough for a shor tail tobe formed. ‘© Screen 3 — with a much higher frequency, the fluorescence lasts long enough for the spot to appear as a continuous tne If successive pulses are applied to the y-plate while the time base voltage is applied, the trace might appear as in Figure 25, The time interval between the pulses can be calculated by multiplying the number of divisions between the Figure 2.5 Using cathode-ray oscilloscope ‘wo pulses by the time base ‘tomeasure time intervals ‘Worked example ‘A survey ship sends a pulse of sound down to the seabed and the echo Is decected The two pulses are shown in Figure 2 with the cathode-ray csclloscope rime base being set at SOmsdiv-1Caleulate the depth ofthe sea, given that the speed of sound in water 1500s" Cs) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideAnswer time interval becween pulses = number of divisions x time base = 25 x 50 = 15ms= 0125s. specs = #2NCC Time Theeiore distance = speed > time = 1500 x 0.125 = 1875 depth of the wate! ‘You might use sensors whose output is not proportional to the quantity you ‘are attempting to measure. A good example is the ourput from a thermocouple thermometer, which you will have met in your pre-AS course. The worked ‘example below shows how yout can use a calibration curve when using this type of inssument. Pa & = = < < oS ey 2 my = Fy = 2 = FA 2 bi P= a Cars Figuie 26 shows the calbration curve for a thermocouple emf./mv 0.30 used to measuite temperatures from 1 to 250°C. Deduce the eenperature when che themacouple produces an emf. of ine 0.250. Answer Draw a horizontal ine from 0250mrV on the yas to the curve ‘Draw a vertical line from where this line Incersects with the curve to cut the xaxis. 100150 200 Temperature/*C ‘This intersects at 235°C, hence the required temperature is 235°C. Errors and uncertainties a_i) ‘An error is 2 mistake in taking a reading, Erors and repeated readings are discussed in decail on pages 82-83. Accuracy, precision and uncertainty Accuracy and precision are terms chat often cause confusion. ( > Accuragy is how dose to the ‘eal ‘Consider a rod of ‘true’ diameter 52.8012 mm. Suppose that you use a ruler and value’ a measurement is. Measure it to be 53mm. This is accurate but it S not very precise. your friend | reeision is that part of accuracy that uses a micrometer screw gauge and measures it as 52.81 mm this is more precise, | the experimenter contro’s by the choice ‘even though the final figure is not totally accurate. cof measuring instrument and the skill swith wich itis used No measurement can be made to absolute precision — there is always some uncertainty. Ifa result is recorded as 84°55, this implies thac there is an uncertainty of at least ) 041s perhaps more, You might see such a reading writen a5 84 + 0.25, The (02s in tis readings caled the absolute uncertainty \ ( ‘Uncertainty is the range of values in hich a measurement can flItis often convenient to express an uncertainty as a percentage of the reading. This s known as the percentage uncertainty. absolute uncertainty . 993 reading ‘The percentage uncertainty in the previous example is 82 100% = 0.26% Bes Precision of measurement When making a static measurement for example, the length of a pendulum) you should normally measure to the nearest division on the instrument. The exception to thisis ifthe divisions are one millimetre of mote apart. In this case, you need to judge to the nearest hal division or better. When making a dynamic measure (for example, che height to which a ball bounces), other considerations come into play — the balls moving, so you have to judge when itisac its maximum height. Ths isa much more difficult cask. You can probably measure only to the neares:§ millimetres percentage uncertainty 9 FA 2 = A rs = 3 3 = 4 5 E g ] 3 e ES a Many digital stopwatches measure to V/100 ofa second, However, the uncertainties in the reaction times of manually starting and stopping @ stopwatch are much greater than this. The bes: you can manage is to measure 1 the nearest 1/10 of a second. Until 1977, world records for running events ‘wete given to only this precision, It was only with the advent of electronic timing, that it became possible to record them to 1/100 ofa second. The current world record for the men’s 100m is 958s This suggests an absolute uncertainty of +40.01s, percentage uncertainty of approximately 01% This has the knock-on «effect that for the world record to be valid the track musc also be measured to a precision oF 0.9% or better. This means an absolute uncertainty of 10cm, ‘The precision can also be estimated from taking repeat readings If ive readings ‘of the time taken fora ball to run down a track are taken, itis acceptable to give ‘the uncertainty as half the range ofthe readings. For example ifthe readings ‘were: 5.25 5.25 545, 505,518. The range is the difference between the largest and smallest values (5.4 — 50 = 0.43), so the uncertaincy is +04s/2 = 40.2 Rens es ‘1 What isthe reading on the vermier scale in Figure 2.7? 2. What isthe reading on the micrometer in Figure 2.8? 3. Ifthe time base in Figure 25 i given as 5 sd, deduce the rime between the pulses. 4 In Figure 2.6, deduce the reading on the volemerer when the remperacure is 100%C. 0 70] Di i | Figure 27 Figure 2.8 Answers on p.215 @s) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide3 Kinematics Equations of motion Seem cued sy ‘You should kriow the definitions of the terms distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration. ‘© Distance is a scalar quantity. thas magnitude only. ‘© Displacement isa vector quantity. It has both magnitude and direction, (© Speed isa scalar quantity. e refers co the total discance travelled. (© Velocity i a vector quantity, being derived from displacement — not che total distance travelled. ‘© Acceleration isa vector quantity, Acceleration in the direction in which a body ‘s cavaling will increase its velocity. Acceleration in the opposite direction from ‘which a body is traveling will decrease its velocity. Acceleration atan angie ‘0F 90" to the direction a body is traveling in wil change the direction of the velocity but will noc change the magnitude of the velocity Peo nya Ue Ty = Distance isthe length between two ppoints measured along the straight line ‘pining the two points. Displacement is the distance of an object from a fixed reference point in a specified direction, Speed is the distance travelled per unit tie. Velocity isthe change in displacement fer unit time, ‘Acceleration isthe rate of change of velocity. | a vvis the velocity and As is the change of dislacement in time At. x ar ‘where ais the acceleration and Av is the change in velocity in time At. Units ‘Speed and velocity are measured in metres per second(s"). where ‘Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time. Velocity is measured in ‘metres per second (ms~ and time is measured in seconds (9, which means that the acceleration is measured in metres per second every second (ms" per) which is written as ms" (ano ‘toy wain travel round one dreut ofa circular crack of circumference 241m in 48s Calculace () the average speed the average velocity Answer (@ xis the dicance traveled so average speed. 48G) (sis the dsplacement, which after one lap is 2er0, The train finishes atthe same point at which it started. Hence: As _ O(n) 20) andy =oms? Reser OY a 486) | In general, che symbol A means ‘change, | soAsisthe change in displacement | and Atis the change in time. Icisgood practice to include units in your calculations, as shown in | this eaample — it can help to avoid | mistakes with multiples of units. ft | canalso help you to seeif an equation ‘does not balance. inthis book, in order | to make the equations clear, units are | only included inthe final quantity. Kinematics‘Worked example A car travels 840 malong a straight level rack at constant speed of 35s". The iver chen apples the brakes and the car deceerates to rest ata constant rae in a further 70s. Calculate. (9 chetime for which the caris traveling at constant speed. (©) the acceleration ofthe car when the brakes ate applied Answer Gra we a8 ‘The minus sign shows that the velocity 35 decrease rather than increases. Ie is alo worth noting that the given quantities inthe question are to two Significant figures. Therefore, the answer should aso be recorded to two significant figures. 2 Fe g E 3 & ad a ‘Graphs give a visual representation of the manner in which one variable changes ‘with another. Looking at motion graphs can help us to see what is happening, ‘over a period of time. Displacement-time graphs Figute 31 shows the displacement of a body that increases uriforrnly with time. ‘This shows constant velocity. The magnitude of the velocity is equal to the gradient of the graph, As v= gradient = Gzap rv ‘When you measure the gradient of a gaph, use as much ofthe graph 2s posable. This wll reduce the petcentage error in your ealulation, Displacement s/ms“ Time t/s Figure 3.1 Displacement-time graph for constant velocity Figure 3.2 shows an example of a body's velocity steadily increasing with time. To find the velocity ata particular instant (the instantaneous velocity), draw a ‘angent 0 the graph ac the relevant point and calculate the gradient of that tangent, Displacement s/ms" Time t/s Figure 3.2 Displacernent-time graph for increasing velocity @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideVelocity-time graphs 8 Figure 3.32) shows a body moving with a constant velocity; Figure 3.3(b) shows =} «that the velocity of the body is increasing at a constant rate — it has conscant £ acceleration. = @ © Fo Velocty Velocity v4. = fms ims" ” a Timers Figure 3.3 Velocty-time graphs: (a) constant velocity, (b) velocity increasing at ‘constant rate ‘The gradient of a velocity-time graph is the change in velocity divided by the time taken. Iris equal to the magnitude of the acceleration. ovou wy Displacement from a velocity-time graph ‘The cisplacement is equal to the area under a velocity-time graph. This can be ‘leary seen in Figure 3.3(@), The shaded area isa rectangle and its area is equal to: height x length = velocity x time Figure 3.3(0) shoves changing velocity the distance vaveled is the average velocity multiplied by the time. For constant acceleration from zero velocity this ishalF the maximum velocity multioied by the time — the area ofa triangle, (aes Velocity/ms-* e070 80 Time/s Figure 3.6 Figure 34 shows the motion ofa cyclist as shetravelsfrom Answer one stage to thernextin a race, Calculate: aakeearsTaari sonst wo-0 @) the acceleration from A to B (H The maximum speed can be read directly from the graph. (@ the maximum speed of the cyclist Icis 10s" (@ thecoualdixance he cys waves (@ distance traveled = area under the praph @ the acceleration from C0 D = (6x 10% 1) + (10% 50) + 04% 1021 @ acceleration = graciene = 2 = -a5ms?Figure 35 shows the motion of a body that has accelerated at a uniform rate, from an initial velocity w toa final velocicy vin time t 3 Kinematics Time Figure 3.5 Equation 1 ‘The acceleration of the body: vou t Rearranging this equation gives: veutat Equation 2 ‘The distance s travelled by the body can be calculated in two ways. First verage velocity x time vtu 2 Equation 3 ‘Second, the distance travelled is equivalent to the area under the graph: rea of rectangle ABDE + area of triangle BCD t Equation 4 A fourth equation is needed to solve problems in which the time and one other variable are not known. Equation 1 rearranges to: a ‘Substitute this in Equation 2: vu you Rearranging gives Pau + 2as @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guidethe journey that is being considered. Summary Erma 8 The equations of uniformly accelerated motion are ‘tessa otnatnesionve | esl . bat © sur wat? used if there is constant acceleration s {including constant deceleration and 5 ° eee Per anre eater g & ” ing the equations of uniformly accelerated motion Acommon type of problem you might be asked to analyse isthe journey of a vehicle between two fixed points. (oo During the teing ofa cr cistimed overs measured klomette In ane tet ‘enters the timing zone at a velocity of 501s“ and decelerates at a constant rate oF 0.80ms*, Calculate: @ the velocity of che car as it leaves the measured kilometre (theme takes ro cover he messed emere Answer @u=50ms? G=zp §=10km=1000m Icmight seem tedious writing out % all the quantities you know and oo the equation you are going to use. » However, this wll mean that you are less likely to make a careless error and, oe ee if you do make an arithmetic error, it ete a helps the examiner to see where you Substitute the relevant values and solve the equation: hhave gone wrong, so that some marks canbe awarded. = 50 + 2x (080) x 1900 = 2500 ~ 1600 = 900, ms (0 Reauired equation: OTe “Two common mistakes in this type oF eo question are: Substitute in the relevant variables ee 30-50-80 x1) negative acceleration $= 50=30_ 55 (© forgetting to convert kilometres to 08 metres Analysing the motion of a body in a uniform gravitational field ‘The equations of uniformly accelerated motion can be used to analyse the motion ‘ofa body moving vertically under the influence of gravity. In this type of example itis important to call one direction positive and the other negative and to be ‘consistent throughout your calculation. The next example demonscrates this. Cees ‘A boy throws a stone veracaly up into the airwith a velocity ©£60ms" The stone reaches maximum height and falls inco the sea, whichis 12m below the point of release (Figure 36). ‘Calculate the velocity ac which the tone his the water surface. (Gcceleration due to gravity = 98ms%)In this example, upwards hasbeen chosen as the postive direction; hence wis +605"! Consequenty, che distance of the sea below the point of release (12m) and the aceleraron due ro graity (105-2) are considered nepatve because they 2 Fe g E 3 & ad are both in the downward direction. a Recuired eiatiory The final velocity ofthe scone is ako in che downward direction. aw + Qos ‘Therefore it should be recorded as -165ms® v= 608 + 2 x (-98) x (12 =36 +235 =271 Itisalso worth noting that ar resistance on a stone moving at these speeds & negligible. Mass and weight ‘Mass and weight are often confused. Weight i the gravicationa pull on a body and depends on the strength ofthe gravitational field at the position ofthe ‘wash ial eee body, Mass is a property of a body itself and does not vary with the position of | fae tae togan Ook the body, Weight isthe gravitational pull on a In general, the two are connected by the equation: body. Weight isa type of force and ike W=mg all forces its unit is the newton (N). ee, ‘where W is weight, m is mass and gis the gravitational fied strength (or acceleration of free fll). ‘The gravitational field strength near the surface of the Earth is BN kg” Thetefore, a mass of about 100g (0.1kg) has.a weight of just less than 1N (098N) on the Earths surface. Its weight on the Moon is only O.16N because the gravitational field stength on che Moon is only about % of that on Earth. Exe al Inthe absence of air resistance, all bodies near the Earth fall with the sarne acceleration. This is known as the acceleration offre fall. Similarly bocies near any other planet will fll with equal accelerations. However, these accelerations «wll be different from those near the Earth. This is explored further in Topic 4 (Dynamics). Measurement of the acceleration of free fall Figure 3,7 shows apparatus that can be used to measure the acceleration of free fall. Equipment Photograph Strobescopic light all bearing Metre ruler —_ Digital camera 8 e s Figure 3.7 Apparatus to measure the acceleration offre fll Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘The stroboscopic light flashes at @ fixed frequency and the shutter of the ‘camera is held open. This results in a photograph that shows the position of the ballin successive time intervals, a in Figure 37. In this example the stroboscopic light was sec to flash at 20 H2. In Table 31, the third column shows the distance travelled by the bal in each time interval and the fourth colurnn shows the average speed curing each interval. Table 3.1 Time/s | Positionim | Distance travelled/m | Speed/m: a00 | 000 0.00 00 0s | 001 aor o2 910 | 0.05 0.04 08 os | om 0.06 12. 020 | 020 0.09 18 025 | 030 oi 22 o30 | 4a O18 28 035 | 0.60 016 32 940 | 078 018 36 ‘Acgraph of the speed against time is plotted (Figure 38). The acceleration of the ballis equal to the gradienc of chs graph 010 0.20 0.30 040 Timers Figure 3.8 Readings from Figure 3.8: (046, 4 and (0.13, 19) 41-10 = Tens Effect of air resistance ‘When you kick a football or hit tennis ball you will be aware of the effect of air resistance. Air resistance affects all moving bodies near the Earth’ surface, including the motion of falling bodies. Air resistance depends on che shape of ‘a body and also on the speed at which the body travels. The resistance on a sieamlined body is lower than on a less streamlined body. Car manufacturers spend a lot of time and money researching the best shape for a car 0 as to redhlce air resistance. Ait resistance, of drag, increases as the velocity of a body increases, As a falling body acceleraces, the drag. force increases. Therefore, the resultant force on ic will decrease, meaning that the acceleration decreases. When the drag force is equal {0 the gravitational pull on che body ic will no longer accelerave, but fll with @ ‘constant velocity, This velocity is called the terminal velocity. s 2 3s 5 ) | Ss ”Figure 39 shows how the velocities ofa shuttlecock and of a tennis ball change as they fall from rest. Speed > y y 3 Kinematics Time Figure 3.9 ‘© At point A the air resistance (or drag force) is negligible and both the shutelecock and the tennis ball fall with the same acceleration, g ‘© At point B the air resistance (compared wich the weight of the bal) remains scrall and i continues to fall wth the same acceleration; the shurtlecack has a much smaller weight than the ball and the air resstance on itis significant compared with its weight, so its acceleration is reduced, (© Atpoint € the air resistance is equal co the weight of the shuttlecock. It no Songer accelerates and fals with ts terminal velocity ‘© At point D the air resistance on the balls now significant an! its acceleration is reduced, ‘© At point € the air resistance is equal to the weight ofthe ball and it als with ‘ts weminal velocity. (airman ‘You should be able ro develop many equations from more fundamental ‘equations, Some of these fundamental equations are given at the beginning of tthe exam paper; others you must lear by heart. It is good idea to write out ‘these equations on a plece of ard and stick the card on your bedroom mirror to help learn chem by heart. In this chapter the ‘must-earn’ equations are: ‘The others are either on the lis on pages 66~67 ofthe syllabus or you should be able to derive them. Now test yourself Describe one similarity and one difference between speed and velocity. 2 Acartravelling ac 15ms-! applies its brakes and comes ro rest after 4.05. Calculate the acceleration of the ca ‘Anastronaut on the Moon dropsa hammer from a height of 7.2m, The hammer strikes the ground 1.2s ater being released, Calculate the acceleration due to gravity on the Moon. Abullet of mass 50. is fired horizontally from a height of 1.2m. The bullet leaves the gun ata speed of 280m: Describe the path the bullet takes b Assume the ground is level. Calculate: | the time that i rakes for the bullet to hit the ground Ii the distance the distance the bullet craves before It hits the ground. il Stare any assumptions you made in | and ll and explain the effect they will have on your answer to Answers on p.215 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideMomentum and Newton's laws of motion >—_____YY-ez7_) ‘Newton's laws are the basis on which classical mechanics was built. Many of the ideas are seen as selt evident today but were revolutionary when Newoon first developed his ideas. Before discussing Newton’ laws of motion in detail you need to understand the ‘concept of momentum, Linear momentum (ps defined as ‘the product of mass and velocity: The unit of momencum is kgrns"\.tc i formed by multiplying a vector by a pew scalar and is, therefore, a vector itself This means, for example, that a body of mass 2g travelling at 3ms" has a momentum of 6kgms"™A body of the ‘same mass traveling at the same speed but in the opposite direction hasa momencum of ~6kgms”.Itisimportant when you consider interactions between bodies that you understand the vector nature of momentum, Ciro Calculate the momencum of a cruise liner of mass 20000 tonnes when icis traveling ac &.0ms” (Ironne = 1000ks). Answer ‘Convert the mass to ke: 20000¢ = 20000 x 1000kg = 20000000kg p=my= 20000000 x 60 = 120000000 kgms" Newton's laws Newtons first law Abody will remain at rest or move with constant velocity unless acted on by resultant force ‘The fist part of this law is relatively straightforward; we do not expect an object 10 move suddenly for no reason. The second part requiresa lctle more thoughe. A got ball putted along level ground will gradually sow dow, as will a cyclist freewheeling along.a level path. In both these cases frictional forces actin the ‘opposte direction to the velocity of the body and cause it to decelerate, ‘When we observe motion on the Earth we cannot diminate friction and we ‘earn’ (falsely) that a force is needed to keep bodies moving, In practice, we ‘only need that force to overcome frictional forces. |F you think of a rock moving through outer space, there is no force on it — yer it will continue moving in a straight line forever, or until it encounters another body, perhaps in another galaxy. owanics @)Certs) Newton's second law ‘A resultant force acting on a body will cause a change in momentum in the direction of the force. The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the magnitude of the force. Newcon’ first law describes what happens when there is na force on a body, | ‘The second law explains what happens when there isa force on a body. ‘The second law defines force: something that tends to cause a change From this law we can write: in momentum af a body. pele . a ‘A constant of proportionality defines the size of the unit of force. The newton is defined by raking the constant equal co 1, when momentum is measured in kgm" and time is measured in s. You see from this equation chat force is measured in kgm s*. 1 kgs" called IN (newton). Cass 4 golf ball of mass 45 is putted slong a level green with an intial velocity of 40ms” It decelerates ata constant rate and comes to rest after 30s. Calculate the frictional force on the ball Answer CCorvert the mas to kg 45g Bese ke=0045ke inal momentum = 0.065 x 4= 018kgms" final momentum =0 change in momentum = -O:18kgms-" “The minus sigh in the answer shows that the force is acting in the opposite sbrecsion from the inal velocity. Acceleration of a constant mass In many sintations including the previous worked example, the mass of the body on which the force is applied remains corstant (or nearly constant). ‘Consider the basic equation: pee Ae ‘Now Ap = Adm) and ifm is constanc tis can be rewritten as p = mAw ‘Therefore: may = ma The previous worked example could be solved using chis equation, rather chan the rate of change of momentum, Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideCano A car of mass 12 tonnes accelerates from Sms to 30ms*in 75s. Calulate the average accelerating force on the cat, Answer change in velocity _ 30 Peels acceleration = SEE (Convert the mass to kilograms, 120 1200ke force =mass x acceleration = 1200 x 33 = 4000N ‘This equation also gives a deeper insight into the concept of mass, You can see that the greater the mass of a body, the harder its to change its uniform velocity, You begin to see that mass isa measure ofthis reluctance to change’, orinertia. Newton's third law ‘The third law looks atthe interaction between two bodies. Ifbody A exerts a force on body B then body 8 will exert a force on body ‘A of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction. @) © ee ff} J \ ] Figure 41 (a) Two protons repel each other, (b) two magnets attract each other, (¢) the Earthand the Moon attract each other ‘The examples in Figure 41 show forces on two bodies of roughly equal size; it is easy to appreciate that the forces in each example ate of equal size. However, itisalso crue with objects of very different sizes. For example, when you jump ‘off a wall there isa gravitational pull on you from the Earth that pulls you down ‘owaids the ground (See Figure 4.2). What you do not think about is that you. ako pull the Earth upwards towards you with an equal sized force. OF course, the movement ofthe Earth is negligible because itis so much more massive than you are — but the force is still there ‘The child is pulled down by ‘the Earth with a force, W | nesonpmon Figure 4.2 Interaction between two bodiesLinear momentum and its conservation n of momentum Certs) ‘One of the useful results chat can be developed fromm Newton's third law is ‘hat momentum is conserved in any interaction. This means that the total momentum of a closed system (that is,a system on which no external forces act is the same after an interaction as before, ‘Consider two bodies that move towards each other, asin Figure 43, and then stick to each other after the collision. Positive direction game! gomst | , Or a i aa Trill a naly Figure 4.3 Collision between two bodies total momentum before the colision = total momentum after the collision If we consider the positive direction to be from left to right: (20x 38)+G0x -40)=5y -44= 50 0.88ms" ‘The negative sign means that the velocity after che collision is from right to left. ‘A formal statement of the law é 2s follows The total momentum of a closed system before an interaction is equal to the total momentum of that system after the interaction. Collisions in two dimensions ‘The example above considers a heacL-on collision, where all the movement isin single direction. The law applies equally if there isa glancing collision and the two bodies move offin different directions. In this type of problem the momenta must be resolved so that the conservation of momentum be ‘considered in two perpendicular directions ot Before collision After collsion Figure 46 o— Figure 44 shows a disc A of mass mia, with a velocity u, moving towards a stationary dsc B of mass mg. The discs collide. After the collision disc A moves off with velocity vg at an angle @ to its original velocity and disc B moves with a velocity vp at an angle of @ to the original velocity of A. ‘Momenta parallel tu momentum before colsion = mau ‘momentum after colliion = mav,cos@ + mahgcos @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘Therefore: gu =m,v,cos0 + mscos ED , -Momenca perpendicular © Theanglsat which A and 8move | ‘momencum before colson = 0 mus both be measured inthe , fame dretion ound the re; rmomencum ater colison = myyqsin@ + myiysing i Eee Therefore: direction is chosen. This makes erie epoca O= mavasin 8+ mgrysing eat noeiaee ‘A particle moves towards stationary partie of equal mass, with a velocity u of 2.00ms". After the collision one partie moves (ff with velocity 100ms ar an angle of 0 ro the orginal velocity The second particle moves off with a velocty of magninude “V73ms-1. Calculate the angle the second particle makes withthe original velocity. Answer Momenta parallel to Therefore: momentum before collision 0 =1.00rn sin60 + musing momentum after cllsion = 10000360 + miycosp 0= 0866 +vasng Therefore: gS = 0.866 [equation 2] 2m= Loom cos60 + mycoep Divide equation 2 by equation =05 + vgc0s@ sng, ees 059 15 ugcosp=15 [equation 1] Set on Gace Momenta perpendicular tou. momentum before clision =0 momentum after collision = 1.00msin60 + mivasin Beart) Elastic Ian elastic interaction not only is momentum conserved but kinetic energy is also conserved. On the macroscopic scale this s rare. However, many interactions do approximate to being perfectly elastic and the mathematics of ‘an elastic interaction can be used to model these. On the microscopic scale, for ‘example, the collision between two charged particles such as protons can be considered to be elastic Iris worth noting chat in any perfectly elastic collision the relative speed of approach before the interaction is equal to the relative speed of separation after the interaction. A good example of this s the nearly elastic inceraction of a golt ball being struck by the much more massive club (Figure 45). ‘golf club approaches ‘The dub continues to move at a velocity of very nears) v. The ball moves off at @ speed the ball at a veloaty of v. cf (nearly) 2v. The speed of separation of the ball from the dub is equal to the speed of ‘approach of the club to the ball Figure 45 An elastic collision Inelastic Ian inelastic collbion some ofthe initial kinetic energy is converted into other forms, such as sound and intemal energy. The kinetic energy is less after the ‘olision than before ic Asin all collisions, momentum is conserved, There are ry a 5 S S > =) <)rnuimerous examples and degrees of inelastic colsion — from neatly perfectly elastic, such as one billard ball scrking another, to two bodies sticking cogether, such as two identical trolleys colcing and sticking together as shown in Figure 46. Certs) ———+v Pin Cork —> "v ‘One trolley moves towards a second ‘The two tralleys stick together and identical stationary trolley with aspeed v. move off with a combined speed of tiv. Figure 4.6 An inelastic collision ‘Worked example Ernst A plier of mass 0.20kas moving at ms onan ai rack towards a second ‘Note thac each step in the explanation alder of mass 025ke, which & moving at 20ms“in the opposte deston. is clearly explained and thatthe final When the two gliders colide they stick togethes. comment completes the answer {@) Calculate thet joint velocity after the coision. (Show thatthe collsion is inelastic. xp Answer ‘An elastic collision between two equal @ momentum before the eolsion = (0.20 x 36) + (025 x -20) masses always leads to the two masses somes having velocities after the collision, - that are perpendicular to each other. momentum after the collsion = (0.20 + 0.25)v = 0454, where vs the velocity Wisc beckto ie eee eae ofthe two gliders after the eolsion ‘on page 31, which involves an elastic ‘momentum after che collsion = momentum before che collision ccolision. 022= 0450 Mee (nee) (kinetic energy before the colin = (x02 « 342) + (5 025 20%) Werk tina paler Caton 13405=18) ves a key term from this chapter, kinetic energyafter the colsion = 0x 045 x 0%) ~ 0054 and the other gives an explanation iinet CH AA OA) 0054) Of the term. Change places until ll the key terms have been covered. Do thisat the end of every chapter “The kinetic energy after the calsion isles than the kinetic energy befare the callsion, therefore che cellsion is inelastic. Now test yourself ‘Avbal-bearing falls ata constant speed through oil. Name the forces acting on it magnitude of the resultant force an it. ‘Acar of mass 1200kg accelerates from rest to 18ms~ in 6.35. Calculate: athe acceleration of the car b the average resultant force acting on ic the momentum of the car when itis travelling at 18s“ the vertical direction and state the ‘ball of mass 250 travelling at T3ms-* collides with and stick toa second stationary ball of mass 4008, Calculate the speed ofthe balls after the impact. 'b Show whether or not the collision is elastic. 4 Adis of mass 24 kgis moving at a velocity of 6.0ms“'at an angle of 40* west of north. Calculate its momentum in: a the western direction bb the northem direction Answers on p.215, @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideS 5 Forces, density and pressure Types of force In your work before AS you will have met the idea of a force being a push or a pull. You should now recognise the slightly more sophisticated idea that a force ‘cauises, or tends to cause, a change in the velocity of a body. ‘You have met various types of force already. Here is alist ofthe types of force ‘with which you should be familiar: (© gravitational forces © electric forces © upthrust or buoyancy forces © frictional and viscous forces Cee tees a | ‘Ammass in a gravitational field experiences a force. You have already seen that the ‘Sze of che force depends on the strength of the gravitational field and the mass ‘ofthe object: F=me ‘where Fis force (or weight), m is mass of the body and gis the gravitational field srength Neat the Farths surface (or any planerary-sized body) the gravitational field is ‘uniform, Therefore, che gravitational force s the same wherever the body is placed near the planet's surface. Consequently, the body wil fall with a conscant ‘acceleration (ignoring air resistance). Near the Earths surface the gravitational field is approximately 98 Nkg”. This will cause any object to fall with an ‘acceleration of 98m? The gravitational field near che Moon is 16N kg ‘Consequently, an object near the Moon's surface wil fall towards the Moon's surface with an acceleration of 16ms® Feet sed A charged object will experience forces due to other charged objects nearby. ‘The behaviour of a charged object in @ uniform electric felis investigated in Topic 10, Urine nane Bodies wholly or partly immersed in fluids experience an upthrust cue to the sighcly cliferenc pressures exerted on their ower and upper surfaces. This is ‘explored further on page 39. Forces, density and pressure @)fe FI a Fe 2 a a] € a > 2 rf = 3 a] ¢ 3 & G 2 vy Frictional forces have already been discussed. The term ‘rction’ is usually applied. ‘where chere is resistance ro motion due to contact between two solids. arises because no two surfaces are perfectly smooth and the lumps in them tend to interlock when thete is relative movement between the bodies (Figure 5.1) ‘Wooden, block Table Magnified view showing the roughness of the two surfaces ‘and how they inteclock Figure 5.1 Frictional forces The term Viscous tends to be used when fluids (liquids and gases) ae involved, Itis the difference in viscosity that makes water flow much more quickly than ‘il Sirilarly, the vscous forces on a body travelling through oil are much larger than those on an object traveling through water. Gases tend to produce far less viscous drag than liquids. Even so, ac high speeds the viscous drag on cars and aircraft is significant, Turning effects of forces Moment of a force ‘The turning effect ofa force about a point (sometimes known as torque) is G@EEESUD) ‘ known as its moment about that point. When considering a single force, the force itself does not have a unique point about which the force is producing its turning effect must be specified. ‘moment. It all depends on the point | about which the force has a turning ‘The moment of a force about a point equals the force multiplied by the | effect. Therefore when referring to a perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from the point. ‘moment you should always refer to Consider a spanner turninga nut Figure 52) The force is not perpendicularto _ispelngabout which the moment i the spanner. Therefore either the component of the force perpendicular to the saa spanner or the perpendicular distance from the centre of the nut to the line oF action of the force must be used in the calculation, The perpendicular distance ‘ofthe line of accion of the 30N force from the cencre of the nut isthe distance x = 250520 = 235cm, Hence the torque about the centre of che nut is 30 x 235 = 705Nem. t 25cm Figure 5.2 Turing forces on a spanner, Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideIeis worth noting that torque is a vector Ifa torque that tends to turn a body in a clockwise sense is considered to be positive, then a torque that tends to cause the body to move in an anticlockwise sense is considered negative, iororens ‘Accouple is produced when two parallel forces of equal magnitude actin ‘opposite directions and have lines of action that do not coincide. You apply a ‘couple when you tum on a tap. When considering the torque ofa couple you do not need to worry about the specfc point that the torque is produced about. The torque is che same whatever point is chosen. The corque of the ‘couple is equal to the sum of the moments about any point of each of the two forces. torque of a couple = magnitude of one ofthe forces x perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces Accouple tends to produce rotation only. A single force may tend to produce Totation but it will always tend to produce acceleration as well (Fgure 53). = ed Sereno 6 ‘Acceleration of Ball Figure 5.3 (=) footballer kicks the ball, striking the side of the ball. (b) The ball accelerates but aso tends to rotate ina clockwise direction Equilibrium of forces Equilibrium Ifthe resltant force acting on a point object i zero then it fin equitrium. If however, the body is of finite size then che possi of rotational as well as ‘rarslational movement must be consicered. Fora body of finite size 10 be in equilibrium: ‘© the resultanc force on the body must be zer0 ‘© the resultant torque on the body must be zero Centre of gravity The weight of a body does not act froma single point but is spread through all the particles of the body. However, itis often convenient co consider the weight acting ata single point — this point is called the centre of gravity of the body. ‘ =i 3 FA 4 a 3 = a > 2 3 is o a] 3 2 G ir Py point through which allthe weight of ‘The centre of gravity of a bodys the ‘the body may be considered to act. ‘term used commonly in examinations iss uniform body: This ‘means that the centre of gravity ofthe body is at the geometric centre of the body. te CMU The principle of moments i a restatement of the second condition for a body be in equilibrium: For a body to be in equilibrium, the sum of the moments about any point ‘A useful way of using this when you are considering coplanar forces is to say ‘the -dockwise moments = the anticlockwise moments. =] Forces, density and pressure ®)Carns ‘A sudent has a uniform metre sur of weight 1.20N. He atcaches a weight of 150N at the 100cm point and places the ruler on a knife edge. He adjusts the knife edge unt the ruler balances, Deduce the position af the ke ede, Answer Drawa diagram ofthe setup (igure 54). soem — pe i a Fe 2 a a] € a > 2 rf ie 3 3 3 & G 2 vy 1.50N 1.20N Figure 5.4 ‘The ruler is uniform and therefore the centre of gravity isa its centre, Take moments about the pivor: clockwise moment = (50-2) 120Nem anticlockwise moment = (x~ 10) x 160Nem_ For equilibrium, the clackwise moments = the anticlockwise moments: (0-2) « 12=( 10) 15 78cm trea eget Ce) In the section on vectors you met the idea of using vector diagrams to add. vectors acting at different angles, and you also met the concept of resolving vectors into their component parts, Vector diagrams can also be used when @ body's in equilibrium. ‘Consider a lamp of weight W pulled to one side with a horizontal force F's that icrmakes an angle @ with che vertical, as shown in Figure $5. T r z Ww w| FE Draw the vectors Complete the triangle, w| Wand F ‘The thied side represents the tension T. ‘The diagram shows the forces ‘acting on the lamp. Tis the tension in the flex Figure 5.5 Forces in equilibrium Note the difference between this and using the triangle of forces to find the resultanc of two forces. This is a closed triangle, with all che arrows going the samme way round the triangle. This shows that the sum of these three forcesis, zero and that the body is in equilrium. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideCann ‘Ahelium balloon is tethered to the ground usinga cable that can withstand a maximum force of 100kN before breaking, The net upward force on the balloon due to its Buoyancy is 8.OKN (Figure 5.6) (Calculate the maximarn horizontal force the wind can produce on the balloon before the cable snaps, and the angle che cable makes with the vertical when chs force & applied, Answer Refer to Figure $7: 1 Dawa vertical arow of length 40cm to represent the tupthrust on the balloon, 2. Drawa horizontal construction line from the top of the vertical arrow. Separate theneedle and the pencil tip of your compasses by a dstance of 5 cm to represent the tension force in the cable. Place the needle on the bottom of the vertical ine and draw an arc to intersect with the horizontal construction line. Figure 5.7 4 Join from the intersection to the botworn ofthe vertical ine, This represents the tension inthe cable. 5. Draw an arrow to represent the horizontal force from the wind. ‘The length of the horizontal arrow = 30cm. Therefore che force due o the wind is 60%N, The angle with the vertical, measured with a protractor = 37° Scale: 2em = 1kN Forces, density and pressure 5 Forces, density and pressurepe i a Fe 2 a a] € a > 2 rf ie 3 3 3 & G 2 vy Density and pressure Q—________————_-ez_) You will have met the of density in eater work. ( " fou will have OILS SOY ET Density is the mass per unit volume: The unit of density i kilograms per metre cubed (kgm) or grams per es ‘centimetie cubed (gem) density (= Some (ass ‘A beaker has a mass of 48g When 120cm’ of copper sulfate solution are poured Inco the beaker it found to havea coral mass of 174g. Calculate the density of the copper sulfate solution, Answer rrass of copper sulfate solution = 174 48 = 126g, m_ 26 E105 gen" Pressure can easily be confused with force, the difference being that pressure phesnive' wiki hetrrel Ree per UE ‘considers the area on which a force acts, area: 4 Pressure is measured in newtons per metre squared (Nim), IN mis called pressure (o)= SS 1 pascal (Pa). It is sometimes convenient to use Nm”, \ Pressure, unlike force, isa scala. Therefore, pressure does not have a specific r >) 1 pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of 1 newton actng normally on an area of 1 metre squared. direction, Cans Coins are produced by sanping blank discs with a die The diameter ofa blank sdscis22cm and the pressure on the disc during camping is 2.8 x 10° MPa, Calculate the force required co push the die against the blank disc. Answer area of the coin 38cm? = 38x 104m? neaaF = n@22797 presse Hence force = pressure x area =28 x 105x 108 x 38x 10-4= 106% 10° Pressure in a liquid A liquid exerts pressure on the sides of its container and on any abject in the liquid, The pressure exerted by the liquid increases as the depth increases. Figure 5.8 shows a beaker containing a liquid of density p. =e Areaa SS Figure 5.8 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘The pressure on the area A is due to the weight of the column of water of height h above it welghhe= mass x g (where gis the gravicaional field strengh) mass of the colurin = density x volume, where the volume of the column of water =A xh mass of the column = px A xh weighc of the column = px A xh xg force _ weight pressure on area A = ORE area area =pxaxhek e ny pressure = phg Cares mens ‘Atmospheric pressure & 108 x 108 Pa, A diver descends to a depth of 24m in ‘The total pressure is equal to the seawater of densty 103 > 10° kgm, Calculate the total pressure on the dives pressure due to the water plus atmospheric pressure. Its easy to Answer forget to include atmospheric pressure, presaire due to seawater = hpg = 24 x 103% 108 x 98 = 242 x 105Pa teal pressure = 242 « 105+ 106% 10° = 348 x 103Pa (EEE (© Include these ‘must lea’ equations ‘You can now see how upthrust (or buoyancy force) is produced. Consider a ‘on your bedroom mirror ist: rectangular box in aliquid — the boctom of the box is ata greater depth chan mass the top, Thus the pressure on the bottom is greater than the pressure on the eT = ear, top. Since the two surfaces have the same area, che force on che bottom is force greater than the force on the top and the box s pushed upwards. pressure (p) = 2 Re es ‘A uniform picture of weight 3.6N is attached co a wall using a string as shown in Figure $9, Each end of the string makes an angle of 40° with the horizontal Calculate the tension in the string ‘Two forces oF 8ON act on either side ofa bolt head of diameter 24cm. Calculate the couple produced on the bolt. ‘A.umiform metre ruler is pivoted on the 30cm mark. When a mass of 0.20kg 5 hung from the 14cm mark the ruler balances, Calculate the mass ofthe rue. ‘A.niform metre rulers pivoted at its midpoint. weight of 600N is hung fiom the 30.0cm mark The rulers held in equilibrium by a string attached to the 10cm mark making an angle of 60° withthe ruler. Caleulte the tension in Figures.9 the string Oil of density 850kgiis poured into a measuring cinder toa depth of (0.300m. Calculate the pressure exerted on the base of the measuring cylinder bythe oll Answers on p.215 Forces, density and pressure 2 = E 4 i a ian] 5 > 2 a 2 Gy sc 3 y Gg 2 wn6 Work, energy and power Work and efficiency ea—_____ex) Work has.a precise meaning in physics and care must be taken when using this term. The uni of work isthe Joule (J) ‘Work is defined as being done when 9 force moves is point of application in Both force and displacement are vectors. Note that for work to be done there | the direction in which the fore acs. must be a component of the force that s parallel to the dispiacement. joule of works Seen ‘When calculating work done, care must be taken that the force and che ‘force of 1 newton moves its point of displacement are parallel, Consider a chi siding down a slide (Figure 61). application 1 metre in the direction of ‘the force, Child started here from resi 3.0m Weight = 250N Figure 6.1 ‘The force causing the child to move down the slope isthe child's own weight, 2S0N, which acts verticaly downwards. The cotal distance moved is § 0m but the displacement parallel to the force is only 301. So: ‘work done by the force = 250N x 30m = 750) Ieis worth noting that in this example the work is done on the child by gravity, rather than the child doing work. In general component of the force parallel to displacement work done = Fxcos@ work done = x the displacement ————-> Displacement Foose * Figure 62 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideCans Figure 63 stows a man wheeling a burrow. He applies force of ‘540 to the barrow in a direction 75’from the horizontal He moves the barrow 301m along level ground, Calculate the work he does against fection. Answer work done = Fcos@ work done Ey] ES 3 a 3 s 8 id 3 < S z= G = re) Energy is not an easy concept and, like work, ic has. precise meaning in physics. Like work, energy is measured in joules, When a body has 300] oF energy it means that it can do 300) of work. Different forms of energy are shown in Table 6.1. Energy is defined as the ability (or ‘apacity) to do work. Table 6.1 a a ee eerste tere Gravitational potential | The ability to do work due to the position of a body in ] a gravitational field [ Hastie potential |The ability to-do work due the deformation ofa body (e.g, a compressed or extended spring) Sound The ability to de work due tothe kinetic and potential energy of the vibrating particles ina sound wave Internal The sum ofthe random kinetic and potential energies of the molecules ina body. Hectieal potertel | The ablity to do work due tothe postion of a cherged particle in an electric field Chemical potential | The ability to do work due to potential energy of the particles making up substances Nuclear potential The ablity to do work due to the potential energy of the subatomic particles in the quelei of atoms Enna eernee ‘Machines are used to do work, converting energy from one form to another In practice, machines are never 100% efficent. This means that che total energy input is greater than the useful work output, Some of the energy input i, ‘converted to unwanted forms such as thermal energy and sound, useful work output total energy input Efficiency is quoted either asa ratio ora percentage. Consequentty efficiency has no units. efficiency of a machine = 100% Work eneray and power3 A a Bo] a ig Pr] 5 2 G ES re Cat A petrol moror used co hea bag of sand of mass 2700kg from the ground up roa window 12m above the graund. Eighteen per cent of che inpur energy Is converted inta gravitational energy of the sand. (9 Calculate the energy input to the motor. () Diccuss the energy changes involved in the process. c=D Answer ‘No attempt has been made to discuss ‘what happens inside the motor. ust wondone gh = 270038 1231750) Peto pete lime iso ioe ponueeaa tale bburme and puc under pressure, and the ‘conversion ofthis to kinetic energy = TSAO] w TEM ofthe oscillating piston, Attempts to discuss what happens inside the motor are unlikely to succeed and should be avoided. (©) The chemical potential energy ofthe petrol is converted into internal energy in the motar and 18% ofthis is used to do work against gravity in lifting the sand. “The remaindé i transferred to the surroundings as they are heated. (eimactuicisess ey | ‘The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of a closed system is constant. For examination purposes, you should explain this statement by saying that this, means that energy can be transformed from ane form to another bur it can nether be created nor destroyed — the total energy of a closed systern will be the same before an interaction as after it, When energy is transformed fram one form to another either: ‘© work is done — for example, a man does work againse gravity by lifting a large mass onto his shoulders or ‘© energy is radiated of received in the form of electromagnetic radiation — for ‘example, intemal energy is radiated away from the white hot filament of a lamp by infrared and light radiation Potential energy and kinetic energy Gravitational potential energy ‘Consider a mass m lifted through a height ht. ‘The weight of the mass is mg, where gis the gravitational field strength. ‘work done = force x distance moved. mghh Due 10 its new position, the body is now able to do extra work equal co mgd, Ichas gained extra potential energy, AW = mgd: change in potential energy = mgAh If we consider @ body to have zero potential energy when at ground level, we ‘can say chat gravitational potential energy (E,) = mgh @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideIn these examples we have considered objects close to Earth’s surface, where we ‘can consicer the gravitational field to be uniform. in your Aclevel stucties you wil ‘explore this Furcher and consider examples where the gravitational field fs not uniform, Kinetic energy ‘Consider a body of mass my, at rest, which accelerates to a speed of v over a distances ‘work cone in accelerating the body = force x distance Wats But MTA ieyMeU Cron ( =ma Im the equation v? = u? + 2as,u = 0. Hence: The body is now able co do excra work = Yomnv# due to ies speed. Ir has kinetic energy = Ysmv* (aero A cricketer bows aball of mass 160 gata speed of Zkmh", Answer Calculate the kinetic energy ofthe ball Convere the speed from koh"? to ms" 12490 x 1009 4 Okmb* = 120 x eEEms = ams ; Convere 160g t0 kg = O16kg. Yan? = Ye x O16 x 333 a) fae era ret is Thete are various types of potential energy, one being elastic potential energy (Sometimes teferred to as stain energy). When a force causes an object to change its stape, che particles of the body are either squashed together or Pulled apart, Therefore, they have extra potential energy. This is looked at in ‘quantitative terms in the section on deformation of solids. Power Power (Ps the rate of doing work or transforming energy. The unit of power is work done che wate (W). Power = time taken energy tansforred ‘There isa power of 1 watt when energy is transferred or work is done at ec the rate of 1 joule per second. (aero A pebble of mass 120gisfired from a caapulk. The pebble. Answer accelerates ftom resto 1Sms" in 04s Calculate the average og =012ke power gain ofthe pebble dunng the fing process. gain in kinexic energy = Yrv? =05 x 012 x 18 = 125) BS power gain = 32= 96w Work eneray and powerPower and velocity ‘Consider a car travelling at constant velocity v along a straight, level road. The engine must continue to da work against fiction. I the frictional force is, chen ‘he engine will supply an equal-sized force in the opposite direction, The work done by the engine, AW in time At is FAs, where AS i the dstance travelled in time Av: power = AS a uc AS - y cherefore: ‘at power = Fy Cans 3 A a Bo] a ig Pr] 5 2 G ES re Acylsts traveling alonga straight vel road ataconstant Answer velocity of 27am against total rctional forces of SON, Conver: the velocity from kmh" into ms Calculate the power developed by the cys, Dir a7 Parse ower = force x velocity =75x50= 375W Panmee nes ‘© Makes flow chart to show how the units and/or dimensions ofthe quantities in the following list are linked. acceleration energywork force length mass power time (© Include these ‘musteary’ equations on your bedroom mitra ist: work done = Frcos 6 Fp=mgh Ea korn? ‘efficiency ofa machine = eh werk oot 100% work done _ energy transformed Timetaken— timetaken power = Fu power Now test yourself 41 Anincline satan angle of 30" to the horizontal. force of 25N pulls a box 40m along the incline. Calculate: {the total work done by the force 'b the work done against gravity by the force € the gravitational potential energy gained by the box ‘ball of mass0.30kg intially at res falls fom a height of 25m. Ichts the ground ata speed of 18ms~1 Caleulate ‘the potential energy lost by the bal bb the kineric energy gained by the ball the work done against friction ‘Acris travelling ata steady 24ms- along a level road. The power output from the engine is 45 kW. Calculate the total fictional force on the car Answers on p.215, @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide7 Deformation of solids ‘You have already seen how forces produce changes in the motion of bodies they ‘can also change the shape of bodies. Forces in opposite directions will tend to ‘sretch or compress a body. iF two forces tend to stretch a body they are described ‘as tensile. iF they tend to compressa body they are known as compressive. Elastic and plastic behaviour Forces on a spring Figure 77(@) shows apparatus used to investigate the extension of a spring under a tensile force Figure 71(b) shows the results of che experiment. fa) (b) Foxin ia Force [_this region Extended > spring Original length > | apermanent ( - {extension OC Pointer (prevents of é Batension parallax errors) | law region Weights te Figure 71 ‘Analysing the results we see the following: © From © to A the excension of the spring is proportional to the applied force. © With larger forces from A to B, the spring excends more easily and the ‘extension is no longer proportional to the load. ‘© When the force is reduced, with the spring having been stretched beyond, point 8 ino longer goes back to its original length. From © to A, Fis proportional tox: Fax This can be written as an equality by introducing a constant of proportionality: Fe kx ‘where ks the conscant of proportionality, often known as che spring constant. The spring constant isthe force per unit extension. Its a measure of the -siffness ofthe spring. The larger che spring conscant, the larger isthe force ‘equited to stretch the spring through a given extension, The unit ofthe spring ‘constant is newton per metre (Nin-!) Deformation of solidsElastic deformation means that the the limit of proportionality. Very close to this poine, there isa poincB caled the | wat seturn to te oninal hope clastic limit. Up to the elastic limit, the deformation of the spring is sai v0 ‘whencthe loud lever Point A, the point at which the spring ceases to show proportionality is called | be elastic. we 4 Plastic deformation means thatthe ‘body will not return to its original shape Hooke’s law surns up che behaviour of many materials that behave in a similar | when the load is removed, nn, oe! manner to a spring: — Ifthe spring is svetched beyond the elastic limite wil not return co its original length when che load is removed. Its deformation is sid to be plastic. | The extension of a body is directly proportional to the applied force. Nove that Hooke’ law also applies to the compression of a body. In this case, the quantity x in the equation is the compression rather than the extension. ryt Ne CC mu ciel) Figure 72(a) shows the extension of a body that obeys Hooke's law. The work (a) done in screching the body is equal to force muliplied by distance moved. This is equal to the elastic potential enexgy in the body. However, the force is not F the maximum force — its the average force, which is 4F ic} 3 ‘S < ay a & = 2 a a ~ Load F clastic potential energy = Fx ‘This & the area ofthe triangle under the graph, The general rule, even when the extension is not propartional co the load, is Entension elastic potential energy = area under the load-extension graph ‘The equations above cannot be used with @ material that has been extended beyond the limic of proportionality (Figure 72b) or any macerial chat does not follow Hooke's law, However, the energy stored is sil equal to the area under the graph. Extension Figure 72 Stress and strain Figure 73(@) shows the apparatus that could be used to investigate the stretching of a wire. The readings that need to be taken are shown in Table 71. (a) (b) ual igeeme J | — oto uo oy Main scale. vere @ ‘Stress Figure 73 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideTable 7:1 fern Reason fan Lenath of wire Direct use ‘Metre ruler Diameter of wire Enables the cross-sectional area | Micrometer screw to be found gauge Initial and final readings | The difference between the two. | Vernier scale from the vernierslide _ | readings gives the extension Stress is defined as the force per unit cross-sectional area of the wire. Strain isthe extension per unit length of the unstretched wie, The graph obtained (Figure 736) i similar to that obcained for the spring, This shows the general nature of Hooke’ law Itis useful to draw the stress-strain graph (Figure 7), which gives general information about a particular material, rather than fora particular wite. a). The Py zy 9° 8 ‘S < oS S & £ G 3 a Ss ‘The unit of stress is newtons per metre squared or pascals (Nin formal symbol for stress is 6 (the Greek leer sigma} Scrain isa ratio and does not have unies. The forral symbol for serain ise (the ‘Greek leter epsilon). ‘The quantity stress/strain gives inforration about the elasticity of a material. This quantity is called the Young modulus. Young modulus = force (Pf asea (A) ‘extension (x) / length (L) A a “The unit of dre Young modulus isthe same as forstess — the pascal (Pa). Cass A force of 250 is applied to a steel wire oflenath 15m and diameter 060mm, (Calculate the extension ofthe wire (Young modulus for mild steel = 21 x 10" Pa} Answer (eens erosesectonal aes of the wre = (4) =n{ 285207 © Add the following musclean’ ef 2 ‘equations to your bedroom Youre medi mirr list Fok yy 250215 power? ats 0! “283 «107 x AL ast 25015, Young modulus = sain Asse aI = 63 102m=63mm Young modulus: Now test yourself A spring when unloaded hasa length of 15.0cm. A load of 2.4N is placed on the spring and its length increases to 214m, Calculate the spring constant of the spring. b Calculate the energy stored in the spring when iis stretched toa length of 23.0cm. ‘Awire of diameter 4.0 x 10-'m supports a load of 48N. Calculate the stress in the wire Calculate the strain on a wire of unstretched length 2.624m which is stretched so that ts length increases to 2.631. ‘Armild stee wie of length 150m and diameter 0.76mm has a Young modulus of 21GPa, Calculate the extension ofthe ire when i caries a lead of SN. Answers on p.215 Deformation of solidsRAEN 3 In this course you will meet various types of wave, Waves are a way of storing energy (stationary waves) and transferring energy from one place to another (progressive waves). Progressive waves ‘Waves are formed when particles vibrate about a mean position. Waves can be observed in many different situations, Waves are formed on the surface of ‘waver when the water is disturbed, eicher by an abject falling into the water ‘or by the wind blowing actoss the surface of the water. Waves can also be ‘observed when a long spring is shaken from side to side or back and forth, as shown in Figures 8.2 and 83 on page 50 Figure 81 shows @) the displacement ofa particle ina wave against time and (b) the dsplacemenc of ll the particles a a particular moment in time ‘Displacement () ofa partie i its distance from its equilibrium postion, The univis che metre () ‘¢ Amplitude (,) is the maximum dlsplacement ofa particle from is equilbrkim postion. The unit is the metre (ri) ( | ‘ hertz is one complete oscilation per ‘© Period (T) is the time caken for one complete osclation ofa particle in the | second, An oxcllation is one complete ‘wave. The unit isthe second (6), vibration of a partide — for examole, ‘© Frequency (f) of a wave is the number of complete oscillations oF a particle | from its mean position tothe position in the wave per unit time, The unic is the hertz (+2). cof maximum displacement in one direction, back to the rean position, ‘then to maximum displacement in the ‘opposite direction and finally back 19 ‘the mean position. ‘© Wavelength (1) isthe distance between points on successive oscilations of the wave that are vibrating exactly in phase. The unit is the metre (mn). ‘© Wave speed (0) isthe distance traveled by the wave energy per unit time, The umicis the metre per second (ms!) \ w sain wo Ic s easy to confuse these two graphs. ee ee Displacement describes the variation of displacement ha See 4 the varlacion of displacement with Figure 8.1 (a) Displacement of a particle in a wave against time, (b) displacement (ofall the particles ata particular moment in time Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideFrequency and period are related by the equation oe CRE UCR er} The speed ofa partic is given by the equation: distance 6 (9 = sistance eS ae Similarly wave speed —sitance craved by the wave time In time T, the period of oscilation, the wave travels one wavelength, Hence: eS see eevee RCL Progressive waves transfer energy. This can be seen with waves on the sea — ‘energy is picked up from the wind an one side of an ocean and is carried across the ocean and dispersed on the other side. as the wave crashes onto a shore, Intensity is defined as the energy transmitted per unit time per unit area at Tight angles to the wave velocity. Energy transmitted per unit time is the power transmitted, so that intensity = POE area The unit is watts per metre squared (Wm-2) ‘The intensity of a wave is proportional to the square ofthe amplitude of the wave: Tex? This means that ifthe amplitude is halved, the intensity is decreased by a factor of? (aero ‘The intense of ight From a sal amp is versely proportional to the square of the distance ofthe obser from the amp, that oe 1. Observer Ais 1.0m from the lamps observer Bi 4m from te lamp. Cakulste how the amples ao thelighc wares recived by the owo observers carnpare Answer 1a incensity oft at B= (1) (=) ofthat at A incesity = ampitude? Therefore amplinide x finensty 1 amplitude at = 77 ofthatat A amplitude ac B = 14 tharat A RET) (ens Acar horn produces a note of frequency 28012. Sound travels ac a speed of 320ms- Calculate the wavelength ofthe sound. Answer c= 320 = 2804 ‘There are no simple formulae that you. can apply here. You need to ensure that you understand the physics and ‘then work through in a logical fashion. WivesTransverse and longitudinal waves In mechanical waves, particles oscillate about fixed points, When a wave passes along 2 rope, the particles ofthe rope vibrate a ght angesto the recon of | Sirsteat right angles tothe dection transfer of energy of the wave. Water waves can also be considered to behave in| CP ante of energy a similar manner. Ths type of wave is called 2 transverse wave (se2 Figure 8.2). | J (na transverse wave the particles ERENT xelissone otparsces Hane Dreconel Figure 8.2 Transverse wave Sound waves are rather different. The particles vibrate back and forth parallel (© | Ina longitudinal wave the particles if trans f af 2 fe ‘he direction of cransfer of energy of the wave. This forms areas where the aie eee particles are compressed together (compressions) and areas where they are spaced futher apart than normal (rarefactions). This type of wave iscaled a | Ye"ster of energy. longitudinal wave (Figure 8.3). In a compression the particles are loser together than normal, retsvene Ina rarefaction the particles are Sa. further apart than normal. Hina PI 0NUIAHE NGI Figure 8.3 Longitudinal wave Determination of frequency and wavelength of sound waves ‘The frequency of a sound wave can be measured using a cathode-ray ‘oscilloscope. The apparatus for this experiment is shown in Figure 8.4 Cathodevay Signal cocilloscope generator Loudspeaker Microphone Figure 8.4 Measuring the frequency of sound wave ‘The period of the wave can be determined from the time-base setting and the number of waves shawn on the screen (frequency = ‘Yperiod). ‘The measurement of wavelength of sound waves is discussed on page S6. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide(ee In Faure &¢, the time base is set at Sins div, Calculate the frequency ofthe wave, Answer Infour divisions there are 25 waves, “Therefore, in 4 x Sms = 20ms there ae 35 waves. Theeiore 20 ms =57 «107s period (time for 1 wave) = WSHe The Doppler effect Listen to the pitch of a police siren as a police car approaches and passes you. ‘You will observe that on approach the pitch is higher than when the caris scationary, and on leaving you the pitch is lower. Ths is known as the Doppler effect. Figure 8S shows the wave fronts spreading (2) froma stationary source and (b) from a moving source, Notice how the wave fronts from the moving source ‘are much closer in front of the source, giving a shorter wavelength and higher frequency. Behind the source, the waves are Further apart than normal, giving a longer wavelength and lower frequency, © Figure 8. (a) Waves spreading our from a stationary source; (b) waves spreading ‘out from a moving source The telationship between the observed frequency and the source frequency is given by the formula: ae hag % ‘where f, is the observed frequency, fs the source frequency, v is che velocity of the waves and v, is the relative velocity of the source and observer. ) Velocity of source: (ars A loudspeaker connected to a signal generator produces a steady note of Frequency 256 He, An observer moves towards the loudspeaker ac a speed of 25m" Calelate the frequency ofthe sound chat the cbserer hears (peed of sound = 330ms-!) Answer a, 6x0 oi, f- vty, 330-25 sate ‘Uses much ofthe screen as posible toreduce uncertainties, ‘One wavelength is from one peak {or one trough) ta the next peak (or rough). ‘The Doppler effect is the change in frequency of waves due to the relative ‘motion of the wave source and the observer, emma! Ifthe source and the observer are ‘moving towards each other, the frequency increases and a minus sign Is used in the denominator of the ‘equation. IFthe source and observer are moving apart, plus sign is used, leading ta lower frequency. All waves, not just sound waves, ‘exhibit the Doppler effect. The ectromagneti radiation from galaxies shows a decrease in the frequencies in their spectra — known asthe redshift. The fainter the galaxy the greater the Doppler shift, which suggests that the Further away a galaxy isthe faster it is moving away from the Earth, This ives us evidenee for the | expansion of the Universe, RET) woes @)ERENT Electromagnetic spectrum ‘You have met the idea of energy being transferred by giving out and receiving radiation. This radiation consists of electromagnetic waves. The waves described carer are causec by the vibration of atoms or molecules. Electromagnetic waves are quite different — they are procticed by the repeated variations in electric and rragnetic fields Electromagnetic waves have the arvazing property of being able to travel through a vacuum, You see light (a form of electromagnetic wave) ‘hat has travelled through billions of kilometres of empty space from distant stars. Flectromagnetic radiation comes at many different frequencies. Table 81 lists different types of electromagnetic radiation and their approximate wavelengths ina vacuum Table 8.1 Types of electromagnetic radiation eure wavelength in a vacuum/m | Pr eed 10° to 10°" Produced by the disintegration of atomic nuclet, very penetrating, causes ionisation, affects living tissue 10" 107 Produced from rapidly decelerated electrons; properties similar to gamma-rays, the oniy rea difference isin their method of production Utraviolet | 10-Fto 4 x 107 lonising radiation affects living tissue, simulates the production of vitamin D in mammals Visiblelight [4x 107 to7 x 107 ‘Stimulates light-sensitive ces on the retina ofthe human (and other animals) eye Infrared [7 x 10? to 103 Has a heating effect and is used for heating homes and cooking Microwaves | 10-$t0 107 Used in microwave cooking where it causes water molecules to resonate; also used in telecommunications, including mobile telephones Radio waves | 10-1 105 Used in telecommunications Ieis important to recognise that there are no sharp boundaries between these {ypes of radiation. The properties gradually change as the wavelength changes. For example itis not possible to give a precise wavelength at which radiation is no longer ultraviolet and becomes X-radiation, ‘One property chat these radiations have in common is that they all travel at the same speed in a vacuum —a speed of 30 x 108ms-". Consequently, you know radiations frequency, you can caklate its wavelength in a vacuum, Carns “The shortest wavelength thatthe average human eye can detect s approximately 4x 107m which les atthe violet end of the spectrum. Calculate the frequency of this igh. Answer cafh Therefore a Se 300104 56 sohie §-DAT £15 «Mts ® Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guideenna {© List the key terms in this chapter on pieces of card, Write out the meaning ‘of each key term on separate pieces of card. Shuffle the two sets of cards ‘and then try to match each key term with its definition, ‘© Add the following ‘must earn’ equations to your list: Now test yourself RET) Tested 1. a Aspectral nein the sodium spectrum hasa frequency of 5.08 x 10H, Calculate the wavelength ofthe light. (Speed of light ina vacuum = 3.00 x 108ms") Suggest che colour ofthis light. 2 The time base ofa cathode ray oscilloscope is set at Smsdiv~, A student observes that 25 waves cover 4 complete divisions Calculate the frequency ofthe sound. 3 When studying light from a distant galaxy, a scientist observes that the frequency ofthe spectral ine in Question 1 hasa Doppler shit of -042 x 10!*He. Caleulae the speed at which the galaxy is moving away from Earth. Answers on p.215 wows @)9 Superposition _— Stationary waves ‘op ‘that when two or more waves meet at To understand the formation of stationary waves, you need co understand the | point, the resultant displacement at nciple of superposition. ‘that points equal tothe algebraic sum Prnepie of supers of the indvidual waves at that point, eee Uirs = Moving along a progressive wave, the vibrating particle are slightly out oF step with each other — there is @ phase difference between them (Figure 9.1), Displacement Distance Figure 9.1 Phase difference ‘Study Table 91, which describes the phase relationships between the different points on the wave in Figure 91 Table 9.1 Phase relationships ete) Phase difference/ | Phase difference’ | to describe the phase Points | degre eo difference PandR | 360 0r0 moro In phase PandQ | 180 7 Exactly out of phase (ariphase) RandS | 90 Yon 90° or Yan out of phase Phase difference also describes how two sets of waves compare with each ‘other. Figure 9.2 shows two sets of waves that are approximately 45° (Yat) out of phase, Phase difference is measured in degrees in AS work, You will meet racian measurements in Topic 14 (page 97). Displacement Time Displacement Time Figure 9.2 ‘The formation of a stationary wave requires two waves of the same type and. frequency travelling in opposite directions to meet. Superposition can then Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘occur, When the two waves ate exactly in phase they will reinforce to give maximum displacement. When they are exactly out of phase (180) they will subtract, giving minimum displacement. When the phase cifference is not 0° or 180% the resulcant displacernene will vary according to the exact phase difference ‘ofthe 1H waves. < iC) =} 4 a P= 7] fey FI] 7) Cy Ret UCN MT cet eieg Td IF you pluck a stretched string at its centre, it vibrates at a definite frequency, as shown in Figure 93. Thisis an example ofa stationary wave. tis produced by the initial wave traveling along the string and reflecting atthe ends Ic will die away because energy is lose {0 the surroundings, for example by hitting air molecules and producing a sound. “Vibration of string ‘wave. This wave, where there is ust a single loop, is called the fundamental ‘wave or the first harmonic ts wavelength is twice the length of the string, ‘A different stationary wave can be set up by plucking the string at points A Figure 9.3 Fundamental wave, or frst and B (Figure 9.4). Note that the midpoint of the string has zero amplitude. This _ harmonic point is called a node. The points of maximum amplitude are called antinodes The frequency of this wave is twice that of the previous wave and its wavelength ishalf that of the fundamental. is called the second harmonic. ‘These waves die away quickly as energy is transfered to the surroundings. They ‘can be kepe going by feeding energy inco the system (Figure 95) Vibration of string Vibrator S o Figure 9.4 Second harmonic Figure 9.5 A vibrator feeds energy into the system ‘Varying the frequency of the vibrator produces a whole series of harmonics, The first three ate shown in Figure 96. Each harmonic consists ofa whole number of half wavelengths. L Remember that the distance between adjacent nodes, or between adjacent L L antinodes, is halfa wavelength, nat a full wavelength, Figure 9.6 A series of harmonics, Stationary waves ir columns ‘Sound waves can produce stationary waves in air columns. A small loudspeaker ‘ora tuning forks used to feed energy into the system (Figure 9.) CS ‘The diagrams with sound waves are / at, gg kt _,. | patisserie tu displacement against postion along fork the tube. Students often interpret them as showing a transverse Wave == Sound waves are longitudinal, so the Fundamental 2nd harmonic ‘3rd harmonic depaeloorek pone reg deal asd af the tube nat, os the dlagrams can it f= 3if suggest, perpendicular C0 it Figure 9.7 perp ahFJ Differences between stationary waves and progressive f=])) waves Faj)) Some cifferences between stationary and progressive waves are given in ER Tables. 3 ET) Table 9.2 = Posiesive wie SAN) | Energy's stored in the vibrating Energy is transferred from one place to oy | particles another ‘All the points between successive |All the points over one wavelength nodes are in phase hhave diferent phases The amplitudes of different points vay |All he points along the wave have the froma maximum to zero same amplitude Measurement of the speed of sound Air & Tube Water Figure 9.8 Measuring the speed of sound ‘Apparatus for measuring the speed of sound is shown in Figure 98. The height @ayEpRs ‘of che tube is adjusted until che fundamental stationary wave is formed. This can be identified by a clear increase in the loudness of the sound produced. The SE endinele at Ue sop ore tae lenge Ls measured, The tube then moved upwards until the next stationary MSE Devend the cap ofthe tbe, This ‘wave is formed and the new length L, is measured. The wavelength is equal to teallowed for Subapetng TaS. 2{La— Lf tbe frequency ofthe tuning forkis known, the speed ofthe sound readings eliminates the end correction, in the ar column can be calculated using the wave equation, c= f2. Z Cans [A tuning fork of frequency 288 Hz produces a stationary wave when a tube of air's285cm long, The length of the tube is gradually increased and the next stationary wave is formed when che tube is &40cn long Calculate the seed of sound in the tube, Answer YA = (840 285) = 555em A=Wen=1m c= fA = 288 101 = 320mst Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideDiffraction ‘When waves pass through an aperture they tend to spread out Similarly, if ‘waves go round an abject they tend to spread round it Figure 99 shows ‘wavefronts passing through a narrow slit and through a wide sit, and round an object. Thisis called diffraction. Awavefrontis an imaginary line on ‘wave that joins points that are exactly inphase, itd ‘Small aperture Large aperture Figure 9.9 Wave diffraction Interference reticence ‘When two sets of waves of the same cype meet, their displacements add or subtract in a similar way to vectors. At ts most simple, if the two sets of waves ‘are exacty in phase, the combined wave has an amplicude equal to the sum ‘of the two amplitudes. This is known as constructive interference (see Figure 910). Ifthe two sets of waves are 180" out of phase (in antiphase) the wo waves ‘will subtract: Thisis known as destructive interference. If the original amplitudes are equal there will be no disturbance. Interference isan example ‘of superposition. ee VV = In phase ‘Amatunie doe oe ab : Sus of phase Aapliude zero For sources to be coherent the waves must have the same frequency and have & constant phase difference. For interference to occur, two coherent sources of waves are required. in Figure 9.10 Constructive and destructive interference Interference of sound Interference of sound waves can be demonstrated using two loudspeakers driven by the same signal generaror giving coberent waves (Figure 917) < 5 2 3 ry S 3 a 3 rt aLouespenters = Quiet = Quiet <4 PoincA © Poin B # Point ¢ SI 3 = a 3 3 = oy iy =} a) ry + Paine Figure 9.11 ‘@ Aloud sound isheard at A as waves from the two loudspeakers have travelled equal cistances and are in phase. Therefore, the waves interfere constructively ‘© A quiet sound is heard at B as waves from the upper loudspeaker have travelled halfa wavelength further than waves from the lower speaker. Consequently, the waves are in antiphase, so they interfere destructively. ‘© A loud sound isheard at ¢ as waves from the upper loudspeaker have travelled a full wavelength further than waves from the lower speaker. The ‘waves are now in phase and so interfere consvuctively. ‘© A quiet sound is heard at D as waves from the upper loudspeaker have travelled one-and-a-half wavelengths further than waves ftom the lower speaker. The waves are now in antiphase, so interfere destructively, Use RUAN SK Water waves can be shown interfering by using a ripple tank (Figure 9.12). The ateas of calm water (destructive interference) and rough water (Conscructive interference) can be viewed on the shadow image formed on the caling. Alternatively, they can be seen directly by looking almost pall to the surface of the water Ripple tank Part of the shadow cast A by the nipples Figure 9.12 Ure ea) Early atvempts to demonstrate interference of ight were doomed to failure because separate light sources were used. A lamp does nor produce a continuous ape train of waves — it produces a series of short trains, The phase diference between one tran and the nex israndom (Figure 913) Hence fine rom = GQ) WADA nan, ‘wo separate sourcess mixed, they are not coherent, there sno continuing NANA, relationship between che phases and an ‘average brightness is observed. Figure 913 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘To successfully demonstrate interference, light from a single monochromatic source oflight must be split and chen recombined, with the two parts travelling sight lferent distances (Figure 914). < 5 2 Fd ry S 3 a 3 rt a Monochromatic light source Figure 9.14 Demonstrating incerference using light from a single monochromatic source ‘The wavelength of light is very shore (10-7 m). Consequently, che distance a between the sits must be small <1 mmr) and the distance D from the sls to the screen must be large (#11) For constructive interference the path difference between the contributions from the two slits is ax/D, where x isthe distance between adjacent bright fringes. So: olf Cans Light of wavelenath 590nm i incident on a pair ofnarow sits, An interference pattern fs observed on a screen 1.5m anay. A student observes and measures 12 interference fringes, over a distance of 21am. Calculate the separation ofthe wots, Answer 75cm = 175 x 103m, 9 4x15 % 10? 15 = 500X107 x15 TST 590% 10 =51x 104m Note that the colour of ligt is dependent on its frequency. in general, for ‘coherence we expect a single frequency, and therefore single wavelength. In practice, when using white light (a whole range of colours) a few coloured fringes can be observed as the different wavelengths interfere constructively and destructively indifferent places. Tatra Ciera} The effect of using more than cwo sits to produce an interference pattern is ‘to make the maxima sharper anc! brighter. The more sits there are the sharper and brighter ate the maxima. This makes it much easier co measure the distance between maxima,Fj | The path difference between contributions from successive sits is dsin@. where Qe laine) BS)) isthe distance between successive sits. Hence fora maximum: The multislc device scalled a B dain diffraction grating, which i rather 3 confusing, Although the spreading 25) where nisa whole number. The fst raximum (7 = 1) is sometimes caled the of theligh (diffraction) is required EN) first order (Figure 915. for interference, this is really an a interference grating. = a : screen By co] Festa i i Incident light Central —F maximum | — Figure 9.15 (es Calculate the angles at which the frscand second maxima are formed when a ‘menechromatc ight of wavelength 72 x 107m isshane perpendicular onto a srating with 5000 ines per cm. Answer d= hoem=2 x 10-4em=2 10m a= “ For the frst maxiraum Revision activities A=dsind Add the following ‘mustlearn’ ions fo your Ist 036 Ee ae eed D For the second maximum: gh saane bh dane © Write down all the equations in = 3 tis chapter and relate them to the 2422x107 gp Srecpi ance Teer Te For example, nf. = din 6s used in ‘multipleslc diffraction. ‘Atuning fork of frequency 216H2 i struck and held above the open end ofa resonance tube. The firs resonance peak is produced when the tube length is adjusted to 361 mm. The second resonance peak is found when the tube has a length of. 065mm. Calculate the speed of sound. Laser light of wavelength 291m is incident on a pair of narrow slits. An interference pattern is observed on a screen 2.50m away, The distance between the central and the 20th interference fringes is 12em. Calculate the separation of the slits, ‘Adiffraction grating has 12500 lines per centimetre. When monochromatic light is shone on the grating the frst ‘maximums found to be at an angle of 30° to the central maximum, Calculate the wavelength of the light. Answers on p.215, @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide10 Electric fields Concept of an electric field ‘An electric field is region in which charged bodies experience a force. >} bee Electric field strength is the SesnaeH Tet force per unit positive charge on a stationary point charge. which can be waitcere eek Q ‘The unit of electric field strength is newzons per coulomb (NC. \_ enn ‘We can represent the shape ofan electric field by drawing lines of force (igure 102). In an electric field the lines represent the direction of the force on & -srall positive tes: charge. When drawing an electric field © the direction of electric field lines is away from postive charges and towards ‘negative charges ‘© the loser the field line, the stronger the field strength © the field lines never touch nor cross Uniform field @ = yy Radial (oy CHT tity ‘es ees Fy ase Sy een Positively charged sphere ‘Two oppositely charged spheres Figure 10.1 shapes of electri feds Uniform electric fields You can see from Figure 10:12) that once we get away from the edges of the plates, the field between to parallel plates is uniform. This means that ‘wherever a charged particle is placed between those plates it experiences the ‘same magnitude of force in the same direction. Calculating forces on charges ‘The electric field strength between the plates is given by the formula: v ra d ‘where Vis the potential diference and d is the ciscance between the plates. ‘Note that this means that an alternative way of expressing the unit for electric field strength (NC) is voks per metre (Vim-"). Electric fieldscontradicts the idea ofa uniform field The force on che charged particle isthe same wherever i is between the two plates. [Worked example 2 A piece of dust carries a charge of -48 x 10-"*C, and lies at rest between two. Icis often thought that the force on PE |_| vara pats separate by a ditance of 15cm, Cakulare te force oncheciatge_ | a positively charged particle between So) | wher a potential ference of 4500 is applied across the plates, two parallel, charged plates is stronger 5 wen nearer one of the plates than g when ics midway between the Pa 4 plates. Thisis incorrect — indeed it = = 300000 x (-48) x 10-1 = 146 10°2N Effect of electric fields on the motion of charged particles ‘A charged particle in an electric field experiences 2 force and therefore tends 1 accelerate Ifthe particle is stationary or ifthe field is parallel to the motion ‘ofthe particle, the magnitude of the velocity will change. An example is when electrons are accelerated fram the cathode cowards the anode in a cathode-ray tube (Figure 10.2) Hot cathode Hlectrons ‘Anode Rei 7 Add the following mustiearn’ ‘equations to your lst: fre Figure 10.2 Principle ofa cathode-ray tube Ifthe field isa right angles co the velocity of the charged particles, the direction ‘of the motion of the particies will be changed. The path described by the ae ee charged particles will be parabolic (Figure 103), the same shape as.a projectile ina uniform gravitational field, The component of the velocity perpendicular to the field is unchanged; the component parallel to the field increases uniformly. The conscant force on the charged particle leads to it describing a parabolic igure 10.3 The path ofa protonasi path. This path is similar to that ofa ball thrown horizontally ina uniform irauigha onlin ecm ‘gravitational Fld. pes Now test yourself Calculate the force on an electron when it sin an electric field of field strength T4kNC* (the charge on an electron e i616 x 10-0). ‘There isa potential difference of 5.0 kV across two parallel plates that are 2.0cm apart: Calculate the electric field strength between the plates. State the effect on the electric field strength in question 2 of using plates of two times the area of the original plates bb moving one of the plates so that their separation is halved Answers on p.215, ® Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide11 Current of electricity Electric current ez) {tis important to be clear about the meanings of the diferent terms used in electricity (Table 111). Table 11.1 Terms used in electricity Current () | Movement af electre charge ampere (A) Charge(Q)_| Bits of elecricity* coulomb (C) Potential | Work done m moving a unit positve | volt (V) difference (V) | charge from one place to another place Resistance (A) | The opposition tocurrent, defined as | ohm) potential difference/current “This isnot a formal definition of charge. The concept of the nature of charge is quite complex. t can only be explained fully in terms ofthe interactions - ) between charges and between charges and electri felds. However the realty | (“charge passing a point = current x isnot that ifferent. The smallest charge that encountered isthe chargeon | | Sree nies phwh theconent an electron (-1.6 x 10-190), We can consider charge tobe bitty‘ initsrature. | | Physicists describe this as charge being quantised. , ae fetneuheusksiae) = | ‘When a circuit is completed the currents sec up in the circuic almost immeciately. The current front moves at (or near) the speed of electromagnetic, radiation (3 x 10 ms") Iris a mistake co think that the charge carriers electrons ina metal) move at this speed. They move quite slowly in the order 0.1 mms", {as they continually colide with ions in the crystal lattice. This is called their drift velocity This can be compared wih che high speed wich which che wavefront ‘ofa longitudinal wave moves and the much smaller speeds at which the individual particles mave. Acany instant each charge carrier will have a different drift velocity and generally the average drift velocity is considered. ‘Consider a conductor of cross-section A, through which there isa current bin ‘the conductor there are n charge carriers per unit volume, each with a charge q and an average drift velocity vIn time ¢ the average disance travelled by each charge carrier = L (Figure 11.1). Current of electricityFd & 3 = s ie = o - 3 ny = gy 2 = ‘Conduction in semiconductors is different from in same voltage increase. The | metals. There are fewer free electrons. increasing resistance decreases at higher the temperature frees more elactrans to carry the currents, ‘current and thus reduces the resistance Diode No current will pass in one 1 Diodes are ako semiconductors but they are | in designed to alow currents to pass in one direction. only. For afilament lamp, a thermistor and a diode, the resistance ofthe component Isat equal to the inverse of the gradient. tis equal to the potential difference divided by the current when that pd, across the component. i>—______—_——_e=_) ‘The special case of conduction through a metal is summed up in Ohm's law: The current through a merallic conductor is proportional to the potential difference across the conductor provided the temperature remains G—________——_=) ‘The resistance of a component describes how well (or badly) a particular ‘component or metal wire conducts electricity. is often useful to describe the behaviour af a materia to do this we use the idea of resistivity @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘The resistance of a wire is: © directly proportional to its length, R = L © inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area: R So: Rok A Hence: pak A ‘where p is the constant of proportionality, which is called the resistivity. ‘The units of resistivity are Om: Cro ‘A student wants to make a heating coil that will have 2 power output of 48W_ when there a potential diference of 12V acrossit. The student has a reel of rnichrome wire of diameter 024mm. The tessivity of nichrome fs 13 x 10-0.m. (Calculate the enath of wire that che student requires. Answer “The resstance ofthe col can be calculated using the equation: ve ie vy (9 BAI 525 tm 2 RA_ 30% 452 x 103 _ gx = 14m Re ais less Revision activities © Makea flow chart to show how the units and/or dimensions ofthe following quantities are linked: charge current ——_length. potential difference power Fesistance resistivity time © Add the following ‘must learn’ ‘equations to your list: qeit Pov ve w g v Ry et z 1. Acellof 60 and negligible internal resistance is connected across a resistor of resistance 400. Calculate: ‘the current through the resistor 'b the power dissipated in the resistor the charge passing through the resistor In 15 minutes, dd. the energy dissipated in the resistor in 15 minutes ‘A.carbon resistor of cross-sectional area 45 x 10-5 carries a current of 15. The mean drift velocity of the charge ‘arriersis23 x 10-2ms-! and each charge carrier has a charge of 1.6 x 10-!°C. Calculate the numberof charge carriers per Unit volume in carbon, lamp is designed to take a current of 0.25 A when itis connected across a 240 V mains supply. The filament is made from tungsten of eros-sectional area 25 x 10-?m?. Caleulate: athe resistance of the filament the length of wire required to make the lament (resistivity of tungsten = 55 x 10" m) Answers on p.215, Es o aS S 9 = gy oe i} 2 Ss Gy Ss 5 = o12 D.C. circuits Practical circuits ‘You should familiarise yourself with circuit symbols, These are provided in the syllabus. UCU irae eee or | ‘These two tems have similar but distinct meanings. You have aready met potential difference. Remember thats defined as the work done, or energy ‘vansfered, when a unit charge moves between two points. The term ems. is used where a source of energy (uch as a cel) gives energy to 2 unc charge However it sa litle more precise than this. Fyou feel a batory after it has delivered a current for some time, it's warm. This means chat, as well as the battery giving energy to the charge, the charge is doing some work in ‘overcoming resistance in che battery itself. When em,fis defined, this work is 7 > included. ‘The term em. originally stood for Theemtofatouceemumetaly que theenry comrade | Seaepatheons THEE the Un chergetrom cher onmsof ener nt cecal potetalencey, | agate get otal erence (le nme exit the ergy conver Soko as per unit charge from electrical potential energy to other forms of energy. ve (2) High resistance (b) High resistance vole PS] voltmeter |}, $—4---—_ Open revit Figure 12:1 Potential difference acrossa battery In Figure 121, circuc @) shows the potential difference when (virtually) no ‘current is taken from the battery. This is @imos:) equal to the ems. Circuit (b) shows how the potential cifference across the cell falls when current is taken from it. Some work is done driving the current chrough che battery. Wiha ieee ule ‘You have seen how a source of erm fhas to do some work in driving a current through the source itself. In the case ofa battery or cel this is due to the resistance of the electrolytic solutions in the cell. In the case of a generator ‘or transformer it is due to the resistance of the cos and other wiring in the Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guideapparatus. ts clear that the source itself has a resistance; this is called the internal resistance of the source. Iris often easiest to think of the two parts of a source of emf. (che energy giver and the internal resistance) quite separately (Figure 12.2) i Energy-diving part Internal resistance Figure 12.2 | ‘Consider a battery of ems. £ and internal resistance r driving a current through ‘an external resistance R. The potential difference across the terminals of the battery is V (Figure 123) Figure 123 ‘When you work with intemal resistances treat them exactly the same as tesstances in any other circuit, Work through the following equations to ensure that you understand the relationships E=(Re)=R +0 Bur iR = Vand therefore: Favour (aero ‘A battery is connected across a resistor of 600 and an ammeter af negligible resistance. The ammeter registers a current of 15. When the 6002 resistor is replaced by an 180 resto, the current falls to 06A. Calculate the ern. and Internal resstance of the battery. Answer Consider the 600 resiscor: Eas ir= (15x60) + 15° 6 =90 4157 Consider the 180 resistor E=R+Ir= (06 x 18)+ 06 E= 108 +06" Substitute for inthe second equation: 90+ 157 = 108+ 06r Therefore: 2 Substitute for rin the fst equation =904 05x2=nV its Pre icalt| -) = D.C. circuitsI< Brel cal | = a ¢ Kirchhoff’s laws Perera ea a | The sum of the currents entering any point ina circuit is equal to the sum of the currents leaving that point. This is a restatement of che law of conservation of charge. means that the total charge going into a point is equal to the current eaving that point. ‘Worked example CCalculae the current Jn Figure 124, Answer Consider the currents going ina the point as postive and these leaving the point as negative. 30-24-1450=0 Therefore: J=56A Kirchhoff’s second law a | In any closed loop in an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of the electromotive forces is equal to the algebraic sum of the potential differences. ‘This is restatement of the law of conservation of energy. Remember that the aS es ee mee Fes ae sudent why (a) Kirchhoffs potential clference between cwo points s the work done per unit charge in Fe Ce ee roving from one point to the other. I the start point and the end point are the lay of araeriation eehaige ‘same then the net energy change, or work done, must be zero. and (b) Kirchhoff second law isa restatement ofthe lw of Coing round a loop, we consider instances where energy is given to the charge conservation of energy. 1 be postive and where energy is lost by the charge to be negative. Cees Figure 125 shows a crcuit, Cakulate the emf of cell forthe Answer ccurene through the ammeter robe zero. (Consider the outer loop and move anticlockwise around the loop: 222-601-401 101=0 Therefore 1=02A ‘Conscer the inner loop, which contains the 400 resstor and the cel. Again move anticlockwise around the loop. (4002)-E=0 Therefore y=-08V “The minus sn shows that in order to satisfy the conditions the cell shoukd be connected the other way around. ‘The em of the second cel in Figure 12.5 stated as -E, because the ‘movement s from the postive to the negative cell — from a position of high potential energy to one of lower potential energy. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideResistors in series ‘To find the total resstance of resistors connected in series (Figure 12.6) we can use kirchhoffs second law. v 1 fy Ry Ry Figure 12.6 Resistorsin series Going around the circuic VIR ~~ R= 0 V= IR, + Ry + IRy= HR + Ry +R) Reoeat = Ry + Ry + Ry eee) To find the total resistance of resistors connected in parallel (Figure 127) we can Use Kirchhoff laws. v iy h f By 2 Figure 12.7 Resistors in parallel Using Kirchhoff's second law we can see there is the seme potential difference across each of the resistors, therefore: oe Rest ‘Using Kirchhoff first law, =O I=h+h+h v eh Therefore: peer ve Rat Re Ry ‘and cancelling gives: emt a Reotat rt RRR Pre icalt| [= g D.C. circuits @)I< Brel cai | 12 D.C. Worked example Figure 128 shows a network of resistors made up of five Identical resistors each of resistance R. Calculate the resixance oF the neowork, Answer resistance ofthe cop ine = 28 resistance ofthe pair of resistors in paral = (2 7 resistance ofthe lower line = R + OSR'= 15R Figure 12.9 ‘A potential divider does exactly what the name suggests. Study Figure 12.9. if there is a potential V across AC then the coral potential drop is divided becween AB and BC. In Figure 129, Vy= Ry and Vp= IRo. co Yin ik Va IR Re ‘A.useful alternative way of working with this is: Vie = Bit Ray,, R ‘where V,,. is the potential drop across R, and Vis the potential difference across the two resistors. Worked example Calculate the outpuc potential the circu shown in Figure 12.10. Answer 50x 12=40V Vo 880 ° Figure 12.10 @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideOn eye MEE CRN let tlie tg ov lov Figure 12.1 ‘The two resistors ina potential divider can be replaced by a single conductor, swith a siding contact to the conductor (Figure 12.11). The conductor could be a long straight wire, astrip of carbon or a coiled wire, Used in this way the potential divider is called a potentiometer. Ifa uniform wire is used the output potential is Vaue = 42% Vn T POST W er ctiec eel Comparing cells When a potential vider is used to compare potential differences itis usually called a potentiometer Driving cell Uniform resistance wire Jockey Sensitive cenire-zero galvanometer Figure 12.12 The circuit in Figure 1212 can be used co compare the em of cwo cells. The position of the jockey is acjusted so that the current through the galvanometer iszero, The emg (E) of the test cel is now equal to the potential drop across the lenath L, of the resistance wire. This method of measurement is known as a null method — null meaning nothing. The length ly is recorded, The test cell is then replaced with a standard cell of em £, The position of the jockeys adjusted unl the new null reading is foun, The new length () is measured and recorded. The two ems are related by the equation: Eau Bo Comparing resistors A similar method can be used to compare resistors. Two resistors are set up in series with a cell The series circuit is then connected to the potentiometer as shown in Figure 1213 and the balance point is found (1 = 4). The potential ‘drop across the resistor is IR. Oke ree eer ee lice} Pre icalt| 12 DC. Annull method is one in which the apparatus is arranged so that a zer0 reading is required. The zero reading ‘implies that the apparatus fs balanced ‘and that the value ef an unknawn can be found from the values of the constituent parts of the apparatus only. D.C. circuits @®Ry 3 3 eS 5 Y a = G=xp sigueass ceeeenah oie ‘equations by heart — you need to ‘The leads from the potentiometer are disconnected and then reconnected understand the context. In these across the second resistor (points 8 and C on the diagram). The new balance eae itis even more ee t is found (L = L.). The potential dr this resistor is IR. nin many others. Work careful point is found (L = L,). The potential drop across this resistor is trough doe devtoperene tt a See eee an Sega Bel ee Worked example ‘A potentiometer which has a conducting wire of length 10, is set up to measure the em. of a dry cell When the dry call is connected to the potentiometer, the balance length is found to be 435m. standard cell of em, “DV is used to replace the dry cel, The balance length is now 12cm less than for the ery call. Calculate the emf. ofthe ery cell E fr a © Add the following ‘mustearn’ ‘equations to your list: R - Van oR Answer “The balance length for the standard cel = 435 ~ 129 = 30.6em. Figure 12.14 Abattery of em, 60V and an internal resistance of 1.60 fs connected across a resistor of resistance 4.80, Use Kirchholf's second law to show that the current through the resistor is 0.94 A. A potential divider is made up from a battery of em. 12.0V and negligible internal resistance and a wire of length 0.800m and uniform thickness. Calculate the ourput voltage when the distance Lin Figure 12:11 on page 73 is 0.430™m. Answers on p.215 @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide13 Particle and nuclear physics Atoms, nuclei and radiation re Tas a Ree Sy By the early part of the twentieth century, following the discovery of the clectron in 1896, it was recognised that the atom has structure. Early models ‘ofthe atom considered it to be a positive cloud of matter with electrons ‘embedded in it — che plum-pudding model. Rutherford scattering experiment In 1911, Rutherford’ alpha-scattering experiment led to a model of the ator ‘with a posiively charged nucleus containing all the positive charge and virtually all the mass ofthe atom. This nucleus is surrounded by the much smaller, negatively charged electrons, Apian view ofthe Rutherford alpha-scattering apparatus is shown in Figure 131. Figure 13.2 shows deflection of alpha particles by a nucleus. Beam of « particles. Gold foil i Flash of light when Fluorescent screen, an a particle bits rt I the screen «a patticle source: Collimator Figure 13.1 Figure 13.2 Results from the alpha-scattering experiment ‘® The vast majority of the particles passed straight through the fol with Virtually no defiection. ‘© A few (@pproximately 1 in 10000) of the alpha particles were deflected through angles in excess af 90° ‘Alpha particles are positively charged with a mass about 8000 times thac of an electron. The large-angle deflection could only occur ifthe alpha particles Particle and nuclear physics ®interacted with bodies more massive than themselves. Ths led Rutherford to ‘develop the solar-system mode! of the atom (Figure 133). ify rd 3 a Kl} Newton S es re s = a} S Be) Powe. ater straptemmed of testo BEI The smal numbers of parcles that ae deflected through large ange inccate @7epepeemerrneren Bef) ac theruceusis very rail The proportions deflect in diferent directions eee FA enabled Rutherford to estimate the diameter of the nucleus as being in the eee a order ‘of 10-m to 10° m. This compares with an atomic diameter of about ‘experiment, (b) the Important. om. Conclusions that were dravn from Figure 133 is not dawn wo scale. Fic were, and the nucleus was kepc to this sie, fel Sein 3 S| S & by my 4 This isnt very comncng tarement but ii ust (D crough zo eam te mark. Mare 1 (©) distance = area under the graph (4 x BB x 0.90) +X (4 x 140 x 0.14) H By The student recognises that the arew uncer the graph is (D cauotto tne distance raveled but unfortunately does rot realise tht for the lst 0.145 the bi is moving downwards, 50 the velocity is negative. Nevertheless, it is easy to spot the eror so only 1 mark i lost Mark: 12 (4) The brick wil be moving downwards noc upwards. X This is wrong, The brick had started to move downwards in the earlier example. Neither does it answer the question, Mark: 0/1 88-0 (2) aceeratin = gradient ofthe graph = $88 jams Allleocrect. Mark: 212 (b) The velocity and acceleration are in opposite directions Ths shows deceleration ¥. AS exam-style questions and answers ®2 2 = 3 = 6 a = CI 3 a 3 «i = By > a = q & a n ¢ ® This is much mare convincing than answer A. Mark: 111 {€) distance = area under che graph (4 8B ¥ 090) — (6 «140 x O14) All correct. The student has sensibly rounded the © brsiner to ro signicart figures. Mark 22 coer) (4) The beck will be traveling much faster: in the earlier ‘example tis almost stationary when it reaches the builder con thescalfold. 7 @ Settee: =p—___— glider on an air track has a mass of 1.2 kg. It ‘moves at 6.0 ms~ towards second stationary slider of mass 4.8 kg. The two gliders collide, and the incoming glider rebounds with a speed of 3.6ms". (@) Show that the speed of the second glider after the collision is 2.4ms"*, ol (b)Show that the collision is elastic. Bl The gliders are in contact for 30 ms during the collision. (©.()_ Calculate the average force on the stationary glider during the collision. 2] (i) Compare the forces on the two gliders during the collision. @ [Total: 10] (@) momentum before the collision = 12x 6.0 = 72kgms 1 ae st cee erro = 1152 +492 = 15.84 kgs" X The student ears 1 mark for the correct calculation of the intial momentum. However, there is failure to ‘recognise that momentum isa vector and direction must be included. Mark: 13 () KE before = Home? = 4 « 12x 60 =3.6)X KE after = 15x 48 x 242+ ex 12m 36 = TRAM +7775 = 26)4 KE before the colision = KE after the colsion? 7 The student writes down the carrect formula for kinetic (© ener ut forgets square te veloty when calculating the KE. before the colsion. The remainder of the calculation i fine. The final mark is for recognising thatthe Kinetic energy before the colision should be equal to the Kinetic energy after the collsion. Its even recognised (by the question mark) that something has gone wrong, Mar: 2/2 ©®o acceleration of glider = 5 p-y = 80ms: pena ) Force is smaller than the other X because the glider is. sgrallerandicis in che apposite direction ¥/ Equal co the farce en the ee glider The answer in part (0 is a valid way of calculating the force but this is a case where the student is expected to provide the unit since the answer cue does not provide one, In part (i) there is recognition that the forces are opposite in direction but not that they are of the same magnitude. Indeed, there isa cantradiction in the answer — the student first says that the force is smaller and then that its equal to tive force on the other glider. Mark: 214 (a) momentum before the colision = 12 x 60=72kgms1 7 grate hecition Glee Ae = 1152 - 432= 72kgms= momentum before the callsion 7 Quer (b) In eestccolsions kineric energy is conserved. KE before a = q & a n ¢ ‘The slit separation is 1.2mm and the screen is 3.0m from the slits. The diagram shows the interference pattern that is observed. Calculate the wavelength of the light. a Screen DarkLight t 13mm i (© Explain how you would expect the pattern to change if the red light was replaced by a blue light. 2 [Total: 8] (@) @ Two sources ae coherent iFthey have no phase ddiference XX Sy) This is 2 common error. Many students ignore the fact that light from two sources can be coherent if there is a phase difference, provided that the phase difference fs ‘constant. The necessity for the two sources f0 have the same Frequency is not mentioned. Mark: 0/2 Ly ‘They are not coherent Ans\ (i The statements correct and so gains a mark, However, (D the question asks the stadert to explain and there no pine aso iyi Snare A ITE Mork 2 (8) nA = aD = 92.X=12x 10x Bx107 =S8x07mv ech) The student has counted the nine minima but there are O cy cine hinges. The rest ofthe caleation cormpleted correct or 1 mark. Mark: 12 () Blue lighc has a longer wavelength than red light X so the fringes would be furcher apart The student should be aware that the blue end of the spectrum has the shortest wavelengths of visible ight. The correct conclusion has been drawn irom the original error, 50 the second mark is scored. Mark: 1/2 () (0. Twosources are coherent they havea constanr phase difference v For this they must have the same Frequency ¥. Correct, Mark: 2/2 LUgheis not emitted as a single wave tran but as short wave tains. The phases ofthe different wave trains are random #50 the wave trans from the two sources are not coherent (jp Ar exelent answer, showing true understanding of (O cherence. Marc 22 (b) n= axl = BA = 12x 10 2265x107 Correct: Mark: 2/2 (© lve light has a shorter wavelength chan red light 7 so the fringes would be closer together ¥, This is @ good explanation. The student has noted that a \D season is needed. Mark 22 cx=p—__—_— (@) Explain what is meant by the electric field strength at a point. Ul ‘The diagram shows two parallel plates inan evacuated tube. The earthed plate is heated so as. to emit electrons. The plates are 8.0¢m apart, with a potential difference of 2.0kV across them. (b) Calculate the electric field strength between the two plates. a (©. Anelectron is at point P midway between the two plates. Calculate the force on it. a Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideAssecond electron is at point Q, near the positive plate. State the force on this electron, giving.a reason for your answer. Qi (4)A current of 2.414 is recorded on the ammeter. Calculate the number of electrons that move across from one plate to the other in 1 minute. Q] (Total: 9} {@) Electric field strengrh fs the force per unic charge. X Sy The student has missed that it should be the force on 2 (restive charge and has aso not emphasised that the force ison a point charge placed at that point. y__ 2000 PIE axle =200NC'¥ Comect. NC is an alternative unit for electric field Orrensth stone 272 F E p= Tascam Fa4x ONY 9 Greater than 40 x 10-8N X The force is stronger because the charge is nearer che posite plate X epee re ever the erates parr) shows that the student does not understand the ‘concept of a uniform field, Mark: 2/4 ) Q= it, =24 x 10° x 60=144x ACY The student has correctly calculated the charge that has passed but daes nat knaw how to proceed. Mark: 1/2 ‘Answer B (@) Electric field strength ata points the force per unit postive charge acting on a stationary poinc charge placed ac that poinc ¥. Ba fot toy ation conidia improved by stating that the charge is stationary. Mark: 1" v__2000 Os aot =25000Vm"7 Qewen (6) ee OME eee Fa 40x 10NY (9 40% 10°5N of The field is uniform, therefore che farce on the charge isthe same anywhere between the plates All correct. Mark: 418 @ numberof electrons x charge on an electron = Q Sorne= itv na24x 108% ax 10K Y ex AS exam-style questions and answers | All correct. Mark: 212 »—____ (a) Explain the difference between the terminal potential difference and the eam.f. of acell. 2) (b)A student makes a 4.0.09 resistor by winding 3.9m of insulated eureka wire of diameter a (©) When the student connects the resistor across the terminals of a cell of e.m.f. 1.56V there isa current of 0.37. Calculate the internal resistance of the cell. You may assume that the ammeter has negligible resistance, a (Total: 6} (2) The terminal potential diferenceis numerically equal to the electrical energy converced ro other forms of energy when Luni charge maves around the circuic Fram ene terminal to ‘she other ¥. The emf isthe serminal potencal difference when no current flows X. The fist partis answered very well The second answer, O atteaah a good re of thumb not how eek is dlfined (se answer 6). Mark: 12 ape tapi OR=e, ‘=p 110.78 x 105 p=198x 10 Am(ech)¥ _ 7 AS exam-style questions and answers @2 Gy i uv = 6 es = So o a if = a oy > br] = Gy 4 9 7) ¢ This i goad attemps, except that the student has failed to divide the diameter by two. This counts as an arithmetic error and is only penalised 1 mark. Crossesectional area =m, Mark: 12 (©) V=iR=037%4=148 lost voks = 156~ 148 = 0080 7 ea gaa mappa Tcatire geod start the student does not know how to complete the problem — internal resistance = lost vatsicurrent = (0.08/0.37 = 0.220. Mark: 12 {@) The cerminal pocendial difference fs numerically equal to the electrical energy converted to arher forms of energy when Luni chatge moves around the ecu fram ane terminal to the other ¥:The emis numerically equal to the energy given tounit charge when it passes through the cell: An excellent answer. Mark: 2/2 oa) 39 ore ay p=49x 07 Omv @R=pr— Qo mae Caan) (©) E=1R+tr—> 156=(037x 4) +037 120204 Qwmez {a) State and explain the difference between leptons and hadrons, ie] (b)Discuss the changes that occur when B* decay ‘occurs, 4) (Total: 6] ena) (@) Leptons are much lighter than hadrons, which are much heavier. Q Tester es latched ono ‘gh’ and eo which, although true, i fairy trivial. There is no mention of the leptons being fundamental particles or of the quarks in the hadrons, Mark: 0/2 (b) The weak force ¥ causes a neutron co change into a proton and a positron is emitted This shows some understanding. The role of the weak force is included, but the answer lacks the depth that is required. There is no mention of quark changes or the ‘emission of a neutrino, Mark: 1/4 (@) Leptons are fundamental particles; hadrons ae not ¥: This is @ good start but there is no mentian of hadrons having an underiving structure — that they are mace of quarks. The term ‘explain’ is the key, incicating that the examiner is expecting something more than the bold statement that leptons are fundamental and hadrons are not. Mark: 122 (6) Aneutton changes into a prozon with the emion of Bt particle Vand aneutino v:For the neutron to change into a proton an up cuatk changes into a down quark This is good answer, wth rsa all the important (D points, However the role ofthe weak interaction snot include Mark: 34 @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide14 Motion in a circle Kinematics of uniform circular motion REC e Ug ‘You are familar with the use of degrees to measure angles, with a complete citcle equal to 360%, There is no real reason why a circle is spit into 360° — it probably arses from the approximate number of days it takes forthe Earth to ‘orbit the Sun (Figure 142). 7 Cone radian és the angle subtended atthe centre ofa cide by an ate of a lenath equal tothe rads of the cice feismuch more convenient ro use radians. (Figure 14.2) ~_arclength angle (n rains) = 37 ena Fora complete circle, circumference = 21, where is the radius, Hence, the ae { angle subtended by a complete circle is: erat La 360" = 2 — a radans This can be expressed as TE 9 Convert the folowing angles co radians: Answer , Y il ai @ 80 0 180" = 180% 2rd = mrad @o {8 Conver the following angles o degrees a @ Fas 2 oom Motion in a circlePVE lace aU UYU tm eld a ‘Consider a particle moving at constant speed (i) round.a circle, The change in angle trom a particular reference point i called the angular displacement gure 143). ita ‘Angular displacement i the change in angle (measured in racine) of 3 body ss irotates round a cele ion ina ci oS io = a Figure 163 ‘As the particle moves round the circle the angular displacement increases ata” 5 steady rate, The rate of change in angular displacernent is called the angular ‘Arigulat spied 5 iene n speed (0) angular cisplacement per unit time 88 one Comparison with translational motion ‘Many of the concepts you met in kinematics at AS have thelr equivalent in ‘Gicular motion. Thisis show in Table 141 Table 14.1 Ca CN creator a Displacement (3) | m Speed (y) ms? | va Angular speed (8) rds! | @ = 8 SE Look at Figure 1433. ‘rearranging the formula: veor CEE A cariscraveing round circular bend of rads 24m ata constant speed of 15s Calculate the angular speed of the car Answer % % = 0625 = 63rads Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideCentripetal acceleration and centripetal force Constant speed, constant acceleration ‘You have already seen how a body can move at constant speed around a crc, but what is meanc when itis said that the body has a constant acceleration? To understand this you must remember the definition of acceleration: the change in velocity per unit time. Velocity unlike speed, isa vector and so a change in direction isan acceleration (Figure 144) Figure 14.4 Consider a particle moving round a circle, At time tit has a velocity of v, After ‘a short interval of time, At ithas the velocity v, — the same magnitude, but the direction has changed. Figure 14.4 shows the change of velocity Av, You can see that ths is towards the centre of the circle the acceleration being AVIAL. As the body moves raund the circle, the direction of its velocity is continuously changing, the change always being towards the centre of the circle, Thus the particle has an acceleration of constant magnitude but whose direction is always ‘owaids the centre of the circle, Such an acceleration is called 2 centripetal acceleration. ‘The magnitude of the acceleration a is given by: itr 7 Centripetal force and acceleration Abbody traveling round a circle at constant speed is not in equilbrium. From = @RSIESENETSTCS Newton’ avs you will remember that fora body to accelerate 2 resultant fOrC® eg often thought that a body rotating must act on it.The force must be in the same direction as the acceleration, around a circle at constant speed iin Hence the force is always at right angles to the velocity ofthe body, towards the equilibrium — just remember tha ic ‘centre of the circle (a centripetal force), Such a force has no effect on the (Canes: dinettian conuincesty hence magnicude of the velocity, it simply changes its direction. ‘theretkacontinuml force‘on Using the reltionshio F= ma (where F = force and m = mass ofthe body) you can see that the force can be calculated fromm: me — ma r Figure 145{a) shows a rubber bung being whirled round on a string, The strings under tension. Motion in a circle (POE sigs rd 5 = =fen © Re 7 X © You should be able to develop rmany equations from more F fundamental equations. Some sng ‘of these fundamental equations are given at the beginning of the ‘examination paper. Others you must earn by heart tis a good idea to write out these equations Figure 14.5 ‘on a piece of card and stick the ‘ard on the bedroom mirror to ‘The centripetal force is the component of the tension in the horizontal direction arnihen by bere tee (Tsing the ‘mustlearn’ equations are: mv r In Figure 145(6) the uplift on the aeroplane is perpendicular to the wings. When the aeroplane banks there is @ horizontal component to this, which provides @ centripetal force (Fsing) and the plane moves along the arc ofa circle. Pm Fsing ita ion ina ci oS io = = Tsing CE ‘The racing cars clearly nota point object but modelingitas one simplifies the problem. The normal reaction iin realty shared at each of the four wheels. The wheels on the outside ofthe curve travel in a larger circle than those on the inside ofthe circle, further complicating the picture. Engineers and scientists often Use simplified models, which they ‘then develop to solve more complex Figure 146 shows a racing car rounding a bend of radius 120™m on a banked track traveling at 32ms" () Calculate the angle @ when there is no tendency forthe cat to move either up cor down the rack. You may trea the car asa poinc object. (@) Suggest and explain whar would happen ifthe car's speed was reduced R AReos 9 (© Explain why this statement made in anewspaper report is incorrect: “The racing car hit a patch of oil ‘as it came into the bend and the centrifugal force threw the car Figure 14.6 Answer (9 Ris thenormal reaction force. Resolving vertically Inco the gravel trap, Reosg= mg See ifyour teacher agrees with your Resolving horizontally eer rang Ree Dividing the ewe equations sing _awtir 1) Convert 120° into radians. 2. Convert radians into degrees, 3 Acar of mass 800kg goes round abend ata speed of 15ms. The path ofthe car can be considered tobean arcofa circle of radius (0) The car would tend to slp down the slope as the required centripetal force would be les n practice, riciona forces would probably mean that t would Sein Cacaies ane continue ina cele ofthe same rads. speed ofthe carand (b) the centripetal force on theca. Answers on p.215 (09) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide15 Gravitational fields A gravitational field isa region around a body (that has mass, in which another ‘body with mass experiences a force. Pec mee tity evisec ‘Any object near the Earth’ surface is attracted towards the Earth with a Force that is dependent on the mass of the body. Similary, an object near the Moon is attracted towards the Moon's surface but now the force is smaller. The reason for this that the gravitational field strength is greater near the Earth than it isnear the Moon, force = mass x gravitational field strength Gravitational field strength at 2 points defined as the gravitational ‘orce per unit mass at that point. In symbols: F=mg ‘You might remember g asthe acceleration due to gravity or acceleration of freefall but if you compare the formulae F = ma and F = mg, you can see that ‘the acceleration due to gravity and the gravitational field strength are the same thing. ‘The gravitational field strength near the Earch’s surface is uniform (Figure 15.1) Figure 15.1 Gravitational forces between point masses eo nce | 8 ts ‘Two point masses of mass m, and m) separated by a distance r will attract each ' i / ‘other with a force given by the formulas fe -gmim, Figure 15.2 ez ‘where G isa constant known as the universal gravitational constant, ts value is 667 x 10" NmPkg?. This is known as Newton's law of gravitation. The minus ‘ign in the equation shows the vector nature of the force. Although slightly more complex for bodies of finite size all the mass of any ‘object can be considered to act at a single point, whichis called its centre of ‘mass, This simpifies the maths and in effect the object is treated as a point ‘mass, However, you rust be careful co remember to measure any cistances between abjects as the distance becween their centres of mass. Note that the formula above assurres that planets can be treated as point objects. Gravitational fieldsCerne “wo shares ofradus 050m and masses 1509 and 350 ae placed so that ther centres ae 48cm apart @ Calculace the force on the 180g sphere. (© Wire down the force on the 350g sphere Answer 6) 380g = 0.35kg, 50g = 00TSkg, 48cm = 0.048m ft _-667 X10" £035 015 1g 1039 Cn Oe asx 10 9N ()In accordance with Newton’ third law, the magnitude of the force on the 350g mass wll also be ~15 x 10-*N but in the opposite direction, Bem ere Nets nil (3 This shows how small the gravitational attraction between two smal objects is [tis only when we consider planet- sized objects thatthe forces become significant. ‘The gravitational field strength has already been defined as the gravitational force per unic mass at thet point. AC AS, you only considered pravicational fields on lage objects such as the Earth and other planets, and then only near their surfaces. Under these circumstances, the fied may be considered uniform. However, the gravitational field of a point “object is radial Figure 15.33). This is aso true for any body of finite size if we move a significant distance from the body, In the lacter case, the radial field is centred on the centre of mass of the body (Figure 183b). You can see from Figure 15.3 that the lines of gravitational force get further apart as the distance from the centre of mass increases. This shows that the Field strengch decreases with increasing distance from the body. ‘Consider the equation for the gravitational force between cwo abjects and the definition of gravitational field strength: GM and, P ‘The equation shows an inverse square relationship (Figure 154). This means if the distance from the mass s doubled the field decreases by a factor of 4 (29) Carns Calculate the graviatonal lel strength at he surface of Mars. (ads of Mars = 34» 108k, mass of Mars = 64% 10g) Answer 34 « 1Wkm = 34 x 10m F Men p= and g=F GM __ 667% 10° x64 198 sac BaF ‘The magnitude of the gravitational field strength is 3.7 Nksr’ cowards the centre of Mars 37Nket ) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide (o) (@, Cente of mass Figure 15.3 The gravitational field of @)apoinc mass and (b) a body of finice size Figure 15.4 The gravitational field near a spherical bodyRe ure Figure 155 shows a satelite traveling in a circular orbit around the Earth ‘The gravitational pull on the satelite provides the centripetal force to keep the ‘satelite in oxic. Centripetal force: pe hi me where M is the mass of the Earth. Cancelling m and r: wie r ‘which can be rewritten as: r This can also be expressed in terms of angular velocity, «a v=or ‘You can see that the angular velocity, and hence the frequency and the period for one orbit, are depencient on the orbital rads. The relationship between the period T for one orbit and the angular velocity wis Cars A satelite isto be placed in a polar orbit 100km above the Earths surface Calculate (@ the period ofthe orbit (© the speed of the satelite (massof Fath = 60 « 10g, radius of Earth = 64 x 10Pkm) Answer (9 orbital radius of che satellite = Earth’ radius + height of che satelite above the surface = (64 1 + 100) = 65 x 1km =65 « 108m, oe SP AOD IO 125 OI eads! 7 (65x 107 m___2 Qn . T= 50% 103s= 14h Fe v= or orbital radius = 65 x 105m: 2x 109% 65 x 1 =78kms? Gravitational fields ry aS oe = 3 = & S s = 5 £ 6 ma)Geostationary orbits Imagine a satelite that is orbiting the Earth, Its orbital path is directly above the equator If the satelite orbits in the same direction as the Earth spins and has an orbital period oF 24 hours it will remain over the same point above the Earth's surface. This type of orbit is used for communication satelices (Figure 15.6). ” a o = i] = ea ef £ B <—f_ intation of the Earth i 0 va Figure 15.6 A satellite in geostationary orbicabove the Earth From the previous work you should be able to see that there is only one possible orbital radius for this type of satelite. With many countries requiring ‘communications satelies,chis means that a great deal of incerrational ‘cooperation is required. ‘Worked example (Calculate the height above the Earth that a satellze must be placed fori t orbit Ina geostationary manner (mass of Earth = 60 x 10!kg, radius of ach = 64% 10m) Answer Time petiod required fora geostationary orbits 24h= 86 400s 10x 86400" a W571 = 423 x 107 “his isthe radius of che saclite's orbit. The radius ofthe Earth is 64x 108m, so the height ofthe satelite above the Earth’ surface is 23 x 10-64% 108 =359 x 10) m= 36% 107m Gravitational potential From earlier work you will be familar with the idea that the gain in gravtational potential energy of a body when its lifted through a height is given by the formula: ‘AW = mgAh ‘This formula gives the change in gravitational potential energy. At what point does a body have zero potential energy? It is up to physicists to define the point Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guideat which a body has zero gravitational potential energy. It might seem sensible 10 choose the Earth's surface as this point. However, if we ate considering ‘work on the astronomical scale you can quickly see that this has no special ‘nificance. The poinc that is chosen is infinity — we say thar the gravitational potential enetgy at an infinite distance from ary ather body is ze. This might seema litte difficult to start with; we know that a body loses potential energy © as it approaches the Earth or other large body — therefore ic has fess than 2er0 potential energy. This means that it has negative potential energy when itis near another body such as the Earth, By considering che potential energy ofa unic mass, we can assign each point in space a specific gravitational potential me = o = cI = = Ss & > A oO wu Figure 157 shows that che gravitational potential at the surface of the body is @ negative, and how the potential increases towards zero as we move away from Figure 15.7 The gravitational potential near the body. Gravitational potential is defined as follows: a body ofradius R ‘The gravitational potential ata point is the work done in bringing unit mass rom infinity to that point. Re Tea eed snd ‘Accareful study of the potential curve shows it to be ofthe form @ = ft ‘The formula for calculating the gravitational poteniial at a point is vwhhere ris che distance from che centre of mass of the object. (roo Fa body ic fed from the Earth’ surface with suficient speed, iecan escape fram the Earch’s gravitational fed @ Calculate the potential at che Earth's surface. (©) Stave and explain how much energy a body of unit mass would need co be ven to escape from the Earths file {@ Calcul the minimum speed at which the body must be fred to escape Answer © Use the internet to find the orbit — petiod of the international Space p= = HSA COW 65 10h! Station. Use the information to find a ‘a ‘the height above the Earth at which (0625 « 107 the energy require to reach infinity 2er0 potential energy it orbits. Check this igure from £@ Ee Hr which leads tn another internet source. © Musclearn equation: : fe Bx 6I5* 10 15x t0%ms _M m 1 Pama aris relief Calculate the gravitational attraction between the Earth and the Moon. (mass ofthe Earth = 6.0 x 10%kg, mass of the ‘Moon = 73 x 10?*kg, separation of the Earth and Moon = 3.8 x 108m) Calculate the gravitational potential atthe Moon’ surface radius ofthe Moon = 1.74 x 106m) Use your answer to question 2 to calculate the escape velocity from the Moon's surface. During the Moon landings in the 1970s, the command module orbited the Moon at 100km above the lunar surface. CGleulate the period ofthis orbit Answers on p.215 Gravitational fields16 Ideal gases rite) g The mole and the Avogad ‘You ate already familiar wich the idea of measuring mass in kilograms and ( thinking of mass in terms of the amount of matter in a body. The mole measures the amount of matter from a different perspective — the number of particles in a body. ‘One mole is the amount of substance ‘that has the same number of particles a there are atoms in 129 of carbor-12 ssotope, ‘The amount of matter is a base quantity and the mole, consequently, isa base Uni. The abbreviation (unic) for the mole is mob ‘The number of atoms in 12g of carbor-12 is 602 x 102. This number is referred 0 as the Avogadro constant (Nj) and is written as 602 x 10°3mof" So: ‘© One mole of carbon-2 isotope contains 602 x 10 carbon-12 atoms and hasamass of 12g. ‘© One mole of heium-4 isotope contains 602 x 10? helium-4 atoms and has amass of 4g. ‘Many gases are found not as single atoms but 2s diatomic molecules. For ‘example, two hydrogen ators form a Hp molecule, o ane mole of hydrogen ‘contains 6.02 x 10°? hydrogen (H,) molecules (or 1204 x 10°? atoms of hydrogen). SES [ 1 Calulaze the numberof aomrsin,and the massof she Answers followings 1 (@ Timo of ozone contains 602 x 10 molecules @ Amal of zone (0) = 3x 612 103 atoms = 1806 x 10% acoms (0) evo of vater (40) 181 x 102 acoms (Felatve atomic mass of oxygen = 16 relative atomic mass massof azone in Imol= 3 16= 488 of hydrogen = 1) Each molecule of water contains 3 atoms (2 hydrogens 2. The mass of 1mol of hydrogen gas 2g. Calculate the mass Tox) oF t hydrogen atom. number of atoms in mol of water =3 x 602% 102 = 18.06 1 atome number of ators in 3rol of water 31806 x 10 542 x 10 atoms ‘mol of water has mass =(2% 1) + (116) = 18g “Therefore the mass of 3 moles =3 x 18= S4g. ‘ol of hydrogen gas contains 2 x 602 x 10% hydrogen atoms. mass of 1 hydrogen ator 66% 105 = 166 x 107g Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideEquation of state Experimental work shows that a fixed mass of any gas, at temperatures well ‘above the temperature at which it condenses to form a liquid and over a wide range of pressures, follows the following relationships. © at constant remperature — pt © at constant pressure — Vo T © at constant volume — pT ‘where p= pressure, V = the volume and T is the temperature measured on the Kelvin scale, The Kelvin scale of temperature is discussed further on page 112. ‘These three relationships can be combined to form a single equation: x = constant ‘The equation can be written as pV= nT ‘where nis the number of moles of ges and R is the molar gas constant. This ‘equation is lnawn as the equation of state for an ideal gas. Uapimolarigasiconstant pagina | samme value for all gases, 831) 7, An ideal gas would follow chis equation at al temperacures and pressures. Real gases, such as hydrogen, helium and oxygen, follow the equation at room ‘temperature and pressure. However, if the temperature is greatly decreased or the pressure is very high they no longer behave in this way. Ceo 1. Asytinge of volume 25cm holds hydrogen at apres of | Answers 102 x 10°Paand temperacute 280K The volume of the #35 DY _ coneeant can be rewritten ax ia = Bs isreduced 0 Wem? and checerperacureincreases by SK. iG Calulace the new presate of the pas. Subscene values Calculate the volume occupied by 48mg of oxygen at 10210525 _pyx 10 20°C and a presute of 10 105Pa (lathe atomic mass of 780 3B oxygen = 16) s0py= 26 105Pa temperature =273 +20 = 293K conygen forms daromic 0; moleeles so the mass of tol of onygen = 326 : number of mokesin 48mg = 2210" Using pV = nBT ART _15K103K83H293 4 gsi a pap 8 1 15 x 10°3mol Kinetic theory of gases Brow Monn ‘A gas may be modelled as consisting of many tiny, unbreakable particles (or molecules) which move randomly and independently of each other, except ‘when they collide, The molecules will as collide with the container walls producing pressure. 16 Ideal gases Lea goST Cr ect 108 ‘The fist real evidence for the movement of particles in a fluid is Brownian motion. Small particles (uch as smoke parcicles) suspended in a gas (such as ait) can be seen to move ina random zigzag fashion. This is due to the particles being bombarded by the very much smaller molecules ofthe fluid Re ‘© Look up experiments that demonstrate Brownian motion in a liquid and ina gas Be aware of the required experimental set-up and make sure you ‘can identify both the particles that bombard and the particles that are bombarded. ‘© Explain why the visible particles move in a random zigzag manner? ‘© Explain why the particles that do the bombarding are not visible using ‘simple laboratory equipment? arnt 5 Ree To show the relationship between che speed of the molecules in a gas and the pressure it exerts, the following assumptions are made: en © The forces between molecules are negligible (except during collision. ‘© The volume of the moleculesis negligible compared with the total volume These assumptions effectively describe ‘occupied by the gas. an ideal gas, ‘© Allcolisions between the molecules and between the molecules and the container walls are perfectly elastic. ‘© The time spent in coliding is negligible compared with the time between collisions, ‘© There are mary identical molecules that move at random. ‘Consider a gas molecule of mass m in a cubic box of sie L traveling at speed ¢ parallel to the base of the box (Figure 16.1), Figure 16.1 When the molecule colds with the righthand wall it will rebound! with velocity ~c change in momentum = —2me The molecule travels a ciscance of 21 before calicing with thac wall again, so the time elapsed is 2L/c. rate of change of momencum = force applied by the molecule on this wall The area of the wall is L’, so: force _ mc area 33 ‘The molecule being considered is moving perpendicular co the two faces with which it collides. In practice, a typical molecule moves randomly and collides pressure Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘with all sx faces. So the total area involved is three times that which has been ‘considered, so: me presse = The total number of molecuies in the box is N, each with a differenc speed contributing to the overall pressure. The average of the velocities squared is called the mean square velocity, So: Nmee’> Be 1B =¥,the volume of the box. ANmecs av Itis sometimes useful to write this equation as pv= jumees pressure = (ers ‘At room temperature and pressure 93K and 10 x 108Pa), Tol of any as ‘ecupies a volume of 24d Calculate the root mean square velocity ofthe following a this temperature: {@ helium atoms (atomic mass = 4u) (©) oxygen molecules (acomic mass = 164, mass of O; = 32) Answer 9 Nm= otal ass of mel ofheium = 4 107g Noses v V3 10 105524 x 103 oa 2 BOT A 18 1 Ps A&C = 1342s" = 1300ms" (2 sf) @) Nin = coral mass of Trnol of O, molecules = 3.2 x 107kg, BX NOX IP MW 906 gb pated 32% 107 ‘The root mean square velocity isthe square root of the mean (or average) of the squares of the velocities. : Kinetic energy of a molecule Bee mel cet elm Li Cs) If you compare the ideal gas equation (pV = nRT) and the equation pV = YiNmec’> you can see that: RT = Nees For one mole: R Ames M3 kr=ynec> and so Buer= uince’> a The Boltzmann constant (= 9 thas the value 1.38 x 10-231K-1 Ideal gases ry i Fa & i] Es pS =Yam is equal to the average (transitional) kinetic energy of a molecule. Hence the temperature is proportional to the average (translational) kinetic ” Fi 8 EE)) every ofthe pares na monacomic gas. (EEE s @ Therelationship between & [Now test yourself seipeauvanl ance = erties eee al = 11 Amideal gas is held in a syringe of volume 200m at a pressure of 45 % {ps For a monaromic gas ic works = 105 Pa, The i allowed to expand until i reaches a pressure of 1.02 x 10°Pa, ‘well, But less well for diatomic ‘As the gas expands is temperature falls rom 300K to 280K. Calculate the rea pe ae Selunevie gall ewe epee tate ee “The pressure ina helium-fled party balloon of volume of 0.060 m? is ey Mcd exrcetae (12 MPaat a temperature of 22°C, Calculate (a) the numberof moles of ye helium and (b) the mass of helium in the balloon. 3 1 Calculate the root mean square velocity of nitrogen molecules at O°C. (mass kT =pmecs fntrogen molecule = 46x 10") . Answers on p.215, nome? Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide17 Temperature Thermal equilibrium What is temperature’ evisec ‘You have been using the idea of temperature for many yearsand will have an instinctive feeling about its meaning, However, that instinctive feeling may not be fully correct, You saw in the last topic that teperature is proportional to the average kinetic energy of the particles in a body. To take thisa stage further, ternperarure ras us the direction in which there will be a net energy flow between bodies in thermal contact: energy will tend to flow ftom a body at high ‘emperature ro a body aa lower temperature. If there is no net energy flow between two bodies in thermal contact, then those two bodies are at the same ‘temperature. They are said to be in thermal equilibrium. Figure 171(@) shows that if body A is ata higher temperature than B and if body Bis at a higher temperature than body C, then body Ais ata higher ‘ternperature than body C. Figure 17:1(b) shows that if body P is in thermal equilibrium with body Qand if body Qs in thermal equilbriurn with body, then body Pisin thermal ‘equilibrium with body R. Temperature scales PCC n em ou rie ey (2) 1 Mfenergy flows from A to.B A 2 3 then energy |_| 2 and eneroy will low Flows from from Ato C Btoc ©) 1 Noenergy flows from P10 Q P Q 4 3 then no RB] 2andno energy wil energy flows flow from & to C from B to C Figure 17.1 The energy flaw between different bodies in thermal contact ‘To measure temperature @ physical property that varies with temperature is Used. Examples are: ‘© expansion ofa liquid ‘© expansion of a gas at constant pressure ‘© change of pressure ofa gas at constant volume ‘© change in resistance of a thermistor or other semiconductor ‘® emf produced across the junctions of thermocouple Electrical thermometers Thermocouple Figure 172 shows the structure of thermocouple The wires need not be ‘copper and iron — any two different metals can be used. When the two Junctions ae at different temperatures an emf. is produced, which is measured by the voltmeter. The erm f increases with increasing temperature difference. I might not change linearly with temperature, in which case a callration graph will have to be used (see page 17). In practice, one junction is kepe ata conscant temperature, perhaps in meling ice, while the other acts as the ‘test junction’ Copper. Copper on wire Junction 1 Junction 2 Figure 172 renpertue (i)Thermistor A thermistor isa semiconducting device, the resistance of which decreases rapidly with increasing temperature. The thermistor’s resistance is not directly proportional co the temperature soa calibration graph must be used, Riueau nea Chim cusses ates a | All temperature scales require owo fixed points thacare easly repeatable. For example, the Celsius scale uses the melting point of pure water as the lower pe Fi 3 i o % 5 2 bi ‘The thermodynamle temperature fixed point (0°C) and the boiling pont of pure water at standard atmospheric | Ss naependent of the ohyscel pressure asthe higher fixed point (100°C). When a thermometer is calibrated, | properties of any particular substance these two points are marked and then the scale is divided into 100 equal parts, ‘The fixed points on the thermodynamic scale are: ‘© absolute zero — this is the temperature at which no more energy can be removed from any body. All the energy that can be removed has been removed. (0K = -27315°C) ‘© triple point of pure water — the unique temperature ac which water ‘exists in equilibrium as a vapour liquid and a solid (273.16 = 001°C) For convenience, the size of the unit in the thermodynamic scale was chosen to be the same size as the degree in the Cekius scale. You will see that the triple point is just above the melting point of water (0°C). Ce ROM a SALa UR cou Uae hss = | TK = TPC + 273.15 In practice we often simplty the conversion by ue RENCE Cans ‘The boiling point of waters given only to the nearest degree Celsius Therefore, using 273 asthe difference between Celsius and Kehin justified, Copy and complewe the rable, showing your working, ee kee eaes Boiling point of water 100 Boiling point of bromine | 332.40 Boling point af helium | 437 Melting point of hydrogen 258.98 Boiling point of nitrogen (en Answer 1 Avoltmeter connected to.a thermocouple reads OV when both junctions are in ice at 0°C, Boling point of | 100-+ 273 = 373 100 and 4.8 mV when one junction is as In ice and one isin bailing water at 100°C. What isthe temperature a ae when the reading on the voltmeter bromine {28 mV? Give your answer in Boiling point of | 4 37 degrees Celsius and in Kelvin, (You helium ‘may assume that the thermo-em4 TTiple point of | 25934-27315 = 13.81 | 259.38 produced i directly proportional eed tothe temperature difference Baling point of | 7750 7750— 27315 = ~195.65 Derween che)unetions} nitrogen Answer on p.216 @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide18 Thermal properties of materials Specific heat capacity and specific latent heat Physics deals in models. The kinetic model of matter is a powerful model that ‘can explain and predict macroscopic properties of materials For example, the densities of solids are generally higher than the densities of liquids This because the parties in solids are closer together than the particles in liquids, ‘The densities of gases are much lower than the densities of solids and liquids. ‘This s because the particles in gases are much further apart than those in liquids ‘or solids, The kinetic model is based on the following ideas: ‘© Matter is mace up of small particles (azoms, ions ar molecules) ‘© The partides move around. ‘© Thereare forces between the particles [ Solids, liquids and gases revised fl I ‘The three phases of matter can be distinguished at a macroscopic level and at a microscopic level. Table 18.1 shows the differences. Table 18.1, Solid Definite volume, definite shape | Particles are in fixed positions about which they can vibrate; the interparticle forces ae large Liquid Definite volume; takes the shape | Particles are further apart than in a solid and are free to, ‘of the container oye around the body of the liquid, the interparticle forces, although much weaker than in a solid, are stil sgnificant Gas Neither definite volume nor shape, | Particles are much further apart and can move around completely fills a container freely; interparticle forces are negligible Geir ) { } ‘When a body is heated its temperature increases, The amiount that it increases by (AT) depends on: © the energy supplied (AE) © mass of the body (ri) ‘© the material the body is made from arate m which can be writcer: AE = mcAT ‘where cis the constant of proportionality ts value depends on the material being heated. Its known as the specific heat capacity of the material. Thermal properties of materials (13)fezraning the cataton gs Tp eat iy ta kt material isthe energy requited to raise the temperature of unit mass of he ‘The units of spctic heat cepacty are)kg"™%, though jkgr?2C" soften used | acral by 1K for HC) The units are numerically equa. J Cees ‘A block of aluminium has a mass of 0S0kg. cis heated, using a 36.W heater, for 3 minutes and is temperature increases from 12°C 10 26°C. (Calculate the specific heat capacity of aluminium Answer AE 356x360 ee © inat=O50x 4 ONES “This is sighely higher chan the recognised Fue. However, there Iso artemp alow for energy losses to the surroundings. Specific heat capacity and the kinetic theory In the eatlier section on the kineeic theory, you met che idea that che temperature ‘ofa gas isa measure of the kinetic energy ofits molecules. Ths theory can be extended to both liquids and solids — when the temperature of any body is increased the average kinetic enery of the particles in the body i increased. ry s = £ 3 5 . ) My S © o rs 2 a a] 5 5 PS = es Measurement of specific heat capacity ‘The principles of measuring the specific heat capacity of either a solid or liquie are simple: © Measure the mass of material being heated, ‘© Measure the energy input. (© Measure the temperacure change. ‘The apparatus required for a straightforward experiment is shown in Figure 181 ‘Thermometer Metal block Figure 18.1 ‘This s the sort of experiment that you may have met in earlier years of study. ‘The mass and temperature change of the block are measured using @ balance and thermometer, The energy input can be calculated from the power input (V) multiplied by the time ¢ for which che heater is switched on. ‘The major problem with this experiment is how to measure andjor reduce energy losses to the surroundings. Simple precautions can be takert ‘© insulate the block, ‘© Start the experiment with the block below room temperature and then turn the heater off when the block is at an equivalent temperature above room ‘temperature. The block will gain energy from the surroundings when iis Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guidebelow room temperature and lose an equal amount when itis above oom temperature, ‘When similar experiments are carried out to find the specific heat capacity ‘of igus, must be remembered that the container holding the liquid also Tequires energy to raise its temperature. Often, containers made from expanded polystyrene or similar insulating materials are used. These have two advantages: © They provide the necessary insulation to reduce energy losses. © They have a low thermal capacity. thermal capacity, C = me where m= ass of the body and c = the specific heat capacity of the body. (eos ‘An electric shower is designed ro work from a 220 mains supply Itheats water asit passes through narrow tubes prior to the water passing through the shower head Water enters the heater at T2"C and when the flow rate fs O12kgs“it eaves a 2e'C. {Calculate the current in the hearer, assuring chat energy losses are negligible. (Gpeatic heat capacity of water = 4200]kg-""C-1) Answer power = Vi =mcAT where mn the mass of water passing through che heater per second. 2301 = 012 4200 x (28 - 12) ‘The thermal capacity of 3 body is the energy required to raise the temperature of the complete body by 1°C. ’ ep Nerraenernqoen: showers tend to be on a separate ee leet Seer shower is to alter the flow rate. ‘You vil have observed that when ice melts (or water boi) the ice (or bolting ‘water) remains ata constant temperature duting the process of melting (or boiling), despite energy still being supplied. This energy does not change the temperature ofthe subscance. instead, its doing work in changing the solid to liquid (or liquid to vapour), This energy is called the latent heat of fusion (or latent heat of vaporisation), From the definitions: AE mn ‘where 1, is the specific lcent heac of fusion, AE is the energy input, and Am is the mass of solid converted to liquid. a AE oar ‘where L, is the specific latent heat of vaporsation, AE isthe energy input, and. ‘Ams the mass of liquid converted to vapour ‘The units of both specific latent heat of fusion and of vaporisetion are kg” ‘The spedfic latent heat of fusion 's the eneray required to change unit mass of sold to liquid without a change in temperature. ‘The spedfic latent heat of vaporisation isthe energy requited to change unit mass of liquid to vapour ‘without a change in temperature, Thermal properties of materials ry s = 2 s = al 3 & e ro] rs 2 a 3 iS 5 3 = =I esry s = £ 3 5 . ) My S © o rs 2 a a] 5 5 PS = es 116 ‘Worked example A TSRW ketile contains 400g of boiling water. Calculate the mass of water remaining fics left switched on for afurcher § minutes, (pectic lacenc heat of vaporisation of water = 2.26 kg") AE _ 15x 10)x5x60 - im = FE = 155 Se = 01098 = 1998 rrass remaining = 400 ~ 199= 201g Latent heat and kinetic theory ‘You have seen how the average kinetic energy of the particles ina body increases as the temperature increases. When there is a change of state there is no change in the kinetic energy of the particles — thisis why chere fs no change in the temperature. instead, work is done to overcome the interparticle forces in separating the particles. ‘The average increase in the separation of particles when a solid turns toa liquid is small although the interparticle forces ae relatively large. The particles will now have mare potential energy chan in the solid state The specific latent heat of vaporisation of a subscance is generally greater chan the specific latent heat of fusion because, in melting, work is only done against ‘wo or three bonds, whereas in vaporisation work is dane against up to @ dozen bonds: Measurement of the specific latent heat of fusion of ice Figure 18.2 shows apparatus that could be used to measure the specific latent heat of fusion of ce To power supply _ ing ice Heater Beaker Balance Figure 18.2 Determining the specificlatent heat of fusion of fee ‘The method isstraightforward. The heater melts the ke and the resulting water is collected in the beaker Ifthe power of the heater is P, the mass of the beaker before the heater is swicched on is m, the mass ofthe beaker plus water ism, and the heater is switched! on for time then: the lacent heat of fusion of water, Ly = Pt m= This, however, does noc take into account energy exchanges with the ‘surroundings. In this case, because the melting point of ice is lower than room ternperature, it willbe an energy gain, rather than a loss, One method to Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guidealloy for this is to measure the mass of the water collected for a given time before the heater is switched on. This gives the mass of water melted by the ‘energy transferred from the surroundings. Ths can be subtracted from the mass collected when the heater is switched on. The following worked example demonstrares this Worked example ‘An experiment is carried outta measure the specifi latent heat of fusion of water sing the apparatus shawn In Figure 182. The power ofthe heater is 48W. The results obtaned are shown in Table 18.2. Table 18.2 Heater off Heater on 480 240 Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion of water Answer ice melted due to eneray gained from the surroundings = 1244 ~ 1162= 82 ‘ce eked due co this energy gained during the experiment = 2 = 41g, ‘cemelced during the heating = 1644 ~ 1244 = 400g icemelced due to the hester = 400-41 = 359g Pt _ 48x 1240 5 m—m, 359, = 200) Measurement of the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water Asimilar method can be used to measure the specific latent heat of -vaporisation of water (Figure 183). ‘To power supply Figure 18.3 Determining the specificlatent heat of vaporisation of water The problem, in this case, i wo allow for energy trangerred co the surroundings ‘This can be done by repeating the experiment using a heater of different power for the same lengch of time asin the original experiment. The energy losses will be equal each time, so the differences between the two sets of results will cancel ‘out the effect of heat losses. This is shown in the following worked example, Thermal properties of materials ry s = 2 s fe al 3 & e ro] rs 2 a 3 iS 5 3 = =I es‘Worked example ‘An experimenc is caried ouc ro measure the specific latent heat of vaporisation of water using the apparacts shown in Figure 183, The results obvained are shawn in Table 183. Table 18.3 rg Mass of beaker and water at the | Mass of beaker and water at heater/W | Time/s | beginning of the experiment/g _| the end of the experiment/g Experiment 1 | 36. 600 W778 168.4 LExpenment 2 [50 600 155.3 Calculate the specific acenc heat of vaporisaton of water Answer Experiment 1: Experiment 2: inout energy —g = Aen, Input energy -a= Amy where q = energy transferred tothe surroundings. where q = energy transfered tothe suroundings 35x 600-4 = (1728 1684)L, 50 x 600 — q = (1684 - 155.3}, 30000 - q= T3.1L, Suberac he fst equation from the second: 30000-21600 = (131-94, 8400 = 371, y= 227 108)" ry s = £ 3 5 . ) My 3S © o rs 2 a a] 5 5 PS = es [eee ‘© Look up, on the internet, the energy arriving at the Earth from the Sun per day. How much ce could this energy mel? Most ofthis energy is re radiated ) into space. If there were a 0.1% decrease in the amount of energy readiated J} ‘away what extra mass of ice could be melted ina year? Berean nts ‘You should be aware ofthe differences between evaporation and boiling (Table 184). Table 184 Emo Boiling ‘Molecules escape from the surface of the liquid _| Bubbles of vapour form in the body of the liquid Takes place over a wide range of temperatures | Takes place ata single temperature Evaporation causes cooling, This can be understaod if we consider kinetic OTe sheory. Ths is ilustrated in Figure 18.4, Itis often incorrectly thought that evaporation does not require energy input. The confusion may arise because water evaporates at room temperature, However, you can see that the cooling that evaporation {~ ce causes is likely to reduce the temperature of the water to below room temperature. Consequently there willbe an energy transfer from Molecule 1 Molecule 2. Molecule 3 the surroundings to the water (see Figure 18.6 alae ‘© Molecule 1 — a skow-moving molecule approaches the surface oF liquid but is pulled back into the body ofthe liquid. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide© Molecule 2 — a slightly faster moving molecule approaches the surface of a liquid, just gets out ofthe surface, but there is stl suficient attraction to pull the molecule back into the liquic ‘© Molecule 3 — 2 fast-moving molecule approaches the surface of aliquid. There isa tendency for it to be pulled back into the liquid, but it has sufficenc energy to escape. ‘Molecules escape from the surface of the liquid. When a molecules in the body ‘of the liquid, the net force on itis zero because the pul from all the molecules ‘around ic cancel each other out However, when a molecule approacties the surface of liquid there isa resultant force towards the centre of the liquid. because there are very few molecules above it. Consequently, only the fastest- moving molecules can escape from the surface. This means that the average speed of those let behind falls. Remember, the temperature is a measure of the average speed of the molecules ina body. When the average speed drops the temperature drops, Internal energy and the first law of thermodynamics Internal energy =] | Inthe previous sections you have seen that the particles in a body have a ‘mixture of kinetic energy and potential energy. Kinetic energy determines the ‘temperature of the body and potential energy determines the state of the body. ‘otal particles have the same kinetic and potential energies — they are potential energies assodated withthe randomly distributed. The intemal energy ofa body isthe sum of the kinetic Caachi FAG energies and potential energies of all the particles in the body. 4 Bac emu Ciel sy revised ll Thete are two ways of increasing the total internal energy of a body. © heating the body © doing work on the body ry s = 2 s = al 3 & e ro] rs 2 a 3 iS 5 3 = =I es Internal energy is the sum of the random dstribution of the kinetic and This leads to the frst law of thermodynamics, which can be expressed by the ‘equation: increase in internal energy (AU) = the energy supplied to the system by heading (Q) + the work done on che system (W) AU=Q+W (The ‘energy supplied to the system by heating’ s sometimes shortened to the “heating of the systern’) ‘To demonstrate a use of the first aw, consider an ideal gas contained in a ‘linder by a frictionless piston. The intial volurne of gasis V (Figure 185), Thermal properties of materials