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A Protection Scheme For Microgrids Using Intelligent Relays
A Protection Scheme For Microgrids Using Intelligent Relays
A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
of Master of Engineering in Electrical Engineering
© Debi Prasad Mishra, 2014
Abstract
Microgrids are emerging as an important part in modern power distribution systems due
to significant development in distributed generation technologies. Microgrids operate with a high
level of inverter interfaced distributed generation (IIDG) penetration such as fuel cells, solar cell,
and battery storage etc. The problem of microgrid protection becomes challenging as the fault
current varies widely depending upon the operating conditions such as grid-connected and
islanded mode in presence of IIDG. Fast and accurate fault detection coupled with a clearing
mechanism is required for a safe and secured micro-grid operation.
This thesis presents a microgrid protection scheme using intelligent relays. The proposed
intelligent relay is developed by combining a Wavelet Transform and Decision Tree models. The
relay detects and classifies faults using local measurements irrespective of the operating mode
of the micro-grid. The process starts by measuring and pre-processing the current signal at the
relaying point using the Wavelet Transform. Time-frequency features such as change in energy,
entropy and standard deviations are calculated using the wavelet coefficients. Cases
representing various faulted and normal conditions are simulated to generate the complete data
set containing the above mentioned features. This data set is used to train the decision tree for
fault detection. The fault classification data set contains line current negative and zero sequence
components along with the wavelet based features from current signals for the faulted cases
only. The detection and classification decision trees are extensively tested on a large unseen data
set and the test results indicate that the proposed relaying scheme can reliably protect the micro-
grid against faulty conditions under wide variations in operating conditions. The performance is
superior to that of instantaneous over current relays. The performance of the decision tree model
is compared with another data mining model known as the random forest model.
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Résumé
Les micro-réseaux pourraient jouer un rôle important dans les réseaux de distribution
modernes en raison de développements importants dans les technologies de production
décentralisée. Les micro-réseaux fonctionnent avec un haut niveau de pénétration de la
production décentralisée interfacée avec des onduleurs, telle que les piles à combustible, les
panneaux solaires, et le stockage de batteries. Le problème de la protection du micro-réseau
devient difficile étant donné que le courant de défaut varie largement en fonction des conditions
de fonctionnement, soit raccordé au réseau et en mode îlotage. Une détection de défaut rapide
et précise, couplée avec un mécanisme d’élimination de défaut, est nécessaire pour une
opération sûre et sécurisée du micro-réseau.
Cette thèse présente un système de protection des micro-réseaux utilisant des relais
intelligents. Le relais intelligent proposé est développé en combinant la transformée en
ondelettes et le modèle d'arbre de décision. Le relais détecte et classe les défauts, en utilisant
des mesures locales, quel que soit le mode d’opération du micro réseau. Le processus commence
par la mesure et le prétraitement du signal de courant au point de connexion du relais en utilisant
la transformée en ondelettes. Les caractéristiques temps-fréquence ainsi que les variations
d'énergie, d'entropie et les écarts types sont calculés en utilisant les coefficients de la
transformée en ondelettes. Les scénarios représentant diverses conditions avec et sans défaut
sont simulées pour générer un ensemble de données les caractéristiques choisies. Cet ensemble
est utilisé pour former le l’arbre de décision pour la détection de défaut. L'ensemble des données
de classification de défaut contient le courant de ligne, inverse et homopolaire et les
caractéristiques à base d'ondelettes des signaux de courant pour les cas de défauts. Les arbres
de décision pour la détection et la classification de défauts sont testés sur un grand ensemble de
données. Les résultats indiquent que l’approche proposée peut assurer la protection du micro-
réseau dans des situations de défaut, avec des conditions d'exploitation très variables et qu’elle
est supérieure aux performances des relais de surintensité instantanée. La performance du
modèle de l’arbre de décision a été comparée avec un autre modèle d'exploration de données
connu sous le nom de forêt d’arbres décisionnels.
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Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge those people who have guided, supported and helped me
during the research related to MEng thesis. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Prof.
Geza Joos for accepting me as his student. I would like to thank him for encouraging me to pursue
research in the area of microgrid. He has provided continuous supervision, guidance for this
research. It has immensely improved my knowledge of power electronics and power system.
I would like to acknowledge visiting Prof. Subhransu Ranjan Samantaray for helping and
guiding me to understand the power system protection. I would also like to thank Dr. Anthony J
Rodolakis for his assistance and support. I would like to acknowledge Diego Mascarella and
Martine Chela for their support in editing the French abstract.
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Table of Contents
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. I
RÉSUMÉ ................................................................................................................................ II
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS........................................................................................................... III
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................ IV
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... VI
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... VIII
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................... IX
LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................... X
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1
1.1. BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. CONVENTIONAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM VS MICROGRID ..................................................................... 2
1.3. PROTECTION ISSUES IN MICROGRID ............................................................................................... 3
1.3.1. Adaptive and Intelligent Relaying.................................................................................. 4
1.3.2. Unnecessary Operations of Protective Devices ............................................................. 4
1.3.3. High Impedance Fault .................................................................................................... 5
1.3.4. Relay Coordination in Microgrid .................................................................................... 5
1.3.5. Role of Communication System in Microgrid Protection ............................................... 5
1.4. LITERATURE REVIEW: PROTECTION SCHEMES FOR MICROGRIDS .......................................................... 6
1.5. PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................................ 8
1.6. OBJECTIVES .............................................................................................................................. 9
1.7. CLAIMS OF ORIGINALITY .............................................................................................................. 9
1.8. ORGANIZATION OF THESIS ......................................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER 2 MICROGRID MODEL ........................................................................................... 11
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO CERTS MICROGRID ........................................................................................ 11
2.2 COMPONENTS OF THE SIMULATED MICROGRID............................................................................... 13
2.2.1 Distributed Energy Resources ....................................................................................... 13
2.2.2 Three-Phase PI Line model ............................................................................................ 14
2.2.3 Loads in the Microgrid .................................................................................................. 15
2.2.4 Transformers................................................................................................................. 15
2.2.5 Current Transformers ................................................................................................... 15
2.3. MICROGRID OPERATION ........................................................................................................... 16
2.4 CURRENT CONTROLLED INVERTER MODEL ..................................................................................... 16
2.5 VOLTAGE CONTROLLED VSI SYSTEM.............................................................................................. 20
CHAPTER 3 FAULT CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS OF IIDGS ..................................................... 24
3.1 SIMULATION OF FAULT CURRENT CONTRIBUTION ............................................................................ 24
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3.2 FAULT CURRENT DUE TO GRID-FREQUENCY IMPOSED VSIS ................................................................ 24
3.3 FAULT CURRENT DUE TO VOLTAGE CONTROLLED VSIS ..................................................................... 26
CHAPTER 4 PROPOSED PROTECTION SCHEME ...................................................................... 29
4.1 PROPOSED PROTECTION SCHEME USING AN INTELLIGENT RELAY ........................................................ 29
4.2 OVERVIEW OF WAVELET TRANSFORM........................................................................................... 30
4.2.1 Continuous Wavelet Transform .................................................................................... 30
4.2.2 Discrete Wavelet Transform ......................................................................................... 31
4.2.3 Energy of a Signal ......................................................................................................... 32
4.2.4 Shannon Entropy........................................................................................................... 32
4.2.5 Standard deviation ....................................................................................................... 33
4.3 SIGNAL PRE-PROCESSING USING WAVELET TRANSFORM .................................................................. 33
4.3.1 Haar Wavelet ................................................................................................................ 34
4.3.2 Selection of the Wavelet Coefficient ‘d3’ ...................................................................... 35
4.4 SEQUENCE ANALYZER ................................................................................................................ 37
4.5 DATA MINING TECHNIQUES USED FOR THE PROTECTION SCHEME ...................................................... 38
4.5.1 Decision Trees ............................................................................................................... 39
4.5.2 Random Forest .............................................................................................................. 40
4.6 METHODOLOGY FOR FAULT DATA GENERATION ............................................................................. 40
4.7 METHODOLOGY FOR NO FAULT DATA GENERATION ........................................................................ 42
4.8 GENERATING DATASET CONTAINING FEATURES .............................................................................. 42
4.9 BUILDING DECISION TREE MODEL FOR INTELLIGENT RELAY ............................................................... 43
4.10 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................... 44
4.10.1 Results for Fault Detection ......................................................................................... 44
4.10.2 Results for Fault Classification .................................................................................... 46
4.11 COMPARING INTELLIGENT RELAY WITH OVERCURRENT RELAY .......................................................... 47
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 50
5.1 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................... 50
5.2 CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................................... 50
5.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK ............................................................................................... 51
APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................ 52
(a) Case 1: Fault with 0.01 Ohm vs No fault condition in grid Connected Mode. ................. 52
(b) Case 2: Comparison of fault current with 0.01 ohm and 2 ohm Fault resistance in Grid
connected mode. ................................................................................................................... 52
(c) Case-3: Comparison of fault current between Loop and Radial topology ........................ 53
(d) Case 4: Fault current comparison for SLG fault having 0.01 Ohm Resistance for Both Grid
Connected and islanded mode .............................................................................................. 54
(e) Case 5: Fault current comparison SLG fault in Grid Connected mode with 40% vs. 10% DG
penetration ............................................................................................................................ 55
APPENDIX B......................................................................................................................... 56
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 57
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List of Figures
Figure 2.1 CERTS Single Line Diagram 12
Figure 2.2 Block Diagram of a DER using Solar Power 17
Figure 2.3 Block Diagram for DC-bus voltage Based Current Controlled Inverter 19
Figure 2.4 Schematic Diagram of Voltage Controlled VSI 21
Figure 2.5 Diagram of the control Block for a voltage controlled VSI 22
Figure 3.1 (a) Voltage (b) Current from current controlled inverter in pu for AG fault 25
Figure 3.2 (a) Voltage (b) Current in pu from current controlled inverter for fault ABG 25
Figure 3.3 (a) Voltage (b) Current in pu from current controlled inverter for fault ABCG 26
Figure 3.4 (a) Voltage (b) Current in pu from voltage controlled VSI for AG fault 27
Figure 3.5 (a) Voltage (b) Current in pu from voltage controlled VSI for fault ABG 27
Figure 3.6 (a) Voltage (b) Current in pu from voltage controlled VSI ABCG fault 28
Figure 4.1 Proposed Protection Scheme for CERTS Microgrid 29
Figure 4.2 (a) Single decomposition step (b) Decomposition upto level 3 of a signal ‘x’ 31
Figure 4.3 Frequency bands related to each co-efficient of the wavelet transform 34
Figure 4.4 Haar Wavelet 34
Figure 4.5 Wavelet detail Coefficients Fault and No Fault Signal 36
Figure 4.6 Decision Tree for Classification 40
Figure 4.7 Decision Tree for Fault Detection 48
Figure 4.8 Decision Tree for Fault Classification. 49
Figure A1 Current for Phase A -AG Fault with 0.01 Ohm vs No fault 52
Figure A2 D3 Coefficient for Phase A -AG Fault with 0.01 Ohm vs No fault 52
Figure A3 D3 Coefficient for Negative Sequence –AG Fault with 0.01 Ohm vs No fault 52
Figure A4 D3 Coefficient for Zero Sequence - AG Fault with 0.01 Ohm vs No fault 52
Figure A5 Current for Phase A - AG Fault with 0.01 Ohm vs 2 Ohm 52
Figure A6 D3 Coefficient for Phase A - AG Fault with 0.01 Ohm vs 2 Ohm 53
Figure A7 D3 Coefficient for Negative Sequence – AG Fault with 0.01 Ohm vs 2 Ohm 53
Figure A8. D3 Coefficient for Zero Sequence - AG Fault with 0.01 Ohm vs 2 Ohm 53
Figure A9 Current for Phase A - AG Fault with 0.01 Ohm in Radial vs Loop 53
Figure A10 D3 Coefficient for Phase A - AG Fault - Radial vs Loop 53
Figure A11 D3 Coefficient for Negative Sequence – AG Fault - Radial vs Loop 54
Figure A12 D3 Coefficient for Zero Sequence- AG Fault - in Radial vs Loop 54
Figure A13 Current for Phase A - AG Fault - Grid-connected vs Island 54
Figure A14 D3 Coefficient for Phase A - AG Fault - Grid-connected vs Island 54
Figure A15 D3 Coefficient for Negative Sequence – AG Fault - Grid-connected vs Island 54
Figure A16 D3 Coefficient for Zero Sequence- AG Fault Grid-connected vs Island 55
Figure A17 Current for Phase A - AG Fault with 10% and 40% DG penetration 55
Figure A18 D3 Coefficient for Phase A - AG Fault - 10% and 40% DG penetration 55
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Figure A19 D3 Coefficient for Negative Seq –AG Fault-10% and 40% DG penetration 55
Figure A20 D3 Coefficient for Zero Sequence - AG Fault - 10% and 40% DG penetration 55
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List of Tables
Table 2-1 Generation capacity of DERs in microgrid .................................................................... 14
Table 2-2 Line impedance ............................................................................................................. 14
Table 2-3 Load details in the microgrid ........................................................................................ 15
Table 2-4 Transformer details in the microgrid ............................................................................ 15
Table 2-5 Base values used for per unit calculation ..................................................................... 17
Table 2-6 Boost converter parameters ......................................................................................... 17
Table 2-7 Parameters for the voltage source inverter ................................................................. 18
Table 2-8 Parameters for voltage controlled VSI .......................................................................... 23
Table 2-9 Parameters for inner current control loop ................................................................... 23
Table 2-10 Parameters of outer current control loop .................................................................. 23
Table 4-1 Detailed coefficient frequency range details ................................................................ 35
Table 4-2 Number of cases simulated – different types of faults in the network........................ 41
Table 4-3 Parameters for simulating different condition for no fault cases in microgrid ............ 42
Table 4-4 Features used for detection and classification of faults ............................................... 43
Table 4-5 Different classes used for detection ............................................................................. 44
Table 4-6 Different classes used for fault classification ............................................................... 44
Table 4-7 (a) Error Matrix (%) for fault detection using Decision Tree ........................................ 45
Table 4-8 Fault detection summary for DT and RF ....................................................................... 45
Table 4-9 (a) Error (%) matrix for fault classification using DT ..................................................... 46
Table 4-10 Classification result summary using data mining methods ........................................ 47
Table 4-11 Performance comparison for various relays tested in the microgrid ......................... 47
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List of Abbreviations
CERTS Consortium for Electric Reliability Solutions
CHP Combined Heat and Power
CT Current Transformer
CWT Continuous Wavelet Transform
DER Distributed Energy Resource
DG Distributed Generation
DT Decision Tree
HIF High Impedance Faults
IIDG Inverter Interfaced Distributed Generation
LL Line-to-Line
LLG Line-to-Line-to-Ground
LLLG Line-to-Line-to –Line-to-Ground
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
PCC Point of Common Coupling
PLL Phase-Locked Loop
PMU Phasor Measurement Unit
RF Random Forest
SLG Single Line-to-Ground
SPWM Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
STFT Short time Fourier Transform
VSI Voltage Source Inverter
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List of Acronyms
ω Angular frequency
θ Phase of the grid from PLL
m Modulation index
Ψ Mother wavelet
μ Mean
σ Standard deviation
α Complex operator
φ Phase angle
Ω Impedance in ohm
p Energy probability distribution
a Dilation parameter
b Translation parameter
IB Current supplied by VSI to grid by controlled frequency VSI
Idref Id reference
Iqref Iq reference
IDG Current passing thought the inductor using current controlled VSI
Kp Proportional gain
Ki Integral gain
VB Voltage across capacitor C of the controlled frequency VSI
Vdcref Reference voltage of the dc bus
Vdc Measured voltage of the dc bus
VBqref Reference voltage for q-axis component of VB
VBdref Reference voltage for q-axis component of VB
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Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1. Background
Microgrids are emerging as an important part of the modern power distribution
infrastructure. Microgrids have high penetration of distributed energy resources (DERs) along
with communication, control and protection devices [1, 2]. Microgrids operate in
semiautonomous manner and cover a small geographical area within a power distribution
system.
Distributed energy resources or DERs, also known as distributed generation (DG), are
small scale energy resources such as a fuel cell, gas turbine, micro turbine, diesel generator,
photovoltaic cell, wind turbine, battery storage etc. These DGs are embedded within the
distribution network forming the microgrid. Other than electrical power needs, DERs producing
waste heat such as micro turbines, gas engines, and small scale combined heat and power (CHP)
units can be placed closed to the heat loads in order to fulfil the thermal need of customers.
Thus, the presence of DERs in proximity to the loads makes the power delivery more reliable as
it reduces power transmission loss and increases the energy efficiency of the power system by
waste heat utilization. Efficient use of energy from DERs with a higher proliferation of renewable
energy resources within a microgrid also helps to reduce the carbon footprint of the utility
company and of the nation [1]. Thus, the microgrid enhances the reliability of the power network
with both economic and environmental benefits.
A microgrid must have the ability to operate independently when there is any disturbance
in the utility grid such as faults and other contingencies. Microgrids operating without any
connection to the utility grid are known to be operating in islanded mode. It can also operate in
grid-connected mode when it is connected to the utility grid. To improve the efficiency and
reliability of the microgrid, the DERs in the microgrid are connected in a plug-and-play model and
they operate in peer-to-peer manner. The plug-and-play property of the microgrid allows the
DERs to be placed at any point in the electrical system without reengineering the existing control
method and the protection strategy. Peer-to-peer operation mode tries to ensure that there is
no master controller unit, for co-ordination and communication within the microgrid, used to
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assist the control and protection scheme. A microgrid can operate with the loss of any operating
DERs. Due to the recent development in power electronic interfaces and renewable energy
technologies, the microgrid is embedded with various types of DERs. However, microgrids with
high level of DG penetration still encounter many challenges related to operation, control and
protection.
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The power flow in a microgrid is dynamic and bidirectional as the microgrid has the
capability to import and export power from the main distribution grid[6, 7]. Also, due to a high
penetration of DGs, the power flow can be bidirectional within a feeder. Microgrids may have a
mesh topology to enhance reliability which creates additional challenges in terms of power flow
as compared to the radial topology.
A microgrid operating in grid-connected mode has a higher short circuit current level as
the fault current is supplied by the utility grid. But, the fault current level in islanded mode of
operation is considerably smaller as compared to grid-connected mode for the same kind of fault,
as the power electronic interfaces have limited current carrying capacity depending on the power
converter rating. This creates a new challenge for protection devices operating with the over
current principle. Thus, a comprehensive relaying scheme needs to be developed which must
operate accurately and reliably in both grid-connected and islanded mode with different levels
of short circuit current for the same type of fault [5, 8-14].
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1.3.1. Adaptive and Intelligent Relaying
The fault current level in an islanded microgrid is reduced considerably as compared to
the grid-connected mode. The adaptive relaying scheme detects the grid status (grid-connected
or islanded) by using islanding detection algorithm and then the tripping is selected as per the
updated relay setting. During the islanded mode operation of the microgrid, it might lose some
of the DGs due to faults and this might cause changes in current levels in the microgrid feeders.
The relays should be intelligent and adaptive to sense the changes and protect the feeder
accordingly. Furthermore, these relays should be able to identify the fault in the presence of
inverter based sources supplying limited fault currents for a microgrid operating in islanded
mode. Relays are required to employ intelligent techniques in order to detect faults without the
help of communication and global measurements of current and voltages.
Microprocessor based relays using the information available at the PCC cannot always
determine the fault location given the extreme difference in energy capability between the utility
and the microgrid [15]. As very high speed separation is required to be completed at PCC, there
is a possibility of faulty operation of the switch causing nuisance tripping. For a microgrid in the
islanded mode, nuisance tripping can cause unacceptable power quality problems. Microgrids
which can operate with low power quality are designed to shed all non-critical loads upon
separation from the utility. Nuisance tripping can be addressed by using high speed
communication between PCC and utility side substation.
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1.3.3. High Impedance Fault
High impedance faults (HIFs) are likely to occur in the microgrid. It is difficult to detect the
HIFs as the fault current magnitude is very small containing harmonic components. Thus, the
conventional protection scheme might fail. The HIF current characteristics need to be studied for
the islanded mode. So, the detection of high impedance fault under islanded mode is an unsolved
problem[9].
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until the communication link is restored. However, the communication scheme makes the
protection strategy expensive and adds risks to the microgrid in case of communication failure.
Several protection schemes for a microgrid using communication have been proposed
[12, 13, 18-22]. A differential relaying technique has been proposed for a medium voltage
microgrid containing synchronous generators and IIDGs. This method has been tested for
balanced and unbalanced faults including high impedance faults. A communication assisted
adaptive protection method with a high penetration of DGs [19]. However, it does not take into
account the islanded mode operation and the proposed method has not been tested on IIDGs. A
communication(wireless local area network protocol) assisted relaying technique has been
proposed using microprocessor based relays for a medium voltage grid with IIDGs [18]. Most of
the concepts used with this relay was originally proposed in [17] which uses the over current
method and negative sequence current component for the relaying system inside a low voltage
microgrid. An additional technique to identify high impedance faults using the third harmonic
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component of current has been added to the enhanced relay and the communication method
helps to reduce the operation time of the relay [18]. It also advocates for a back-up protection
strategy without using communication. In [22], a relaying strategy using communication for a
medium voltage looped network has been proposed which uses a similar protection strategy as
proposed in [18] . The strategies proposed in [18] and [22], are independent of the location of
DERs, microgrid operational mode, microgrid size and fault current level. However, the
protection strategy needs communication. A centralized communication assisted over current
based relaying technique, using IEC-61850 protocol, has been proposed for the microgrid [20]. It
contains synchronous DGs and IIDGs in the test network. The centralized controller is connected
to all DERs and relays in the network. The current value used in each relay is calculated
dynamically using microgrid operational parameters and updated repeatedly. There is no
information regarding the performance of the protection scheme for different types of balanced
and unbalanced faults. This scheme will not be effective for high impedance faults. The
protection technique as described in [20] has been improved to include back up relays [21]. The
current value used in each relay is calculated dynamically using microgrid operational parameters
and the relay will operate as an instantaneous time grading relay with latest setting in case of
communication failure. This paper has considered balanced three phases to ground faults only
and there is no information related to the performance of the protection technique on different
types of faults within the microgrid.
A protection scheme for a microgrid with DERs was proposed[23]. This method was
proposed for an islanded grid only. It does not consider the grid-connected mode of operation.
There were no results to validate the proposed protection scheme. A differential energy based
protection strategy was proposed for the microgrid in [24]. Balanced and unbalanced faults and
high impedance faults were discussed in this study. A protection scheme for only IIDG based low
voltage microgrids was proposed [25]. This method uses current and voltage schemes to protect
the grid. But, the relay settings need to be switched between grid-connected and islanded
modes. There is no experimental data for the verification of the proposed strategy. A statistical
classifier based protection scheme has been proposed for an islanded microgrid [26]. This paper
concludes that the differential relaying technique is a better technique as compared to the
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technique using local measurements. It shows that the symmetrical components of differential
current are better features for fault identification as compared to line current, voltage and
harmonic components of current. This strategy was tested for an islanded microgrid only. To
overcome the problem of limited fault current in islanded mode, a flywheel based system was
designed to supply a higher fault current [27]. This method will help over current relays to
operate in islanded mode. However, this method requires additional cost for investing in a
flywheel. It increases the operational complexity of the microgrid as well.
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1.6. Objectives
In order to design an intelligent relay for a low voltage microgrid which can identify all
kinds of balanced and unbalanced shunt faults with the help of local measurements, an analysis
will be performed using the following roadmap.
A low voltage distribution microgrid will be developed and simulated using IIDGs only.
An extensive fault study will be carried out for balanced and unbalanced faults with
varying fault impedances for different operating conditions within the microgrid.
Setting suitable features which are most affected during the fault conditions.
Building data-mining based model using Decision Trees considering the most affected
features derived at the local end to detect and classify faults in microgrids.
The advantages of using an intelligent relay with local measurements are as follows:
The protection strategy using intelligent relays with local measurements can result in
accurate fault detection in grid-connected mode and islanded mode as compared
instantaneous over current relays.
The protection strategy needs to be effective when the microgrid topology changes from
radial to mesh and vice versa.
The protection strategy does not need any communication infrastructure; hence it
increases the reliability of microgrid operation and reduces the operation cost.
For fast and accurate detection of faults using intelligent relays, a set of features were
extracted from the fault current signal using wavelet transform coefficients. Features
obtained for all faulted and unfaulted conditions were used for training the decision trees.
The decision tree based intelligent relay does not need any external information related
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to microgrid operating status in order to perform fault detection and classification task.
This scheme has been tested for wide range of operating conditions in the microgrid.
Chapter 3 describes the response of voltage and current controlled inverters in case of a
fault when there is just one type of control used for an IIDG. This chapter gives an explanation
for the maximum current carrying capability of the IIDG. Then, it becomes easier to understand
the varying short circuit current levels during grid-connected and islanded mode.
Chapter 4 proposes a new protection scheme for protecting the CERTS microgrid
(presented in chapter 2) using intelligent relays. The steps needed to design an intelligent relay
which will be used with local measurements have been explained in this chapter. Different types
of faults were simulated under various conditions. A detailed description of the process for
building a decision tree based intelligent relay has been presented. The performance of the
decision tree based intelligent relay as compared to the random forest algorithm and over
current relay has been studied in this chapter.
Chapter 5 concludes the thesis with a brief discussion regarding the advantages of the
intelligent relay and lists out research topics in order to build a complete protection scheme for
the microgrid.
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Chapter 2 Microgrid Model
2.1 Introduction to CERTS Microgrid
There are microgrid projects in many countries in the world such as Canada, Japan, and
USA etc. The Consortium for Electric Reliability Solutions (CERTS) Microgrid Laboratory test bed
was developed in USA which operates with the help of modern technologies. The CERTS
microgrid tried to improve the integration small distributed energy resources into microgrid [28].
The CERTS microgrid is a low voltage subsystem in a conventional power distribution system. The
control and operation of the microgrid is different from a conventional power distribution grid.
CERTS microgrid uses advanced technologies to allow seamless transition between grid-
connected and islanded system. It employs a protection strategy as compared to a conventional
distribution grid which does not depend on high fault current and the modern microgrid control
helps to maintain voltage and frequency stability during islanded mode of operation.
CERTS microgrid has the ability to deliver high quality power to loads within the microgrid
[29]. But, the cost of interconnection protection increases with an increase in the number of DGs
[29].
This thesis proposes a protection strategy for a microgrid using power electronic
interfaced Distributed Energy Resources (DER). The microgrid model used is based on the
topology of the CERTS microgrid. Since the focus of this thesis is on power electronic interfaced
DGs, the 2 CHP units were replaced by photovoltaic based DGs interfaced using power electronic
converters. The battery storage based Distributed Energy Resource (DER), also interfaced using
a power electronic converter, remains in place. The 3 units are operated in current control mode
when the microgrid is connected to the grid. When disconnected, the battery based DER is
operated in voltage control mode.
The change in the nature of the DERs will affect the fault characteristics of the microgrid,
given that the fault behavior of power electronic converters is dictated by the control loops rather
than the inherent characteristics of the rotating machines, as in conventional generators. Figure
2.1 shows single line diagram of CERTS microgrid.
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The CERTS microgrid uses conventional relays such as under-voltage and negative/zero
sequence current components. The conventional approach may not be suitable in power
electronic interfaced DGs, given the limited short circuit capacity and the fact that the short
circuit current is dictated by the current control loops. This work therefore investigates the use
of alternative protection strategies based on intelligent relaying technique.
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Given that the nature of the DGs has been changed in the microgrid under study, the only
comparison that can be made between the protection approach used in the original CERTS
microgrid, conventional generator based, and the power electronic interfaced DERs used in this
work is in the way the conventional relaying design approach works in the modified context. A
comparison of the reliability of the two approaches will yield different results, because of the
different short circuit behavior of power electronic based interfaces. The comparison between
the conventional relay design approach and the intelligent relay approach is discussed in Section
4.11.
One battery based storage source and two sources based on solar power are present in
this simulated microgrid. Each photovoltaic resource is connected to the microgrid using a
current controlled inverter and the control method for the inverters remains unchanged whether
the microgrid operates in grid-connected or islanded mode. The battery storage based inverters
operate as current controlled inverters in grid connected mode, but the type of control changes
to voltage control method when the microgrid operates as an islanded grid. Current controlled
inverters always operate at unity power factor. Voltage controlled inverters are responsible for
supplying the required reactive power for all the inductive loads in islanded mode and control
13 | P a g e
the voltage in the islanded mode. It also sets up the microgrid frequency in islanded mode. A
detailed description of the control methods used for current controlled and controlled frequency
inverters have been presented in section 2.4 and section 2.5 respectively.
All the DGs used in this grid are interfaced with the microgrid using voltage source
inverters. DG-B1 and DG- A2 are powered by photovoltaics cells and always operate in current
controlled mode. The current controlled DGs operate with unity power factor.DG-A1 is powered
by a battery storage cell and the control action for this inverter switches from current control
mode to voltage control mode when the microgrid state is changed from grid-connected to
islanded mode and vice-versa. This DG can supply both active and reactive power as per the
demand in the microgrid. This DG is used to control the frequency and voltage of the microgrid
in islanded mode.
14 | P a g e
2.2.3 Loads in the Microgrid
There are 4 loads in the microgrid diagram shown in the Figure2.1 .One load is outside
PCC. All the loads consume power during the grid-connected mode, however, during the islanded
mode, only three load banks are supplied by the sources within the microgrid. All the load models
used in this study are balanced in nature. The loads have star configuration. Details of power
consumed by each load in the microgrid are given in the Table 2-3.
2.2.4 Transformers
The microgrid is connected to a 13.8KV utility grid using a transformer ‘T1’. This
transformer is a step down transformer. Information related to all the transformers is given in
Table 2-4. Transformer ‘T3’ has higher capacity as the DG connected to this transformer has the
ability to supply higher amount of power in islanded mode as compared to the other two DGs
present within the microgrid.
15 | P a g e
2.3. Microgrid Operation
The microgrid changes the operating mode from grid-connected to islanded mode in case
of short circuit on the grid-side or due to intentional islanding. The microgrid islanding is done
intentionally in case of a disturbance in voltage and frequency is detected on the utility grid. The
islanding process involves change in the control and operation within the microgrid. The islanding
operation occurs very fast in order to protect the microgrid. Appropriate changes in operation
and control are done for all IIDGs in the microgrid in islanded mode. Problems related to stability
of microgrid and reliable power supply arises in islanded mode as power electronic interfaces
have insignificant inertia.
The simulated microgrid operates in both grid-connected and islanded mode. Under grid
connected mode, as shown in Figure 2.1, all the DERs operate in current controlled mode and
the voltage and frequency of the grid is set by the utility grid. In grid-connected mode, if the loads
within the microgrid exceed the microgrid generation capacity, they can be served within the
microgrid by importing power from the utility grid. The microgrid needs a dispatchable power
source in islanded mode in order set the voltage and frequency within the microgrid and the
dispatchable power source should be capable of changing the output power quickly. Battery
storage based sources can be used as dispatchable resources which will operate in a load
following manner during islanded condition only. In islanded mode of operation, the power
balance between generation and load needs to be maintained and non-critical load shedding is
done to maintain the power balance within the microgrid in case of overloading.
16 | P a g e
PI control in dq-frame. The phase-locked loop (PLL) plays an important role in synchronizing the
inverter with the grid by sensing the grid frequency. So, the current controlled inverters are also
known as grid-imposed frequency controlled inverters. The current controlled inverter can be
implemented either by using PQ-control or dc-bus voltage control. Constant dc-bus voltage
based current control technique has been explained in this section as the dc-bus is fed using a
power source i.e. solar cell. The schematic diagram of the inverter with solar cell has been shown
in the diagram Figure 2.2.
V, I MPPT
Control
Duty Cycle
T VB
L
C Grid
IDG
Solar DC-DC Inverter
17 | P a g e
The solar cells used in this study operate using the maximum power point tracking
algorithm. The solar cell produces 100 KW using 41 parallel strings where each string has 8
modules. Each module contains 96 cells. These solar cells operate using the maximum power
dP
tracking control algorithm (incremental conductance method 0 ). The parameters used for
dV
the boost converter are given in Table 2-6. The specifications of the inverter connected to the
grid have been specified in Table 2-7.
There are three inputs to the control system. First input is VB which is the voltage sensed
after the inductive filter, second is the line current IDG passing through the inductor and the third
one is the dc bus voltage Vdc.
The control system can be divided into two loops. The inner loop is a current control loop
and the outer loop is the dc-bus voltage control loop. The outer loop works to stabilize the dc-
bus voltage around Vdcref and it produces a current reference signal Idref for the inner current
control loop which is responsible for the active power transfer done using the inverter. The
maximum and minimum limit of Idref has been set to 1.2 times of rated inverter current and zero
respectively. In order to achieve unity power factor control, the reactive power supplied by the
inverter is controlled by setting Iqref to zero.
The schematic diagram of a current controlled VSI has been presented in Figure 2.3 . The
symbols in the control diagram are explained as follows:
18 | P a g e
Vdcref =Reference voltage of the dc bus,
C= DC link capacitance,
m = modulation index,
φ = Phase angle,
VBq
abc-to-dq
VBd
ϴ
ωt
PLL
VB(abc)
Phase-to-ground
ϴ Iqref VBq
m=+1
+ Vqref
Iq - +
Kp +Ki/s
+ m
+ m=sqrt
m=0
(Vdref^2+
IDG(abc) Vqref^2)
ωL 2/Vdc
abc-to-dq & SPWM
ωL
Φ= atan2
- (Vqref/
Vdref Vdref) φ
Kp +Ki/s
Id - +
+
+
Idref = +1.2 Idref
VBd
Vdc
Kp +Ki/s
- +
Idref = 0 To inverter
Vdcref
Figure 2.3 Block Diagram for DC-bus voltage Based Current Controlled Inverter
ω = 2πf,
19 | P a g e
Idref =Id reference,
The VSI system is modelled and controlled in dq rotating frame [30]. The frequency of the
VSI is set by a virtual PLL at 60Hz. The control loop can be divided into two parts. The inner
current control loop and the outer voltage control loop.
The outer voltage control loop takes the voltage sensed across the filter capacitor as an
input signal after converting it to the dq-frame. The q-axis voltage reference Vqref is set to zero
and d-axis reference Vdref is set to 1 pu. The outputs Idref, Iqref of the outer voltage loop act as
reference signal to the inner loop. The current measured after the filter capacitor is given as input
to the inner current control loop. Finally, the switching signals are fed to the inverter. A schematic
diagram of a controlled-frequency VSI has been presented in Figure 2.4.
20 | P a g e
Control
VB
L
DC Source To Grid
IDG IB
Inverter C
The detailed control diagram of a controlled-frequency VSI has been presented in Figure
2.5. The additional symbols in the control diagram are explained as follows:
21 | P a g e
IBq
IBd
IB (abc) VBqref IBq
+
Iq=+1.5
VBq - +
Kp +Ki/s
+
Iqref
abc-to-dq + Iq=-1.5
VB(abc) ωC
Phase-to-ground
ωC
Kp+Ki /s + - Id=+1.5
Idref
VBd - + + Id=-1.5
VBdref IBd
ϴ
ωt
PLL
Iqref VBq
ϴ
Vqref
m=+1
+
Iq - +
Kp +Ki/s
+ m
+ m=sqrt
m=0
(Vdref^2+
IDG(abc) Vqref^2)
ωL 2/Vdc
abc-to-dq & SPWM
ωL
Φ= atan2
- Vdref
(Vqref/
Vdref) φ
Kp +Ki/s
Id - + +
+
Idref VBd
To inverter
Figure 2.5 Diagram of the control block for a voltage controlled VSI
It uses PI control to control for the inner and the outer loop. PI gains and other parameters
have been given in Table 2-9 and Table 2-10. The per unit calculation was done as per the data
specified in Table 2-5.The specification of various components used with the voltage controlled
inverter are mentioned in Table 2-8.
The maximum and minimum level of reference currents, generated in dq-frame by the
outer voltage control loop, has been limited to 1.5 and -1.5 times of the rated current capacity
respectively as shown in Figure 2.5. Thus the maximum current magnitude for this VSI is limited
to approximately 2.1 times of the rated current.
22 | P a g e
Table 2-8 Parameters for voltage controlled VSI
Parameters for Voltage Controlled VSI
Battery Voltage 900V
Output Filter inductance 0.3mH
Filter Capacitance .08mF
Inverter Rating 100KVA
Inverter ‘on’ resistance 0.6mOhm
Switching Frequency 8000Hz
23 | P a g e
Chapter 3 Fault Current
Characteristics of IIDGs
3.1 Simulation of Fault Current Contribution
The fault current contributed by a DG employing grid-frequency imposed VSI current
control or controlled frequency VSI has been shown in this chapter. This chapter explains how
the IIDGs current contribution characteristics are responsible for different fault current levels in
the grid-connected and the islanded mode. All the locations used for fault simulation in the
microgrid has been shown in Figure 2.1.Balanced and unbalanced faults were simulated at F4
with fault resistance 0.01 Ohm for all cases shown in this chapter. The fault duration was for 20
cycles and it starts at 4.5 seconds after the simulation starts.
Figure 3.1 shows the voltage and current, for a single line-to-ground fault at F4, at the bus
where DG-B1 has been connected. The current output by the current controlled inverter is 1.2
times of the pre-fault current.
Figure 3.2 shows the voltage and current for a line-to-line-ground fault involving phase-a
and phase-b at the bus where DG-B1 has been connected. The current output of the current
controlled inverter is around 1.2 times of rated current
Figure 3.3 shows the voltage and current for a three phase-to-ground fault involving
phase-a and phase-b at the bus where DG-B1 has been connected. The maximum current output
of the current controlled inverter is around 1.2 times of rated current.
24 | P a g e
Voltage Per Ph in pu
Phase a Phase b Phase c
1
-1
2
Line Current in pu
-1
Figure 3.1 (a) Voltage (b) Current from current controlled inverter in pu for AG fault
2
Voltage Per Ph in pu
-1
-2
4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5
Time (s)
(a)
Phase a Phase b Phase c
2
Line Current in pu
-1
-2
4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5
Time (s)
(b)
Figure 3.2 (a) Voltage (b) Current in pu from current controlled inverter for ABG fault
25 | P a g e
2
Voltage Per Ph in pu
Phase a Phase b Phase c
1
-1
-2
4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5
Time (s)
(a)
2
Phase a Phase b Phase c
Line Current in pu
-1
-2
4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5
Time (s)
(b)
Figure 3.3 (a) Voltage (b) Current in pu from current controlled inverter for ABCG fault
The voltage and current measured for voltage controlled VSI DG-A1, for a single line-to-
ground fault at F4, is shown in the Figure 3.4. The current contributed by the DG is around 2.1
times of the rated current. Figure 3.5 and Figure 3.6 show voltage and current for DG-A1 for line-
to-line fault and three phase-to-ground faults respectively.
26 | P a g e
4
Voltage Per Ph in pu
Phase a Phase b Phase c
2
-2
-4
4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5
Time (s)
(a)
4
Phase a Phase b Phase c
Line Current in pu
-2
-4
4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5
Time (s)
(b)
Figure 3.4 (a) Voltage (b) Current in pu from voltage controlled VSI for AG fault
4
Voltage Per Ph in pu
-2
-4
4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5
Time (s)
(a)
4 Phase a Phase b Phase c
Line Current in pu
-2
-4
4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5
Time (s)
(b)
Figure 3.5 (a) Voltage (b) Current in pu from voltage controlled VSI for ABG fault
27 | P a g e
4
Voltage Per Ph in pu
Phase a Phase b Phase c
2
-2
-4
4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5
Time (s)
(a)
4
Phase a Phase b Phase c
Line Current in pu
-2
-4
4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5
Time (s)
(b)
Figure 3.6 (a) Voltage (b) Current in pu from voltage controlled VSI for ABCG fault
This chapter shows the current contribution by current controlled and voltage inverters
during different types of faults. The maximum current contribution by the IIDGs during the fault
condition depends on the type of control as explained in Chapter 2. The fault current in the
islanded mode for this microgrid is the summation of the currents supplied by IIDGs only.
Therefore, the fault current magnitude in the islanded mode is lower than the fault current
magnitude in the grid-connected mode.
28 | P a g e
Chapter 4 Proposed Protection
Scheme
4.1 Proposed Protection Scheme Using an Intelligent Relay
Decision Fault
Tree
Wavelet
For
Transform
Current Fault No
Signal Detection Fault
Microgrid I (abc)
Fault LG
Classification LL
Sequence Wavelet
Decision
Analyzer Transform LLG
Tree
LLLG
A new protection scheme has been proposed for the CERTS microgrid as shown in Figure
4.1 . The objective of this protection scheme is to provide primary protection using intelligent
relays. The intelligent relay uses local measurements to make decision regarding fault detection
and classification. The sequence analyzer produces sequence components by analyzing input
current. This scheme includes signal pre-processing using wavelet transform. The line current
signal was measured for 3904 conditions i.e. different faulted and healthy conditions within the
microgrid. The current signal is the input signal to the intelligent relay. This current signal is
processed by the sequence analyzer to produce negative and zero sequence components.
Wavelet coefficients for the measured current signal and for the sequence components were
extracted. Features using the wavelet coefficients were calculated. These features will be used
29 | P a g e
by the decision tree for detection and classification of faults. This scheme uses 15 different
features based on wavelet coefficients. These features are the inputs for data mining models
used for fault detection and classification. Nine out of fifteen features were used to train the
decision tree for fault detection and the decision tree used for fault classification was trained
using uses all the features. The output of the intelligent relay will identify and classify different
types of faults.
1 t b
X a ,b (t )
a
x(t )
dt
a
(4.1)
Here, x(t ) is the signal and (t ) is the mother wavelet. The translated and dilated version
1 t b
of the wavelet is given by a ,b (t ) where, a, b represent the dilated and
a a
translated parameters respectively. The translation and dilation are responsible for time and
frequency resolution respectively.
30 | P a g e
4.2.2 Discrete Wavelet Transform
The practical application of wavelet transform is performed using the discrete wavelet
transform. Any time series signal x(t ) can be completely decomposed into approximations by
using a scaling function j (t ) which is also known as father wavelet. The signal can be
decomposed into wavelet coefficients using mother wavelet j (t ) as shown in Figure 4.2 [33].
Aj+1 D1
Low Pass Filter 2
x
D2
Aj
Dj+1 A1 D3
High Pass Filter 2
A2
A3
(a) (b)
Figure 4.2 (a) Single decomposition step (b) Decomposition upto level 3 of a signal ‘x’
jk (t ) 2 j / 2 (2 j t n) (4.2)
jk (t ) 2 j / 2 (2 j t n) (4.3)
j
As j and k are integers and the basis function is scaled by a factor 2 and translated by n
units of time. The scaling function is associated with the low pass filters with filter coefficients H=
{ hn } and the wavelet function is associated with the high pass filter with filter coefficient G= {
gn }. It is important to note that G is the reverse of H interleaved with sign changes. The two
functions give rise to filters:
So for a signal x(t ) having length 2 M , then there are maximum of ‘M’ levels of
decomposition. The expression for the signal using the wavelet transform is given as follows:
31 | P a g e
2 M j 1 2 M j 1
x(t )
k 0
a jk jk (t )
j
d
k 0
jk jk (t ) (4.6)
where, a jk and d jk are known as the approximation and detail coefficients of the signal
at level j respectively. The signal is passed through high and low-pass filters. Then the outputs of
both the filters are down-sampled by a factor of 2 and the approximation and detailed
coefficients for level-1 A1 and D1 are obtained. This process is repeated for the approximation
coefficient till the desired level of detailed coefficient is retrieved
n 2
E i d ij (4.7)
j 1
where, i =1, 2,…,I stands for the scale and j=1,2,…,n denotes the number of points used
for each coefficient. So, change in energy using the wavelet coefficient shows the change in
energy of a signal due to some disturbance. Change in energy is calculated by subtracting the
energy between two successive cycles.
32 | P a g e
n
E i p j log( p j ) (4.9)
j 1
where, p j is the energy probability distribution of the wavelet coefficients d ij for scale i.
2
n d ij
p
j 1
j 1 and p j log p j 0 if p j 0 ; p j
Ei
[37, 38], E i is the energy as per equation 4.7.
transformation presented in Section 4.2.2. It is therefore dependent on the type of wavelet used
and the frequency band used.
N
1
N
(x
i 1
i )2 , (4.10)
N
1
where,
N
x
i 1
i and xi represents the ith data element of a data series and i=1,…,N;
33 | P a g e
d1(1.66-to- 3.33)KHz
(0 -to- 1.66)KHz
a1
d2 (0.833-to-1.66)KHz
7th,11th,13th
Harmonics
(0 -to- 833)Hz
a2
d3(416-to-833)Hz
(0-to-416 )Hz
a3
Figure 4.3 Showing frequency bands related to each coefficient of the wavelet transform
The choice of the wavelet function has an impact on the on the accuracy of detection and
classification. However, the choice of the window over which the data is analyzed by the
waveform transformation is more important than the actual function for low frequency signals,
voltages and currents, such as are found in power systems.
(t )
+1
1
0 t
-1
34 | P a g e
4.3.2 Selection of the Wavelet Coefficient ‘d3’
There were 6 detailed coefficients (d1 to d6) on obtained after analyzing the input signal
using the wavelet transform. The information related to frequency range for all the detailed
coefficients obtained using the wavelet transform has been mentioned in Table 4-1.
In the Figure 4.5 , a comparison of wavelet coefficients of the current signal obtained for
a “SLG fault with 2 ohm fault resistance” in grid connected mode and another current signal for
a “no fault” condition within the microgrid. The figure shows all the coefficients obtained by
processing the two current signals. We can see that the coefficient “d3” is a superior indicator of
the fault as compared to other wavelet coefficients. Appendix A lists many other cases of
comparison for ‘d3’.
35 | P a g e
Figure 4.5 Wavelet detail coefficients for fault and no fault signal
F1 – Change in Energy of Phase A (Post Fault - Pre fault for one cycle)
F2 – Change in Energy of Phase B (Post Fault - Pre fault for one cycle)
F3 – Change in Energy of Phase C (Post Fault - Pre fault for one cycle)
F7 – Standard deviation of Phase A after the fault occurs for one cycle
F8 – Standard deviation of Phase B after the fault occurs for one cycle
F9 – Standard deviation of Phase C after the fault occurs for one cycle
F11 – Entropy of Negative Sequence after the fault occurs for one cycle
F12 – Standard deviation of Negative Sequence after the fault occurs for one cycle
F14 – Entropy of Zero Sequence after the fault occurs for one cycle
F15 – Standard deviation of Zero Sequence after the fault occurs for one cycle
and I c represent the current flowing through phase a, b and c respectively. The positive
sequence component, negative sequence component and the zero sequence component can be
37 | P a g e
denoted by I 1 , I 2 and I 0 .respectively. The expressions for sequence components are given
below:
1
I1 (I a I b 2 I c ) (4.11)
3
1
I 2 (I a 2 I b I c ) (4.12)
3
1
I 0 (I a I b I c ) (4.13)
3
where, 1120 is the complex operator.
38 | P a g e
consisting of system data is assigned to different type of groups as defined by the user and fed
to a data mining algorithm to produce a classifier model. Each group of input data is known as a
class. There are different methods for data mining such as decision tree, random forest, support
vector machine and neural networks etc. The proposed study uses two effective data-mining
models. The transparent data-mining model is decision tree model and the black-box model is
random forest model. However, there is a trade-off between transparency and accuracy between
these two data-mining models which are discussed in the results and analysis section. Next few
paragraphs discuss regarding two data mining methods used for classification.
The Decision Tree (DT) is a highly popular and efficient way to build classifiers. The
decision tree algorithms are based upon supervised learning algorithms. It resembles an inverted
tree structure and works on a series of conditional (if-then) logic. A decision tree consists of
‘decision node’ where the input attributes are evaluated. The first node is referred as ‘root node’.
The ‘branches’ originating from the nodes correspond to the outcomes of the ‘decision node’.
The branches may lead to a class which is known as ‘leaf’ node or to another ‘decision node’
which is the root for another sub-tree within the DT. So, every ‘non-leaf’ or a ‘decision node’
has two branches and a ‘leaf’ node has no branch. Any node in the DT except ‘leaf’ node and
‘root node’ is known as ‘internal node’ [42]. DT is also known as binary tree if every ‘non-leaf’
node has two branches. A path starting from `root node` and ending at a `leaf` node represents
the set of evaluations done to identifying a class. These set of evaluations can be grouped to
create a classification rule. DTs can be converted to a set of classification rules [33] .DTs are easy
to implement and transparent in nature as it shows the possible alternatives for any ‘decision
node’.
An example of a decision tree has been shown in Figure 4.6. This decision tree is used to
classify a system into 3 classes depending on the attributes of the system. There are two input
attributes A, B. There are three output classes (class1, class 2 and class 3). The ‘root node’
evaluates the attribute A. If the attribute A is greater than zero the branch leads to a ‘leaf’ node
and the system is classified as class 1, else the branch from the root node proceeds to another
39 | P a g e
decision node to evaluate attribute ‘B’. When B is equal to 5 the branch leads to the ‘leaf’ node
class 2, otherwise it leads to class ‘3’.
A>0
s No
Ye
Class 1 B=5
s No
Ye
Class 2 Class 3
Figure 4.6 Decision Tree for classification
So the decision rules from this decision tree can be listed as follows.
When A is greater than zero the output is ‘Class 1’.
When A is less than or equal to zero and B is equal to five then the output is ‘Class
2’.
When A is less than zero or equal to zero and B is not equal to five the output is
‘Class 3’.
40 | P a g e
decreases, then additional power flows from the grid. For the islanded mode, the 3 DG operate
at a 100% of capacity. The DG penetration remains at 100 %, in islanded mode, in order to have
maximum grid current. Load shedding is needed in islanded mode if the generation capacity is
less than the demand of the microgrid. The faults were simulated at the middle of the distribution
line between two buses. The measurements were taken at a bus closest to the fault. Fault data
was generated by simulating different types of conditions such as different types of fault
resistance, fault location, changing fault inception angle, various levels of DG penetration within
different topologies of microgrid. Table 4-2 presents a summary of the conditions used for
simulating faulted conditions within the microgrid. As per this table there are a total of 2880
cases for grid connected mode, 960 for islanded mode for a total of 3840 different cases
corresponding to different types of fault conditions.
Table 4-2 Number of cases simulated – different types of faults in the network
Mode of Topology Type Types of No. of No. of DG Total no. of
Operation of Fault Fault Fault Penetration Cases
Fault Resistance Location Inception Level
Angle
Grid 2 10 3 4 4 3 2880
Connected
Islanded 2 10 3 4 4 1 960
The values used for simulating different types of faults are as follows:
Different balanced and unbalanced faults were simulated. They can be referred as AG,
BG, CG, AB, BC, CA, ABG, BCG, CAG, and ABCG (10 types).
Different types of fault resistance 0.01 Ω, 0.5 Ω and 2 Ω were used for all the faults
simulated (3 cases).
Faults were simulated in the network at location F1, F2, F3 and F4 as shown in Figure 2.1.
These faults are simulated at the mid-point on the distribution line between two adjacent
buses. (4 cases)
Three different DG penetration levels were used for the simulation were 100%, 40%, 10%
for simulating every fault with microgrid operating in grid-connected mode. It applies to
IIDGs operating as a grid-frequency imposed current control mode only. It does not apply
41 | P a g e
to frequency controlled VSI generation capacity. In islanded mode, the IIDGs operating
with grid-frequency imposed current control mode operate at 100% of its capacity.
Different fault inception angles[44] used in the simulation such as: 0 degree, 45 degree,
90degree, 180 degree (4 cases).
The microgrid was operated in loop and radial configurations.
42 | P a g e
current signal is used for generating features. These features are change in energy, standard
deviation and Shannon’s entropy as explained in section 4.2.Each phase of the three-phase
current has three features. So, the line current produces nine features. Negative and zero
sequence components produce another six features. Fifteen features are studied for building the
intelligent relay. These features are stored in one row within a comma separated file i.e. ‘.csv’.
Each row is assigned a class depending on the classification logic. This class represented by one
extra column in the feature dataset.
For building a decision tree model to detect fault, nine features related to line currents
were given as inputs along with the class to which they belong. It contains features extracted for
faulted as well as no-fault conditions. All the features related to related to fault conditions
were classified as ‘1’ and data generated under no fault condition was classified as class ‘2’. Table
4-5 presents a summary of the classes used for detection. The input dataset for building the fault
detection DT contains 3904 cases (refer Table 4-2 and Table 4-3) and 16 columns which include
15 columns for input features and one column for output class.
43 | P a g e
Table 4-5 Different classes used for detection
Situation Class
Fault 1
No-Fault 2
For training a decision tree model to classify a fault, fifteen features related to the line
current were given as inputs along with the class of fault. Ten types of faults mentioned for this
study were classified into four categories. All single line-to-ground(LG) faults were bundled into
one class ‘1’ , the line-to-line(LL) faults are classified into class ‘2’ , the line-to-line-to-ground(LLG)
faults were classified as class ‘3’ and the last category representing three-phase-to-ground(LLLG)
faults were classified as class ‘4’. So the dataset contains 3840 rows for fault measurement and
16 columns which include 15 columns for features and one column for class. Table 4-6 shows the
classes used in the classification process. Appendix B shows a sample dataset used for this study.
44 | P a g e
Table 4-7 presents the error matrix for decision tree model and random forest model.
Figure 4.7 shows the decision tree model obtained for the fault detection.
Error Matrix- An error matrix or confusion matrix can be defined as a matrix that
summarizes the classification performance of a classifier with respect to some test
data. It is a two dimensional matrix. One dimension of the matrix represents actual
class of an object and in other dimension the class predicted by the classifier.
The performance summary given in Table 4-8 compares the performance of decision tree
and random forest method. The definition of the terms used in Table 4-8 are as follows [47]:
Misdetection - Those faulted conditions which were reported as no-fault condition
by the relay.
False Alarm - Those no-fault conditions which were reported as fault by the relay.
Accuracy - Accuracy of a relay is calculated by subtracting misdetection and false
alarms from all the conditions.
As per Table 4-7(a), the results obtained by the DT used for fault detection. The actual
class `1` which represent fault condition has been successfully predicted by the DT for 96% of the
test data. The DT has classified 1% of the faulted data as no-fault condition which is a
misdetection. The DT has classified 2% of the no-fault data as fault i.e. false alarm.
Table 4-7 (a) Error Matrix (%) for fault (b) Error Matrix (%) for fault detection using
detection using Decision Tree Random Forest
Predicted Predicted
Class Class
Actual Actual
1 2 1 2
Class Class
1 96 1 1 97 0
2 2 1 2 1 2
45 | P a g e
Similarly as per Table 4-7 (b), the random forest method has predicted 97% of fault test
data correctly and there is no misdetection using the RF model. RF model has classified 1% of
data as false alarm. So, the DT model has 97% accuracy and RF model has 99% accuracy as per
the fault detection summary Table 4-8.
Table 4-9 (a) Error (%) matrix for fault (b) Error (%) matrix for fault classification
classification using DT using RF
Predicted Predicted
Class Class
Actual Actual
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Class Class
1 28 0 3 0 1 28 0 2 0
2 0 29 0 0 2 0 29 0 0
3 12 0 18 0 3 4 0 26 0
4 0 0 0 10 4 0 0 0 11
46 | P a g e
Table 4-10 Classification result summary using data mining methods
Data Mining
Accuracy in % Misdetection in %
Method
Decision Tree 85 15
Random Forest 94 6
Data Mining
Accuracy % Misdetection % False Alarm %
Method
Decision Tree 97 1 2
Random Forest 99 0 1
Conventional
Method
Overcurrent Relay 56 44 Not Applicable
47 | P a g e
F2 >= 0.0043
s No
Ye
Fault F3 >=0.0091
s No
Ye
Fault F1 >= 0.0044
s No
Ye
Yes No
s s
Ye N Ye
N
o
o
Fault F8 >= 0.0031 Fault No Fault
N
s
o
Ye
Yes No
s No s No
Ye Ye
Fault F8 >=0.0046 F9 < 0.013 F5 >= 0.041
s s
No Ye
N
s Ye
N
o
Ye
o
s
s
Ye
Ye
N
o
o
o
Ye
N
Ye
F9 >=0.0058 No Fault
s
Ye
N
o
Fault No Fault
48 | P a g e
F13 >= 413e-9
No
Yes
F10 < 68e-6 F13 >=847e-21
No
s
Ye
s No
Ye
Class 2 Class 4
No
s
Ye
F12 < 0.0082 Class 3
s
No
Ye
No
No
Ye
No
Ye
F11>=0.0051 Class 3
s
No
Ye
Class 3 Class 3
49 | P a g e
Chapter 5 Conclusion
5.1 Summary
In this thesis, a microgrid protection scheme has been proposed using intelligent relays
based on data mining models. This scheme addresses the possible problems of fault detection
arising due to the wide variation in fault current magnitude in grid connected and islanded mode
of a microgrid having a high penetration of inverter interfaced distributed generation (IIDG). The
proposed approach includes a comparative study of two extensively used data mining models
such as the decision tree (DT) and random forest (RF). Furthermore, a comparison between
traditional instantaneous overcurrent relays and the intelligent relays are presented, showing
the improvement in reliability and accuracy of the proposed scheme.
5.2 Conclusions
It is observed that the instantaneous over current relay cannot detect faults with a high
accuracy in a microgrid with IIDGs. The accuracy problem has been addressed by using intelligent
relays which are modelled by two types of data mining methods such as DT and RF. The accuracy
of fault detection improves to 97% for DT based relay and 99% for the RF based relay as compared
to 56% accuracy of the instantaneous over current relay. The improvement in accuracy of the
intelligent relay is due to the use of time-frequency information of the current signal used to
build the data-mining models.
Fault classification task can be dealt effectively by the proposed data mining models. It is
observed that the fault classification accuracy of the RF based relay is 9% higher than the DT
based relay. Similar observations are made for fault detection also where RF outperforms DT.
However, RF being a black box data-mining technique may face challenges for real
implementation on DSP or FPGA boards while DT being transparent, is easier to implement.
Though the proposed scheme has been extensively tested on simulation platform (MATLAB),
however, the response time response time within two cycles from the fault inception time. This
two cycle response time includes 1.7 cycle for signal processing and another 0.1 cycle for decision
making by the DT. This shows the potential of the proposed scheme for online application. Thus,
50 | P a g e
DT based data mining relays are recommended for building commercial relays for micro-grid
protection.
51 | P a g e
Appendix A
(a) Case 1: Fault with 0.01 Ohm vs No fault condition in grid Connected Mode.
current in pu
20
FaultSLG
10 nofault
0
PhaseinApu 20
FaultSLG
-10
A A current
10 nofault
0 50 100 150 200 250
0 Sample Number
1
Phase
-10
Figure A1.
0
Current50for Phase100
A -AG Fault
150
with 0.01 Ohm vs 250
200
No fault
D3-Phase D3-Phase
0 Sample Number
1
A
-1
Neg Seq Current in pu
00
20 50 100 150 200 250
Sample Number FaultSLG
10 nofault
-10
0 50 100 150 200 250
Sample Number
-10
Figure A2. D3
0 Coefficient
50 for Phase
100 A -AG 150
Fault with200
0.01 Ohm250
vs No fault
Sample Number
Seq
0.01
in pu
20
D3 - Neg
0 FaultSLG
Zero Seq current
10 nofault
-0.01
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
-10 Sample Number
Figure A3. D3 Coefficient
0 for50Negative100
Sequence150
–AG Fault200
with 0.01250
Ohm vs No fault
Sample Number
0.01
D3-ZeroSeq
-0.01
(b) Case 2: Comparison of fault current with 0.01 ohm and 2 ohm Fault resistance
in Grid connected mode.
20
Current Phase A in pu
0.01-OhmFaultSLG
10 Two-OhmSLG
-10
0.5
D3- PhaseA
52 | P a g e
0
-0.5
-1
0 50 100 150 200 250
0.01-OhmFaultSLG
Current Phase A i
10 Two-OhmSLG
-10
0.5
D3- PhaseA
0
0.01
NegSeq
20
0.01-OhmFaultSLG
Current
100 Two-OhmFaultSLG
Zero SeqD3-
0
-0.01
-100 50 100 150 200 250
Sample Number
0 50 100 150 200 250
Figure A7. D3 Coefficient for NegativeSample
Sequence – AG Fault with 0.01 Ohm
Number vs 2 Ohm
0.01
D3- ZeroSeq
-0.01
20
0.01-Ohm-Radial
0.01-Ohm-Loop
PhaseA inCurrent
10
pu
20
0
0.01-Ohm-Radial
0.01-Ohm-Loop
PhaseA Current
10
-10
-1
00 50 100 150 200 250
Sample Number
-1
0 50 100 150 200 250
Sample Number
Figure A10. D3 Coefficient for Phase A - AG Fault with 0.01 Ohm in Radial vs Loop
53 | P a g e
20
0.01-Ohm-Radial
-10
0 50 100 150 200 250
Sample Number
0.01
current in pu
Zero Seq D3-NegSeq
20
0.01-Ohm-Radial
0
10 0.01-Ohm-Loop
0
-0.01
-0.01
Figure A12. D3 Coefficient for Zero Sequence- AG Fault with 0.01 Ohm in Radial vs Loop
(d) Case 4: Fault current comparison for SLG fault having 0.01 Ohm Resistance for
Both Grid Connected and islanded mode
in pu in pu
20
0.01-GridConFaultSLG
A Current
20
10 0.01-IslandFaultSLG
0.01-GridConFaultSLG
A Current
10
0 0.01-IslandFaultSLG
Phase
0
-10
0 50 100 150 200 250
APhase
Sample Number
-10
20
Figure A13. Current for50Phase A -100
AG Fault
Sample
150 200
- Grid-connected
Number vs 250
Island mode
2
D3-Phase
A
0
D3-Phase
Neg Seq Current in pu
0
20
0.01-GridConFaultSLG
-2
100 50 100
0.01-IslandFaultSLG 150 200 250
Sample Number
-2
0 50 100 150 200 250
0 Sample Number
Figure A14. D3-10Coefficient for Phase A - AG Fault - Grid-connected vs Island mode
0 50 100 150 200 250
Sample Number
0.02
D3-NegSeq
-0.02
0 50 100 150 200 250
Sample Number
Figure A15. D3 Coefficient for Negative Sequence – AG Fault - Grid-connected vs Island mode
54 | P a g e
20
-10
0 50 100 150 200 250
Sample Number
0.01
D3-ZeroSeq
0
-0.01
20
DG40Percent
Current
DG10Percent
10
pu
20
DG40Percent
CurrentA in
0
DG10Percent
10
Phase APhase
-10
0 50 100 150 200 250
0 Sample Number
0.5
-10
0 50 100 150 200 250
D3-PhaseA
20
-0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200
DG40Percent250
Sample Number DG10Percent
10
-0.5
00 50 100 150 200 250
Sample Number
Figure A18. D3
-10Coefficient for Phase A - AG Fault- 10% and 40% DG penetration
0 50 100 150 200 250
Sample Number
0.01
D3-NegSeq
in pu
20
0
DG40Percent
Zero Seq Current
10
-0.01 DG10Percent
0.01
D3-ZeroSeq
-0.01
Figure A20. D3 Coefficient for Zero Sequence - AG Fault - 10% and 40% DG penetration
55 | P a g e
Appendix B
A sample file data used for training and testing the DT model is given below.
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F11 F12 F13 F14 F15 Class
3.385209 0.016677 0.002994 3.519972 0.083593 0.0582 0.174058 0.014627 0.012773 0.002376 0.016012 0.004576 0.002478 0.016199 0.004675 1
0.003793 3.20219 0.012709 0.059616 3.420563 0.071645 0.012941 0.169332 0.013292 0.00234 0.015798 0.004542 0.002451 0.016049 0.004649 1
0.01181 -0.00082 3.17885 0.068528 0.049875 3.34933 0.013163 0.011589 0.168725 0.002355 0.015907 0.004556 0.002468 0.016144 0.004665 1
3.908081 3.993003 -0.0022 2.468175 2.894825 0.019277 0.187689 0.18892 0.010918 0.005729 0.035817 0.007081 3.06E-17 0 5.22E-10 1
0.00401 3.897733 4.012361 0.030604 2.502422 2.93613 0.012671 0.187459 0.189408 0.00574 0.035877 0.007088 2.31E-17 0 4.54E-10 1
4.041184 0.002085 3.952688 2.903681 0.039513 2.487453 0.190048 0.012507 0.188766 0.005712 0.035742 0.00707 5.32E-17 0 6.89E-10 1
4.902225 4.367352 0.076584 2.029103 3.323369 0.205518 0.209945 0.19762 0.028568 0.010347 0.053365 0.009575 0.007322 0.034512 0.00807 1
0.082204 4.942175 4.099395 0.216838 1.997797 3.261481 0.029383 0.210817 0.191466 0.010268 0.053012 0.009538 0.007432 0.034824 0.008131 1
4.164376 0.083096 4.901569 3.291395 0.22033 2.017905 0.192988 0.029646 0.209958 0.010256 0.053003 0.009532 0.007354 0.034612 0.008088 1
1.838192 7.378457 2.409168 2.087798 3.075322 1.720127 0.129349 0.256534 0.146366 0.066367 0.212574 0.024326 1.87E-19 0 4.08E-11 1
9.731887 0.121845 -0.01261 1.78816 0.40091 0.097128 0.294777 0.034099 0.016245 0.005243 0.03303 0.00677 0.005762 0.035023 0.007099 1
-0.00737 9.640833 0.112741 0.105079 1.803676 0.388602 0.017212 0.293333 0.033021 0.005237 0.032992 0.006767 0.005745 0.034943 0.00709 1
0.113123 -0.01701 9.768353 0.385642 0.093987 1.838593 0.033674 0.016051 0.295273 0.005232 0.032958 0.006763 0.005732 0.034876 0.007081 1
5.05597 5.227025 -0.00095 2.385398 3.568725 0.06532 0.212501 0.215908 0.018541 0.007206 0.043371 0.007931 2.73E-17 0 4.91E-10 1
0.000688 5.085877 5.279681 0.072531 2.395563 3.59494 0.018725 0.213137 0.216956 0.007254 0.043584 0.007958 9.96E-18 0 2.97E-10 1
5.134615 0.002727 4.946714 3.56988 0.08074 2.363084 0.213967 0.019545 0.210235 0.007193 0.043323 0.007924 1.05E-17 0 3.05E-10 1
4.59796 7.405974 -0.01533 2.376383 3.628634 0.046597 0.203 0.256164 0.015318 0.010471 0.055396 0.009606 0.00268 0.015466 0.004882 1
-0.02066 4.591369 7.434374 0.027132 2.3502 3.644085 0.013179 0.202763 0.256684 0.010568 0.055595 0.009651 0.00268 0.015452 0.004882 1
7.36481 -0.02359 4.606195 3.724607 0.0355 2.393233 0.255531 0.013951 0.203105 0.01044 0.055253 0.009591 0.002687 0.015515 0.004889 1
6.544749 4.087005 0.600846 2.381831 3.291216 0.916426 0.241925 0.190679 0.075477 0.066928 0.214089 0.024429 3.46E-19 0 5.54E-11 1
8.759177 0.116809 -0.00609 1.023393 0.458228 0.071808 0.279681 0.036665 0.012998 0.005154 0.031648 0.006716 0.004715 0.029107 0.006422 1
-0.00764 8.56062 0.108305 0.064991 0.974739 0.437852 0.012472 0.276522 0.035588 0.00515 0.031643 0.006713 0.004702 0.029035 0.006414 1
0.113052 -0.00537 8.945499 0.454132 0.08527 0.899012 0.036572 0.01439 0.282664 0.005173 0.031716 0.006728 0.004714 0.0291 0.006422 1
1.696272 1.761272 -0.00113 1.421726 2.457843 0.049884 0.122711 0.126004 0.014643 0.001826 0.011739 0.004012 9.43E-17 0 9.11E-10 1
-0.00348 1.716517 1.784889 0.049105 1.424984 2.476596 0.01447 0.123366 0.126799 0.001828 0.011753 0.004014 3.31E-17 0 5.42E-10 1
1.766352 -0.00265 1.706843 2.456405 0.051489 1.439141 0.126146 0.014372 0.123036 0.001839 0.011788 0.004027 7.85E-17 0 8.33E-10 1
1.166484 5.489578 0.096556 2.104036 1.178662 0.331665 0.101996 0.220048 0.032939 0.003225 0.018822 0.005344 0.011198 0.056043 0.009941 1
0.084384 1.168631 5.45058 0.296831 2.079931 1.25067 0.031248 0.102163 0.219235 0.003231 0.018862 0.005349 0.011312 0.056507 0.009991 1
5.392376 0.090489 1.111682 1.247021 0.320847 2.025664 0.218103 0.03259 0.099632 0.003268 0.019022 0.00538 0.01119 0.056011 0.009937 1
5.952967 0.376419 5.126158 2.207003 0.978898 2.821024 0.230038 0.059684 0.214398 0.067236 0.214642 0.024485 1.68E-19 0 3.88E-11 1
3.007667 0.013382 -0.0016 2.152529 0.073368 0.065258 0.164128 0.014142 0.01079 0.002346 0.015847 0.004548 0.00245 0.016063 0.004649 1
-0.00309 3.184585 0.015988 0.069945 2.221933 0.07476 0.011495 0.168981 0.014216 0.002377 0.016016 0.004578 0.002457 0.016097 0.004655 1
0.011338 -0.00273 2.995945 0.070312 0.063062 2.196607 0.013614 0.010551 0.16394 0.002342 0.015831 0.004544 0.002445 0.016024 0.004643 1
4.035884 4.168698 -0.00434 2.742562 2.513675 0.080058 0.190861 0.193024 0.011481 0.005754 0.035942 0.007096 7.70E-18 0 2.62E-10 1
-0.00018 3.930439 4.098159 0.074636 2.641342 2.401335 0.011062 0.188177 0.19138 0.005802 0.036206 0.007126 8.77E-18 0 2.77E-10 1
4.071265 -0.0011 3.969795 2.456027 0.082335 2.693185 0.190725 0.011912 0.189153 0.005699 0.035668 0.007062 6.53E-17 0 7.63E-10 1
4.895093 4.064159 0.077542 2.406075 3.113156 0.305415 0.209792 0.190684 0.028639 0.010281 0.053044 0.009544 0.007396 0.034709 0.008111 1
0.069585 4.860877 4.062529 0.292391 2.466273 3.071843 0.027899 0.209145 0.190591 0.010286 0.053061 0.009547 0.007426 0.034815 0.008128 1
3.796508 0.068564 4.767905 3.055764 0.285594 2.422766 0.184318 0.027279 0.207168 0.010217 0.052758 0.009515 0.007423 0.034823 0.008126 1
1.62068 7.145126 2.415331 1.698976 2.081258 2.769825 0.121664 0.252488 0.146637 0.066941 0.213927 0.024431 1.14E-19 0 3.19E-11 1
56 | P a g e
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