:>\-

lum
Ministry r
PRENTICESHIP TRAINI
Mlllwrlsm
of lnstffitton
lvlanual

Rlchard A.Ivlichener

Province of British Columbia

Ministry of Labour
Foreword
This manual has been published by the Appren-
ticeship Training Programs Branch, in orderto give
apprentices and journeymen in the Millwright trade
a current, definitive, source of technical informa-
tion.
The original Millwright Manual of lnstruction was
printed in 1965 with the contents designed to suit
the Millwright Apprentice course as taught at the
B.C. Vocational School, Burnaby. There was a
minor revision in 1973.
The current revisions have been made in re-
sponse to changes in the content of the millwright
course now taught at the regional college level.
The material in this manual is generaland is not
meant to apply to any specific machine or installa-
tion.
lnstallation, operating, or service manuals for
specific items of equipment should be followed
when doing any routine maintenance or general
overhaul work as the manuals usually give step by
step routine for tear down and re-assembly, plus all
needed clearances. Copies of the service manuals
Director of Apprenticeship Training Programs Branch
should be readily available to the millwright crew,
not locked away in the engineering office.
Mr. Richard Michener, the auihor, who is a
certified tradesman and millwright instructor, has
performed an exceptional service for his trade in
the development of this manual. His dedication,
perseverance, and technical knowledge have
resulted in the production of a manualwhic-h willbe
of inestimable value to the Millwright trade.
Mr. Michener was assisted in the project by many
of his former associates in the vocational training
system, by members of the provincial Millwright
Trade Advisory Committee, and by manufacturers
of machinery and equipment ass6ciated with the
trade.
It is my pleasure, on behalf of the staff of the
Apprenticeship and lndustrial Training Branch to
thank-all of those persons who gave so iiberallyand
unselfishly of their time and knowledge in tne
development, printing and publishing oithis very
fine manual.
Acknowledgements

Canadian Timken Ltd. North American Packing Standards Association

Canadian SKF Co. Crane Packing Co. Ltd.
Cooper Split Ball Bearing Co. Warner Electric
FAG Bearings Ltd. LaFarge Concrete Ltd.
lmperial Oil Ltd. US Government Printing Office
CAE Machinery Ltd. Sperry Vickers
Dodge Manufacturing Corp. Flexco Fasteners
Denison Engineering Division, American Brake Westinghouse Canada lnc.
Shoe Co. Coppus Steam Turbines
Parker-Hannifin (Canada) Ltd. Terry Steam Turbines
Diamond Chain Co. Canadian Construction Controls
Bi ngham-Wi lamette Ltd.
I
Workers' Compensation Board
Falk Corporation of Canada Ltd. Pacific Vocational lnstitute:
Rexnord Canada Ltd. Millwright Division
Lovejoy Flexible Coupting Co, Machine Shop Division
Mainland Manufacturing Division of Bow Valley lronworkers Division
Resource Services Ltd., (Foundry) Heavy Duty Mechanics Division
E. F. Houghton Canada lnc. American Anti-friction Bearing Manufacturers,
Federal-Mogul Canada Ltd. Association
lngersoll-Rand Canada lnc. David Brown Corporation
Mintex (Scandura Canada Ltd.) A-1 Steel and lron Foundry Division of Ardiem
Uniroyal Ltd. lndustrial Corp.
Fawick (Eaton Yale Ltd.) Norgren Pneumatic products
 Table of Contents

1 Safety Education 1

2. Shop Practice .. 6
3- Rigging and Hoisting . ... 28
4. Shafts, Keys, Hubs, and Fits 66
ri. Lubrication 82
+6. Friction Bearings ..... 100
7- Anti-friction Bearings ...... 117
8" Couplings ...... 143

l?3::,?'::::: ::::
12. Roller Chain
::::::: :::: : :::: : :: lll,
.. . 235
13. Hydraulics .....250
+14. Sealing .. 318
#5. Centrifugal Pumps .... 331
,\.16. Compressed Air and Compressors .... .. 352
17. Conveyor Belting .. .. . 367
18. Chain Conveyors ..... 399
19. Material inMotion ....414
-*20. Preventative Maintenance . . .. ..... 427
21. Steam Turbines . .. ... 436
22. Machine Foundation .. 451
lndex ....461

'tr
. Safety Education
S af ety in a plant is the concern of government,
-anagement, and of labour. A healthy safety
- je toward accidents will benefit the employ-
: . frelping to avoid injury, Ioss of time, and loss
' ) \/
r millwright is possibly exposed to more
-=::rds than any other worker in the plant. He
-:
' _-ld
be familiar with the general Workers'
- : pensation Board rules and regulations
-:a rng with both his own personal safety and the
:cial safety rules applying to each job.
Legal and Administrative
Aspects
C orporate Responsibility
Accident prevention and the provision of safe
.',orking conditions are the responsibility of
-anagement. The company is responsible for:
> The provision and maintenance of safety
equipment;
> The provision of protective devices and cloth-
ing;
> The enforcement of safe working procedures;
> Adequate safeguards for machinery, walks,
cranes, riggings, etc.; and
> Observance of all accident prevention regula-
tions.
Government Regulations
The Workers' Compensation Board assumes
responsibility for periodic inspection of the
operation to ensure that regulations for industry
are being correctly observed.
For his own protection, the millwright should
be familiar with the lndustrial Health and Safety
Regulations a booklet issued by the Workers'
-
Compensation Board of British Columbia. ln
SAFETY EDUCATION
particular, the following seciions relating to the
job of the millwright should be noted:
8 -
Places of Employment - General Require-
ments
12 - Harmtul Substances
13 - Health Hazards
14 - Personal Protective Equipment
16 - Machinery, Equipment and lndustrial Pro-
cesses - Guards: general
i8 - Welding, Burning and Soldering
30 - Ladders
32 - Scaffolds, Swing Stages
54 - Rigging
Appendix D - Standard Hand Signals for Control-
ling Crane Operations
Appendix J - Correct Spooling of Ropes on
Drums
Lockout Procedures (Section 16.102) should
be thoroughly understood and followed. Actual
lockout routine will vary from plant to plant, but
each routine must be acceptable to the WCB.
Each millwright should have a copy of the
lndustrial Health and Safety Regulations and use
it as a source of reference.
lndividual Responsibility
The employee is responsible for:
> Knowing, and working in accordance with, the
safety regulations pertaining to his own job;
and
> Working in such a way as not to endanger
himself or his fellow employees, even where
specific safety regulations are not in force.
Regardless of rules, regulations, or commit-
tees, the major {actor in safety is the individual
employee and his persorral outlook on safety and
the approved safety regulations.
 : j:=-,,/ EDUCATION

Housekeeping they are extinguished immediately, the millwright

In the Shop should know:
:rcper housekeeping means maintaining The company regulations concerning welding
>
- :; saf e work area, and a clean workbench,
a and burning, including the plant,s ,,wet down
I scarded nuts and bolts, broken chain, etc., before burning" routine;
> The location of fire fighting equipment (port_
::long in the scrap box. Unused new nuts, boits,
able, stand pipes and hydrants); the location of
' r,ets, etc., should be returned to storage. Solvent
containers must be kept covered when not in use.
the nearest alarm boxes in the event that the
spot f ire cannot be controlled;
Solvent dropped on the f loor and bench should > The specif ic use of each piece
be wiped up. Oily and greasy wiping rags should of equipment in
terms of:
be put into approved metal containers.
o The class of f ire for which it is designated;
Company tools and equipment such as o Its coverage capacity in square feet (square
spanners, power equipment and chain blocks
metres):
should be cleaned and returned to proper o lts range in feet (metres):
storage. Any damaged or unsafe equipment
should be sent for repairs.
r The length of time it will f unctron before it
discharged:
On the Job r The f ollow-up procedures for the unit after it
is discharged;
lf the repair work is to be done on location, > The special procedures for cold weather,
the surrounding area should be cleaned before > The procedures and routes for evacuation
starting the job. lt iseasierto work on a clean floor of
personnel from each work location; and
than one where the millwright must stumble over
> The company policy governing the
obstacles or wade through sawdust or iitter. circumstan_
ces under which a main fire alarm should be
When a job is finished, all scrap metal and
ru ng.
wood should be removed to junk boxes,and all
unused parts returned to storage. Principal Causes of Fire
Company equipment should be cleaned and
put back in its proper place. Welding and Burning
Spilled grease or oil should be wiped up and > Flying sparks or slag, which resuit in fires
that
rags disposed of in proper metal containers. are immediately evident;
lf burning and welding have been done, all > Welding against a wooden backing, or dust,
lines should be coiled up and machines moved to which may result in a fire that does not ignite
their proper storage place in the mill or welding until several hours after the job is completed; or
shop. > Poor grounding during welding, which
some_
Any boards or planks with nails should have times causes electrical motor f ires.
the nails removed or bent over as the boards are
Electrical Sources
taken off. Lumber should be piled and not left
scattered around. > Motors burning;
Portable f ire extinguishers must be checked > Broken electrical wiring;
and recharged regularly, and kept in designated > Light bulbs in contact with f ine dust or oily
places close to the work area. All fire hoses su rfaces; or
should be coiled and kept in their designated > Unprotected bulbs and unshielded
switches in
places. dust areas.
Friction
Fire Prevention
> Fallen material resting on fast-moving equip_
Minor spot fires can occur at any time. They ment, such as a belt;
are particularly likely to occur during mainten_ > A belt running off-centre and rubbing
against a
ance operations, when a millwright is operating a fixed surface; or
welder or burner. > Hot bearings igniting oil or dust.
To reduce the risk of fires, and to ensure that
 SAFETY EDUCATION 3

I -,*" Scurces which is suspended in an enclosure, it may ignite

instantly, causing an explosion. The dust in grain
:- --_. elevators is a constant hazard for this reason.
- r'eAS , OI
| - '. .'s E noring company-designated gas- Rules for Using Hand Extinguishers
.-' ='.:. and dust-abatement regulations.
As indicated in the section entitled "Classes
Sasic Requirements for of Fires", extinguishers must be appropriate to
C ombustion the class of f ire being fought.
-':e components are required to start a f ire; The standard technique ls as follows:
" . .-: cften described as the "fire triangle": > Stream the extinguisher at the base of the fire,
> | -: the combustive material; combined with working f rom edge to centre; do not direct the
n -'. - nozzle at the general location of the flames;
- the
, -:.:-:en the
catalyst of combustion; and
specific temperature at which the > Position yourself where any breeze or draft is
- ignite.
'-= ,vill moving away from you toward the fire, so that
H the f lames are not fanning toward you; and
> Always make sure that you have a means of
escape in the event the fire is not brought under
:

I
l
con tro l.
o/ \r
Classes of Fires j

Fire Triangle
Fires are classif ied into four main types:
I
> C/ass-A paper, wood, rubbish or natural fibre
Basic Principles of Fire Fighting material;
-
The main principle of fire fighting procedures > C/ass-8 petroleum products (gasoline,
s :o reduce or eliminate one or more of the three
-
diesel fuel, oil, etc.), and naturalfats (oils, etc.);
: lmponents of the f ire triangle: > C/ass-C live electrical equipment; and
> C/ass-D - metals (magnesium and magnesium
> Remove the fuel material; -
alloys, sulphur, etc.)"
> Displace oxygen, or create a barrier to the
access of oxygen; this can be accomplished The class of fire determines the type of
simply by covering a small f ire with a wet blanket extinguisher to be used.
or sheet, or with sand or dirt. Types of f ire Class-A Fires
extinguishers that displace oxygen are COe or
fog nozzles (using water and steam). Types of Class-A fires are best extinguished with
extinguishers that smother a fire by preventing water or water solutions, which have the effect of
oxygen access are dry chemical or foam cooling the f ire to below the ignition temperature.
(organic or chemical); and/or Steam, which is generated during the process,
> Remove the source of heat, or reduce the heat tends to displace oxygen. Dry chemicals or COz
to less than ignition temperature; this usually may be used; however, they do not have a cooling
involves the use of water in the form of steam, effect and the residual heat can cause the f ire to
spray or fog, or water-base components. break out again.
Effect of Fuel Material Density Class-B Fires
The "density" of the f uel material, or the mass Class-B fires are best extinguished by
per unit of surf ace area which is exposed to smothering or displacing the oxygen in the
oxygen, has a critical bearing on whether a fire vicinity of the fire. Recommended extinguishers
will start and the speed at which it will burn. A a re:
single block of wood is diff icult to ignite, but if the > Fog nozzle;
block is chopped into smalt pieces, it wiil ignite > Dry chemical;
more easily and maintain combustion readily. > Foam; or
Furthermore, if the wood is ground into dust, > COz.
 4 SAFETY EDUCATION

FIRE EXTINGUISHER RATINGS

Underwriters' Laboratory (UL) ratings show the relative hazard, coverage and travel
distance specifications of the extinguisher:

UL Rating Code Class-A Fire Class-B Fire Class-C Fire

Light hazard - 3,000 Light hazard 10 Suff icient for

ft (0.93 m'?)-
1-A 10-B:C
sq ft (27 m'?) of sq Class-C
Class-A fire; 75Jt of Class-B fire; cond itions.
(23-m) travel distance. 50-ft (15-m) travel
d istance.

Ordinary hazard * 10
sq ft (0.93 m'?)
of Class-B fire; 30-
ft (9-m) travel
d istance.

UL Rating Code Class-A Fire Class-B Fire Class-C Fire

Light hazard - 6,000 Light hazard 10 Suff icient for

2-A 10-B:C
sq ft (0.93 m'?)
- Class-C
sq ft (55 m'?) of
Class-A fire; 75-ft of Class-B fire, 50- cond itions.
(23-m) travel distance. ft (15-m) travel
d istance.
Ordinary hazard -
3,000 sq tt (27 m'?\ Ordinary hazard - 10
of Class-A fire; 75-ft sq ft (0.93 m'?) of
(23-m) travel distance. Class-B fire; 30-ft
(9-m) travel distance.

UL Rating Code Class-A Fire Class-B Fire Class-C Fire

4-A 40-B:C Light hazard - 11,250 Exceeds Class-B Sufficient for

sq ft (1045 m'?) of
Class-A fire; 75-ft
(23-m) travel distance.
Ordrnary hazard -
6,000 sq ft
(557 m'?) of Class-A
fire; 75-ft (23-m)
travel distance.
requirements for light Class-C
and ordinary hazards. cond itions.
Extra hazard
- 40
sq ft (3 m'?) of
Class-B fire; 50-ft
(15-m) travel distance.

Extra hazard
- 4,000
sq ft (371 m'?) of
Class-A f ire; 75-ft
(23-m) travel distance.

il

ti
 I
SAFETY EDUCAT]ON

Gb-C Fires
Class-C fires are effectively extinguished by
OOz foam, or dry chemical extinguishers. For
rmaxmum safety where high voltage is involved,
ffire fighting should not be commenced until the
,orrrcuit has been disengaged. COz is recommen-
ued- as it leaves no deposits.
Note: COz or Freon should notbe used in the
u,lrcrnit17 of hard vacuum tubes, due to thermal
snock, which will cause the tubes to implode.
Glass-D Fires
Class-D fires should be extinguished by
special dry chem ical exti
n g u ishers or, alternative-
ly. by shovelling the chemical onto the fire. The
extinguisher is marked by a "D" on a yellow star
on the nameplate.
The first minute of a fire fighting effort is a
critical time because the person attempting to
operate the extinguisher may fail to keep suffi-
ciently calm to follow the instructions. For a large
number of portable extinguishers marked "ABC"
or "A", the steps are:
> Pull the pin; and
> Squeeze the lever.
It is not uncommon for an amateur to pick up
an extinguisher and attempt to use it before
pulling the pin.
Extinguisher Markings and Ratings
The nameplates of fire extinguishers desig-
nate by means of a rating code the type(s) of f ires
forwhich the equipment can be used; e.9., 1-A 10-
B:C.
 SHOP PRACTICE

2. Shop Practice

Twist Drill Drilling and Reaming

f
Generally, round holes must be made in
metal, wood, plastic and other rigid materials.
I
Many methods are used, including: drilling,
I
boring, reaming, punching, electro-discharge
Shank
jaxis machining (spark erosion), electro-chemical
Length U machining, laser machining and electron-beam
1 ,"
Straight Shank machining.
l', Drilling
I I

I The most common method of originating

l'i
Overall and/or enlarging a hole is by drilling. For precise
Length hole location and sizing, and/or for good hole
L finish, drilling is often followed by boring and
I
reaming operations. Most drilling is done with

Fl
li
ute
Fl utes
"twist drills" such as the standard type shown in
the diagram.
Length
Twist Drills
l'l Twist drills are made of tool steel, with two

Body
lt flutes cut along about two-thirds of the length, in
a "helix," or twist. One-, three-, and four-flute
! drills are also available. At the cutting end of the
drill is a cutting edge for each f lute. The standard

! Chisel Edge
Margin drill point included angle is 118 degrees and the
clearance angle is 12 degrees, but both can be
varied with the type of material being cut.
A twist drill consists of a point, body, neck
1l and shank. ln some cases, the neck is omitted.
Point
>
- refers to the cutting end of the drill,
made up of the ends of the lands and the web
forming the lips. ln form it resembles a cone but
it departs from a true cone in order to furnish
relief behind the cutting edges;
> Body
- isthe portion of thedrillextending f rom
the shank or neck to the outer corners of the
cutting lips, in which the helical or straight
 SHOP PRACTICE

:: :" ' _::S are CUt Or fOrmed;
: section of reduced diameter
' ::dy and the shank of the drill;
:-a: part of the drill by which it is
-
- .:n. There are a numberof different
;:i^tard shanks, some of which are
] :: CW:
;-: Snank Drills cylindrical
- havef lats,
. : ,,. :n or without driving tangs or
.:s They are used in a "Jacobs'Ltype
. r3mmon up lo 1/2 inch in diameter;
- S'ank Drills fit into a taper sleeve
-: , e an end "tang"- which engages with a
-: sioove in the sleeve to preventturning.
:=cer is self-locking, and a "drift,,, or
:: rs needed to remove the drill;
-:-:- Square Shank Drilts have tapered
-
: -: - {s with f our f lat sides for f itting ratchets
-.'i is the flattened end of the shank
- to f it into an ejection slot in the drilt
=-ded
-: ler or socket. Tangs are most common on
=::r shanks. The taper drives the drill; the
:,^g is used to eject the drill f rom the slot;
.l,,erall Length is the length from the
: {:reme end of the- shank to the outer corners
:' the cutting lips,
There are many other special types of drills
-: ,,,ding: straight-f lute drills (good for sheet-
-::al); core drills (to produce cored holes in
: =sri ngs); multiple-diameter drills (to produce
',,.3 or more concentric holes of different
diame-
-:'s); gun drills (to produce straight, deep
hotes);
and trepanning drills (for large diameter holes).
Boring tools and reamers are considered in
detail later in this chapter.
Drilling Machines
To drill holes, twist drilts (and other drills)
must be mounted in some form of machine which
will rotate the drill about its axis. Common
machines used are:
> Hand drills;
> Portable drills;
> Sensitive drill presses;
> Standard (or upright) drilling machines;
> Radial drilling machines;
> Lathes; and
> Special machines.
Principal features of these machines are;
Hand Drills
Hand drills are small twist drills, for drilling
under low-pressure requirements.
Except for home use or locations remote
from power supplies, hand drills have been
replaced largely by powered portable drills. Hand
drills are useful for small holes (i.e., up to 3/g_
inch in wood and plastic and 1/4-inch in metat).
Portable Drills
Portable drills are electric- or air-powered,
handheld or stand-mounted, for light work.
Electric portable drilis are very common in

Slandard Shanks

n
m'""' li lln

!
t=J
n)
U tl

er Shank
m
Staight Shank-
fr
Straight Shank
Taper Short Length
Length or
Series Jobbers' Drill
 SHOP PRACTICE
chuck capacities o't 1/4-inch,3/8-inch, and 1/2-
inch. They are powerf ul, versatile, and convenient,
and are now available in self-contained battery
models and variable-speed models.
Air-powered portable drills are f requently
used in manufacturing plants but require a supply
of compressed air.
Both electric- and air-powered portable drills
may be mounted in stands which convert them
into a form of drill press.
Sensitive Drill Presses
Sensitive drill presses are electric-powered,
for light work.
These are the most common type of station-
ary drilling machine. They are hand-fed, so that
the operator can feel the rate at which the drill is
cutting and can regulate it according to cutting
conditions.
These machines have spindle speeds of
about 300 to 6,000 rpm, and sometimes to 30,000
rpm. Their size is designated by twice the
distance from the centerline of the spindle to the
column; e.9., a 16-inch drill press can drillto the
centre of a 16-inch diameter disc. They are also
designated by the chuck capacity, 1/2 inch being
common.
Sensitive drill presses are available in floor
and bench-mounted models.
Standard (or Upright) Drilling Machines
Standard (or upright) drilling machines are
electric-powered, for large, heavy work.
They are similar to the sensitive drill press in
Sieps in Machining an Accurate Hole
Centre the drill to locate the hole;
Bore the hole true;
\-
appearance, but have a power feed and are of
heavier construction.
Radial Drilling Machines
Radial drilling machines are electric-power-
ed, for large, heavy work.
For large or heavy workpieces which would
be inconvenient to move for precise location
under the drill, radial drills are advantageous,
with the feature of a movable drill head travelling
on a radial arm which can be moved up and down
and rotated about a vertical axis.
The size of radial drills is designated by a
radius in feet of the largest plate in which a
centre-hole can be drilled. Sizes commonly run
from 3 to 12 feet.
Lathes (Engine and Turret)
Lathes are quite satisfactory drilling machines,
especially for drilling a concentric hole in a round
piece of material.
Special Machines
"Special" machines are electric-powered, for
special high-volume jobs:
> Gang Drilts - are made up of a number of
upright drill presses mounted side by side with a
common table and base to facilitate sequence
operations in volume production;
> Multispindle Drill Heads
- can be attached to a
single spindle ntachine to drill several holes at
one time. They may be of adjustable or fixed
type;
Drill to originate and enlarge the hole;
Beam to the f inal size.

" -.'-:cntained Drill Heads - have an electric
- :::r providing spindle-drive and automatic
.=: and are usually mounted in a high-volume
. -::natic machine for quantity production.
?eaming
rlthough drilling is the most common meth-
;: :' originating and enlarging a hole in metal
i-r many other materials, it does not produce
-
- es with good surface f inish, highly accurate
: =^1eters, and accurate location.
The diameter of small drilled holes, for
.':mple, will usually be oversize, from 0.001 to
- 105 of an inch for a 1/8-inch diameter drill and
":m 0.004 to 0.010 of an inch f or a f -inch
: ameter hole.
Reaming is the hole-sizing or finishing
-peration in which the diameter of an existing
-ole is increased by 0.003 to 0.030 of an inch by a
rultiple-tooth end-cutting tool called a reamer.
-he diameter of a reamed hole is more accurate
:nan that of a drilled one. Reamed holes under l
nch in diameter may be held to *0.0005 of an
,nch and those over 1 inch in diameter may vary
+0.001 of an inch in diameter. Along with
accuracy of diameter, reaming produces a good
surface finish. However, reaming does not
improve the accuracy of the location or angular
alignment of drilled holes, as a reanter tends to
follow the direction of the existing hole; therefore
it is important that the initial drilling be accurate.
Holes to be finished by reaming should be
drilled undersize,leaving only a small amount of
material to be removed by the reamer. Up lo 1/2
Special Drilling and Boring Operations
SHOP PRACTICE
inch in diameter, a drill diameler o'f 1/64 of an inch
less than the reamer size is suitable, andtor 1/2lo
1 1/2 inches in diameter, the size of drill diameter
can be 1/32 of an inch less.
There are many types of reamers:
> Hand-operated,
> Machine-operated:
> Solid;
> Shell;
> Adjustable;
> Straight; and
> Tapered.
High-speed reamers should be run at about
half the speed (sf m or rpm) of a drill of the same
material and size, and the feed should be two to
three times that of a drill of the same size.
Boring
Boring is a hole-enlarging operation for
obtaining accuracy of either the diameter or the
location of a hole, or both; it also improves the
surface finish.
Boring is usually applied to a previously
drilled or cored hole. Drills tend towanderordrift
and to cut oversize; boring the drilled hole will
correct these conditions.
Boring tools are single or multiple-tooth end-
cutting tools held in rigid boring bars.
Boring operations are performed by any of
the following machines: lathe, milling machine,
horizontal boring mill, vertical boring mill, or jig
borer.
Spotfaci ng Spotfacing
 1' SHOP PRACTICE
Special Drilling and Boring Tools
Cenire Drill
A centre drill is a short, stable, often double-
ended combination drill and countersink.
Centre drilling is done to originate a hole
prior to drilling with a standard twist drill, and
greatly aids in accurately locating a drilled hole,
inasmuch as a standard drill will wander f rom the
axis of rotation upon contact with the workpiece.
Countersink
A countersink cuts a tapered recess at the top
oi a drilled hole to provide a recess for the tapered
head of a flat-head screw or bolt.
Counterbore
A counterbore cuts an enlarged concentric
bore at the top of a drilled hole to provide a recess
so that the head of a bolt will be flush with the
su rf ace.
Spot Facer
A spot facer smooths the surface around a
hole to provide a level surface for a washer, bolt-
head, or nut.
Tool Materials
Carbon Tool Steels
Carbon tool steels were used exclusively for
all tools before the development of high-speed
and alloy tool steels; they are still widely used in
industry today. They are manufactured in a
number of carbon ranges and in different grades.
The low-carbon range (0.7 to 0.9 percent) is most
suitable for tools subject to shock, and the high-
carbon range (1 .10 to 1 .30 percent) is most
suitable for cutting tools where a keen edge is
req u ired.
High-speed Tool Steels
High-speed tool steels are alloy steels that
contain tungsten (17 to 19 percent), chromium
(0.35 to 0.45 percent), vanadium (0.9 to 1.2
percent), and carbon (0.65 to 0.75 percent). This
composition remains a major tool material
despite the development of carbides.
Alloy steels possess the characteristic
known as "red-hardness" - meaning the ability
to retain hardness at high temperature with high
abrasion resistance and a comparable degree of
shock resistance.
t
Carbide Tools
Carbide tools are initially formed by powder
metallurgy. This material is relatively high in cost,
but tool bits retain their effectiveness at excep-
tionally high cutting speeds. The principal
carbide is tungsten; others include tantalum and
titanium. To grind carbide effectively, diamond
wheels must be used.
Diamond Tools
Diamond tools are effective, but not common-
ly used.
The diamond cutter gives a high standard of
finish, provided it is properly set and mounted. lt
is particularly good for machining hardened
materials.
Drill Materials
TI
Carbon-steel Drills (High-carbon Tool Steel) ']ilI
Carbon-steel drills are cheap but lose their ''ilI
edge f rom hot cutting. They are unsuitable for 'il
production work. ]t
fit
High-speed Steel Drills 1I
High-speed steel drills contain tungsten,
chromium, vanadium, and carbon, and retain
their hardness at high temperatures. They have
largely replaced carbon-steel drills ior produc-
tion work as they have double the cutting speed.
They are identified by the letters "hss" or "hs"
near the size markings on the shank.
Cemented Carbide Drills (Solid Carbide or
Carbide-tipped) g
Cemented carbide drills are capable of high rfr
production rates if conditions are correct and '1[
care is used. $
Drill Sizes fi
t
American standard twist drills include frac-
E
tional sizes. As fractional sizes do not provide
sufficient range in the smaller sizes, the Stubbs
drill and wire gauge sizes are used. Letter-size
drills are also used to provide a selection of drills
larger than the number drills. All number, letter lIMIfi
and fractionaldrills uplol/2 inch in diameterare sg
available with a straight shank. Fractional drills
over 1 /2 inch in diameter are made with a taper
shank only. s
o1
fi{
 SHOP PRACTICE 11

, :' r'rlis are available in four diameter size heavy a feed is being used. The rapid wearing of
* , : ".::iOnS: the corners of the cutting edge indicates too great
a speed.
:' :tal sizes 1/64" lo 3 1/2"
- to Z (0.413"); Recommended Drilling Feeds
-:e r or wire sizes B0 (0.0135") to
- 1

-.: t, and Size of Drill (inches) Soft Metals (ipr) Hard Metals (ipr)
--: sizes 0.75 mm (0.0295") to 77 mm
- Under 1/8 0.002 0.001
)
1/B to 1/4 0.004 0.002
S peeds and Feeds 1/4 to 1/2 0.007 0.004
1/2 lo 1 0.015 0 007
: - Speed Over 1 0.025 0.015

-'e
speed of a drill is the rate at which the
:' J ^€r'! of the drill moves in relation to the Point Angle
.-. : ece, expressed in "surfacefeet per minute" The point angle of a twist drill should be
: - For convenience, this sf m is best converted varied to suit the material to be drilled. The
" * ":volutions per minute" (rpm). The correct following are typical point angles:
" :f a twist drill depends upon:
Recommended Angles and Clearances
r --3 diameter of the drill;
r -'e steel used in the manufacture of the drill, Angle
Point Lip Clearance
p -^e material being drilled; Material to be Drilled (degrees) (degrees)

'> -'ie type of hole desired;

-le way in which the workpiece is set up or Mild and medium steel 118 12
Tool steel 140 10
^eld; and Brass and bronze 118 15
> -ne quality of the machine itself . Copper 100 12
Cast iron 90 12
To calculate the rpm of a drill, the same Aluminum 100 12
"
: "m ula that will be used for the lathe is applicable. Stainless steel 11B 14

rpm 4xcuttingspeed
diameter of drill Cutting Fluids for Drill-press Work
As the drill cuts into the metal, the cutting
Becommended Drilling Speeds edge becomes heated. This may soften the
cutting edge and ruin the drill; therefore, a cutting
CarbonSteel High-Speed fluid should be used. lts main purpose is.
'.'laterial Drill (sfm) Steel Drill (sfm)
> To cool the drill, making thedrill-cuteasierand
'llld and medium steel 30 70 - 100
smoother;
iool steel 35 57 - 70
>
Stainless steel 30 - 40 To help retain the cutting edge on the drill;
Cast iron 35 - 70 70 - 150 > To help wash away the chips;
Aluminum 125 200 - 300 > To prevent undue f riction;
Copper 60 - 70 > To permit faster cutting speeds;
Brass and bronze 60 - 120 200 - 300 > To improve the hole finish; and
> Tocool thehotchips, minimizingthedangerof
Drill Feed bu rns.
The feed of a drill is the distance the drill Recommended Cutting Fluids
moves into the workpiece per revolution, expres- lor Drilling, Reaming and Tapping
sed in "inches per revolution" (ipr).
While the knowledge of the best feed to use Metal Drilling Reaming Tapping
can come only f rom experience, a moderate, Mild and medium
steady feed is good practice, and caution must be steel Soluble Lard oil Lard oil
observed near the completion of drilling each Tool steel Soluble Lard oil Lard oil
hole. lf the cutting edge of a drill breaks, too
 12 SHOP PRACTICE

Recommended Cutting Fluids

lor Drilling, Reaming and Tapping (cont'd)
Metal Drilling Reaming TaPPing

Brass and bronze Dry Soluble DrY

t
Copper Soluble Soluble Solubie F
Aluminum Kerosene Lard oil Soluble @
Cast iron Dry DrY Lard oil tt
part oilto 40 parts water) is generally m
Note: Soluble oil (.1
used. d
ffi
) @
Thread Cutting s
Dies Adjustable and Removable Screw-plate Dies
frt
) iA
A threading die is a tool used for cutting Adjustable and removable screw-plate dies
external threads. Dies are made in a variety of are made in halves and are f urnished with screw- ffi
sizes and shapes, each suited to the particular plate sets which are easily removed when chang- * '1i'

work for which it is intended. ing f rom one size screw to another. The dies are ir
Some dies are solid, with a f ixed size; others held in a collet, which contains the adjusting ) ,!l
are split on one side to permit adjustment. Others SCTEWS. n
are made like chasers and are held in a collet. f
Hand threading dies are used to cut threads r+
on bolts, screws and other pieces which do not Collel
require precision threading.
>q
Adjustable Round-split Dies
Adlustable round-split dies may be adjusted
slightly over or under the given size and may be
removed from the stock without changing the
setti ng.
Adjustable and
Bemovable
Adlustable Screw-Plate Die
Round-
split Die
Die Holder or Die Stock
A die holder or die stock is used for hoiding
round adjustable dies. The dies are usually held
in the die stock by means of small setscrews. ?re

:^^
j:U

Round-split Dies
Tal
Round-split dies can be adjusted in the die
holder to cut threads either slightly over or under
.\,,\- \- set
the standard depth. The dies are held in the stock ------_) and
by setscrews, which also adjust the size of the
\/
ofo
dies. Round-split dies must be reset every time
Thir
they are changed in the holder. Die Holder or Die Stock

I
 SHOP PRACTICE 13

Threading a Bolt percent weaker than j 00 percent thread engage-

:he procedure for threading a bolt is ment. With some tough steels which are difficult
as to tap, 60 percent thread engagement is suffi_
'cllows:
cient. The tap drill size is larger than the minor
' Apply cutting oil to the screw blank; diameter of the male thread in order to give
> 3 ace the chamfered side of the die
on the end clearance to the crest of the internal thread.
:f
the screw blank, holding the die stock lf tables are not available, a usable tap drill
sq uare ly; size for NC and NF (see section entitled,,Thread
> press down firmly and start turning the die Series") over 1/4 inch in diameter and ISO metric
stowly until the first threads take hold. After can be found by using the following formula:
:rat, the die will follow without pressure;
> Cut three or four threads. Then stop and make Tap driil _ od _ t/n
sure that the threads are being formed and that
od - nominal or major diameter;
:he die is square with the work; n - threads per inch; and
> ,After squaring the die, use a generous amount
1/n - pitch as an actual distance.
of cutting oil; otherwise, the threads are likely Example 7; Find the tap drill of a3/8,'NC thread.
:o tear, Tap drill od - t/n
> Tu rn the die back f requenily (a quarter or half a - - od - 1/n
3/8" _ 1/16" -_ 3/8" _ 1/16"
-
turn) in order to break the chip;
- 6/16" _ 1/16"
> After cutting a few threads, back the die off the 5/16"
- 0.375 _ 0.0625
work and test the th reads f or size. Always clean
- - 0.3125
the threads before testing them for size. Blow - 5/16"
Example 2: Find the tap dritt for a M 5 X 0.8
the chips out of the die.
th read.
lf the thread is foo large: Tap drill od - pitch
> Release the spreading screw slightly and
- 5-0.8
tighten the setscrew; 4.2 mm
> Run a die over threads again and test for size; lf the answer does not match the standard
> Repeat this operation until the desired fit is size drill, pick the next larger size drill for easier
obtained. tapping.
Tables for correct drill speed, point angle and
lf a large diameter bolt is being threaded, it is
lubricant can be found under the section entitled
::st /irsf to back off the adjustable die and start "Drilling and Reaming".
*,, :h a shallow cut, and then to make progressively
:eeper cuts until the correct thread depth or fit is Hand Tapping
:ctained. This procedure will result in a better
Hand taps come in sets of three:
:^read form.
Solid die nuts commonly used by millwrights > Starting
:'e only a means of thread-recovery, and as such, - about 7-g deformed threads on a
leading taper;
;,ve about a Class-l thread, or worse. A die nut > Flug 3-5 deformed threads on a leading taper;
srould not be used to check the thread on a stud and
-
:"at is supposed to be a "tight fit" in a tapped hole. > Bottoming
lnternal threads are cut by a tap or series of - 1 1/2
leading taper.
detormed threads on a

:aps being turned in the correct diameter tap-

Taps for various classes of fits can be bought,
Jrilled hole.
but for the average millwright, the tap to be used is
Taps and Tapping supplied by the company and the fit corresponds
with the tap supplied.
Tap drill size is usually found by consulting a
set of tables which is common to most machine
NPT is cut with one lap only. Refer to the
"Screw Thread Theory" section for the correct size
and millwright shops.
tap drilland the recommended amountof threadto
The common tables used are for the purpose
be cut.
of obtaining 75 percent f ull thread engagement.
Taps should be used with the proper size tap
This amount ofthread iseasytotapand isabout5
wrench and turned carefully, as they are easy to
14 SHOP PRACTICE
break and usuallY hard to remove'
The procedure for hand tapping is as follows:
> Apply the recommended cutting oil to the hole
and taP;
> Align the tap and press it down firmly;
> Turn it until threads start to form;
> Turn the tap back f requently to break chips and
clear flutes,
> Lubricate it as needed;
> When resistance to turning reaches its limit'
remove the taper tap and start the plug tap' A
plug tap should be sufficient to finish an open
note, Uut it is common to alternate starting and
plug taps to reduce the chance of tap breakage;
> Use bottoming tapstofinishthethread in a blind
hole. A blind hole must be cleaned out f requent-
ly to prevent cuttings f rom building up and
blocking the taP.
Poor Thread
Poor thread can be divided into two groups:
> Loose fit - can be caused bY:
o A drill sharPened off-centre; or
o Drilling with no rigid suPPort.
> Rough surface - can be caused bY:
o Dull taps;
o Lack of lubrication: or
o Allowing a tap to slip when starting the thread'
Tap Breakage
Tap breakage can be caused bY:
> Careless handling;
> The use of a spanner or ad justable jaw wrench;
> A tap drill that is too small;
> Chips jamming;
> Work material hardening by overheating
during drilling;
> Too much muscle on the tap wrench; or
> Starting the tap when it is not parallel to the
bored hole (the tap is rigid and will not bend as
the threaded section is deepened)'
Special Removal Tools
Specialtools have been designed to aid in the
quick and easy removal of taps, studs, bolts,
screws or pipes which have been broken off at, or
below, the surface of a Piece of work.
Tap Extractors
Broken taps may be removed by means of tap
extractors, which are made of good quality steel
and are designed to withstand shearing strain'
Tap extractors are available in sets which
con{irm to standard tap sizes, ranging f rom 1/8 to
1 1/2 inches. Some extractors will handle two or
three sizes of taps and as such, the whole range of
tap sizes is covered.
A tap extractor consists of f our parls: holder,
collar, s/eeve, and f ingers. The holder is similar in
design to a hand tap, having straight f lutes and no
threids through its entire length. One end is
squared to accommodate a tap wrench' The
fingers which f it into the flutes of the holder are
held together by the collar, but are f ree to slide up
and down the flutes as required. The sleeve is
designed to fit over the f ingers and to slide, so
that it gives rigid support to the fingers when
moved in place.
Sectional
View of the
Fingers of
the Extractor
Tap Extractor
The method of removing a broken tap ls as follows:
Examine the situation, and prepare the work so
that the broken tap may be removed with the
least difficultY;
Ensure that the correct size and type of
extractor is used. Check the number of f ingers
to make sure that they correspond to the
number of flutes in the broken tap' Extractors
are available with two, three, or four fingers;
Remove all loose chips from the holes around
the broken tap. lf compressed air is used to do
this, wear safetY goggles;
Remove any sharp projections which may
prevent the fingers of the tap extractor from
sliding into Place;
> Place a few drops of cutting oil in the hole;
> lf the tap is broken into two or more irregular
 SHOP PRACTICE 15

i-: --=.. sometimes act as locknuts against

)llif',,i
The "prick punch and hammer" method is as
Jfir'T _ = T.',i ry +^ro move the top piece slightly so
-i=r+ -'-:-
follows:
* : ur -:: happen;
* -: : _ ;r(.)r.
,""! _:-:j
ir,,
^^+ +^
Lo damage the threads in > lf the tap is broken off below the surface of the
' I ": :: :- s will make removal of the broken the metal, try to remove it by using a prick punch
I ^ ,tr,
tap
' 1 - -Ull.. and hammer to force it out, turning it in a
* *,i -:: :-= extractorfingers so that they project counterclockwise direction.
rry; - - t :-e holder, and slide them down
into
"'1"i - _:= .{ the
broken tap as far as they will go
u ili* I _i .orcing;
* .r -:- :-= holder down until it touches the
l ': { i- :ap (this is very important), and slide the
. *, : :3wn until it touches the work. Remem_
r,: - - - f : the f ingers of the tap extractor
m ust be
; - :: :.ied along their entire length, either
in
'*n '_:es of the holder, or in the flutes
of the
:-: ":- tap; otherwise they may become twis_
'i: : -: of shape;
* .r:: _, a tap wrench to the squared outer end,
i - : :.,, rst it back and forth a few times to loosen
- -^en back out the broken tap.
:-: -:re chief difficulty with a tap extractor is
'::- : s a very fragile tool and may easily
. :-:(en if the tap sticks too tighily, orbeifbent
too
r -:- Dressure is applied.
--ree other methods may be used to remove
i:! :ut extreme care must be exercised in all
:::,=s The most suitable method for extraction "Prick Punch
- -:: ce ascertained before starting. and Hammer"
Melhod

--: method of working a broken tap /oose is as

.: ,WS; The heat softening method is as follows:

' a piece of tap extends above the hole, take

> Heat the stock with the broken tap to a cherry_
- old of it with a pair of pliers, red color and then allow it to cool slowly. This
or vise grips, and
,., crk it back and forth to loosen
will remove the hardness f rom the tap and it can
*i'le it (see diagram).
cause of a broken tap is generally a chip then be extracted by one of the methods
:aught between the teeth and the side of the described in "Removing a Broken Stud,,.
"ole. lf this chip can be loosened to drop into a Stud and Screw Extractors
' ute, then the broken part of the tap will come
cut easily. Removing broken sections of studs, screws,
or pipes does not present as many problems as
removing broken taps unless the broken piece is
rusted, and tends to tear apart when attempts are
made to remove it.
A stud or screw extractor is similar in shape
to a taper-pin reamer. The jl:wer portion contains
ridges designed to bite and hold onto softer metal
when pressure is applied (in a counterclockwise
direction, with a wrench) on the squared outer
end. These extractors are made of heat_treated
Working a Broken steel, designed to withstand considerable torque
Tap Loose
strain
16 SHOP PRACTICE
Standard screw extractors are available in
sets which will handle all standard sizes of bolts,
cap screws, and stud bolts. Each extractor is
numbered and stamped, showing the size of drill
to be used in conjunction with it.
The method of extracting a broken stud or
screw ls as /o//ows;
lf possible, apply a penetrating oil to the broken
stud or screw and allow it to soak into the
threads before attempting to remove it;
Check the size of the broken part and calculate
the size of hole that can be drilled through the
centre, allowing enouEh metal for the extractor
to bite without expanding the remaining part:
Select an extractor stamped with the same size
as the drill used:
Locate the centre of the broken part, make a
prick punch mark, and drill a hole deep enough
to permit the extractor to grip evenly; and
lnsert the extractor into the hole and turn it
counterclockwise with a wrench, maintaining a
steady pressure, until the broken part moves'
f/-
Tap Wrench
Extractor
Stud
Workpiece
Bernoving a
Broken Stud
Pipe Extractors
For removing broken pieces of pipe, there is a
special extractor which has a steeper angle of
spiral ridges than the stud extractor. The ridges
are designed so that the extractor will take a
shallow grip on the broken piece of pipe, thus
preventing excessive binding pressure.
Pipe extractors are made in sizes to accom-
modate most standard pipe sizes, with the
squared end large enough for a heavy duty
wrench to be used.
Screw Thread Theory
Delinitions
Screw Thread may bevisualized as a flexible
-
f orm that has been wrapped around a cylinder,
or inside a cylindrical hole, at a uniform rate of
advance, producing a f orm known as a "helix";
External Thread a thread on the outside of a
member;
-
> lnternal Thread - a thread on the inside of a
member;
' Major Diameter - the largest diameter of a
screw thread. This term applies to both internal
and external threads;
. Minor Diameter - the smallest diameter of a
screw thread. This term also applies to both
internal and external threads;
, Pitch Diameter (simple effective diameter)-
the diameter of the surface, which is the
diameter of an imaginary co-axial cylinderthat
passes through the thread profile at such
points as to make the width of the thread equal
to the width of the groove. The pitch diameter
is equal to the major diameter less the single
depth of thread;
> Pitch the distance f rom a point on a screw
-
thread to a corresponding point on the next
thread, measured parailel to the axis;
> Lead - the distance a screw thread advances
axially in one turn. On a single-start screw
thread, the lead and pitch are the same. On a
double-start screw thread, the lead is twice the
distance of the Pitch;
> Crest - the top surface joining adjaceni sides
or f lanks of the thread;
> Roof - the bottom surface joining adjacent
sides or f lanks of the thread;
> Slde or Ftank - the surfaces of a threacl
connecting the crest to the root;
> Slng/e Depth of Thread - the distance f rom
the crest to the root, measured perpendicular
to the axis;
> Thickness of Thread - the distance between
the adjacent sides of the thread, measured
along the pitch line;
> Fit - the relationship between two mating
parts with respect to the amount of clearance
 SHOP PRACTICE 17

'.'.y are assembled, or with respect to studs, nuts and screws etc. ("V" -form threads
- - -nt of interference preventing assernbly; and rolled threads); or
-ie the total'*' permissible
r"' variatlon, > To form a pressure-tight joint (tapered pipe
-
,=-ted by the given maximum and mini- th reads).
:es of the parts;
-ce Left-and Right-hand Threads
- an international difference in the
:ns of mating parts. Right-hand threads are easier to produce on
a lathe than left-hand threads. For this reason,

.1,n".. ]
I most screw threads are right-hand. That is, a nut
must be tu rned to the right to enter the thread. For
certain applications, however, where a directional
I
_t
nread rt Crest change is required, or where a better locking
i effect is required, a left-hand thread is used.
- Single Depth Both the threaded shaft and the nut must, of
- Angle course, be either left- or right-hand.

Lelt-Hand Thread

: : * f11g6d

3urpose of Threads
. - - 'ansmit power and increase lts e/fecl as
- a lead screw or automobile jack (ACME,-
Raght-Hand Thread
:r -are, buttress and worm threads);
, -- aontrol movemenl as in a micrometer
, -form threads); -
i : convey material-asinafoodgrinder(cast
: 'al th reads);
, -: nold parts together with the use of bolts,
=

-
Multiple Threads

Single Thread Double Thread Triple Thread

Most screw threads are of the single type.
-^rs means that the screw thread consists of a
. .gle ridge and groove. A double thread differs
"cm a single thread in that it has two threads and
l'ooves, starting f rom diametrically opposing
r,rections, as shown in the double thread diagram.
A triple thread has three grooves, starting at three
equally spaced points around the circumference.
The object of using multiple threads is to
obtain an increase in lead without weakening the
thread by an increase of pitch and depth.
18 SHOP PRACTICE

Maior Diameter > 10" - the number of threads per inch or

pitc h;
As is noted under "Definitions", the major > UNC - the thread style (in this case, Unified
diameter is the largest diameter of the screw. On
National Coarse);
fasteners, however, the major diameter and the >2 - the class of fit;
shank diameter are usually not the same. >a - the external thread;
For example, if a rough machine bolt and a >b the internal thread; and
semi-f inished cap screw of 314-inch nominal > 1" dp- - i.e., 1" depth - the amount of
diameter are fitted into a neat 3/4-inch drilled tapped into the blind
usable thread
hole, the threaded section of each fastener will
hole.
slip into the hole. However, the shank of the cap
screw may be a light tap f it, and the shank of the Note;
rough machine bolt might be a heavy drive or o Right-hand thread is always understood,
press fit. unless left-hand is specified in the drawing;
Some rolled fasteners have a shank diameter r Some plant drawings may omit the 2aand2b
smaller than the major diameter. and leave the class of fit to the discretion of
the machinist.
Pitch
Pitch can be expressed in two general ways:
Thread Series
At the present time there are over 100 thread
> As threads per inch (tpi) - the number of forms throughout the world. However, there are
crestsmeasured in one inch of a scale rule, not
on ly 1 0 to 12 wh ich the m illwrig ht uses in general
counting the first thread under the end of the
maintenance work.
scale, such as 10 tpi; or
> As an actual measurement - such as 1/10 or American National Thread
0.10 of an inch.
There are two designations for this thread
Thread Symbols National Coarse (NC), and National Fine (NF).
-
This thread has a 60-degree angle, with f lats on the
Basic print detail for a threaded assembly is
crest and root.
as follows:
Unified Screw Thread
Machine drawings of threaded assemblies
There are two designations for this thread
indicate the following factors: -
Unified National Coarse (UNC) and Unified
> 3/4" the size of the major diameter; National Fine (UNF). This thread has a 60-degree
-
Drill and Tap

3/4" - 10" UNC-2a

3/4" - 10" UNC-2b 3/4" - t0" UNC-2b-1" dp

 SHOP PRACTICE 19

ri ,., -- j .ounded root and a rounded or flat National Pipe Thread (NpT)
- 'i ". : a.rd the UNC series The usual fault when hand threading pipe is
are interchange_
. - = s zes, but the NF and UNF have a to put on too many threads.
- . :-- : :a1 in the
l-inch diameter:
UNF - 12 tpi
NF - 14 tpi

Rounded
or
Flat Chest

Root * Deltberate American National pipe Threads

or from
Tool Wear lnside Diameter
b= Outside Diameter g Depth of Thread
-
-r -':a and American National Screw Threads c : Length of Effective Thread
r,- : I -ensions d : Length of Normal Engagement
e : Root Diameter at the Small End of the Thread
f - 0.125 f Outside Diameter at the Small End of the Thread
No. threads per rnch tc - 0.10825
-
-a - tr -
0 88603 0.14434 lnternational Metric Thread
0 61343
This thread is most f requenily found on older
3onstant Pitch Series imported European machines. lt is also found on
spark plugs.
Tnis thread form is the same as the American
'.:: 3nal Thread. The pitch remains the same for
: I ameters. Two common sizes are:
> '2-thread a continuation of National Fine
-
NF), for diameters of over '1 1/2 inches, such
as in shaft nuts; and
> ,t6-thread for diameters of over 2 inches,
-
such as in bearing nuts or collars.
lnternational Metric Threads
Acme Thread
This thread is used mainly as an adjusting lnternational Organization for Standardization
screw on a machine such as a lathe. lt is nota (lSO) Metric Series
iastener. This is the base for the standard metric
thread shape, pitch and sizes used throughout
the world. The proposed ISO series has only 25
thread sizes, ranging f rom 1.6 to 100 mm.

Acme 29" Screw Threads

No. of threads per inch

d : 1/2 pitch + 0.01"
wi -0.3707xpitch
w2 : w1 -0.0052" ISO Metric Threads
20 SHOP PRACTICE

Commonly Used ISO Metric Pilch Diameter Combinations

Nominal Thread Nominal Thread

Diameter Pitch Diameter Pitch

1.6 0.35 20 25
2.O 0.40 24 3.0
2.5 0.45 30 3.5
3.0 0.50 36 4.0
3.5 0.60 42 4.5
4.0 0.70 48 5.0
5.0 0.80 56 5.5
6.0 1.00 64 60
8.0 1.25 72 6.0
10.0 1.50 B0 6.0
12.O 1.75 90 6.0
14.0 2 00 1 00 6.0
16.0 2.00 Hex-headed Cap Screw, Loaded by a Nut

The new ISO thread has a 60-degree inclu-
ded angle and a crest equal to 0.125 times the
pitch. The main differences are:
> The depth of thread is less; and
> The root is 0.250 X pitch.
The increased root diameter will allow an
increase in the tensile strength of the fastener.
Basic print detail for a metric fastener is as
follows:
M8 X '1.25
> M - the symbol for metric;
> 8 - the nominalmajordiameter in mm;and
> 1.25 - the pitch in mm.
Note: The ISO metric system is developed in
further detail in the section entitled "Metric Pitch
Nomenclature" at the end of this chapter.
Fastener Use
Threaded fasteners are classified as either
screws or bolts. The general distinction is that a
screw is loaded by a head, and a bolt is loaded or
tightened by a nut, but some fasteners can be
used either way. Using a cap screw as both a
machine bolt and a cap screw will reduce the
necessary parts inventory.
lnstallation of Fasteners
Practically all fastener failure takes place
when the assembly is being torqued or tightened.
ln the tightening process, there are three problems
that may occur:
> The bolt can break;
> The bolt thread can strip; or
> The nut thread can strip.
Bolt breakage can be avoided by following
manufacturers' torque values for the assembly, or
by breaking a sample assembly and then using a
lower value on the torque wrench.
Thread stripping can be avoided by using
thicker nuts so that more threads take the load.
For example, if a bolted assembly is torqued
to 100 ft-lbs (140 N/mm) to suit specifications,
several factors are involved during the tightening
procedure:
> Torque
- ororturning force, set by the wrench;
> Tension elongation of the bolt;
> -
Compresslon
- of the material between the
bolt head and nut; and
> Dilation
- the tendency of the wedge shape of
the thread to enlarge the diameter of the nut.
After torque force is taken off the assembly,
the major force remaining is the tension set up by
the fastener.
Tensile Force
Tensile force on the material can be classed as:
> Elastic Limit - the amount a fastener can be
stretched and still return to its original length
after tensile forces are removed. Proof-load
figures for fasteners are frequently given; they
are slightly less than the yield load of the
fastener, but within the elastic limit;
> Yield Point - where the fastener begins to take
a permanent set; or
> Ultimate Tensile Strength (uts) the failure or
breaking point.
-
The forces for the above groups are given as
slress psi
- a length of material with a cross-
section of one square inch that will break at a
 SHOP PRACTICE 21

certain tensile load in pounds.

A 1/Z-inch diameter SAE (Society of Automo_
\
tive Engineers) Grade-1 cap screw has a tensile /\\/-\ |

strength of 60,000 psi, a yield stress of 36,000 psi,

and a proof stress of 33,000 psi. The actual timit
.1 \(
load on the cap screw can be calculated by the
- Four-bolt
>
following formulas:
The failure load
of a
_ actual area X psi The area
1/2-inch diameter is 0.19635 of a square
o Bearing

inch. \
The failure load 0.19635 X 60,000 \\
- #
The yield load
-_ 11,781
0.19635 X 36,000
#
- 7068
The proof load
- 0.19635 X 33,000 \
6479 #

The torque to get the calculated proof load in

tension can be approximated, using the formula:
<(d
t-0.2xdxt
,t
the torque in inch-pounds; Bolt Assembly
0.2 the correction factor;
d the nominal diameter in inches; and
t the tension in pounds.
loading each bott torqued to get
0.2xdxt
. -!1oOer
'1600# tensile load:
-
:- 0.2x0.5x6479 Holding force of fasteners
- 647.9 inch-pounds - 4 X 1600 - 5000
Separating force on fasteners
6400 #
= 54 foot-pounds Effective loading - #

The 0.2 correction factor takes into consid_

deration the fact that about B0 percent of the
torque force is used to overcome friction and only
20 percent is used to put the fastener in tension.
Bolted Assemblies
Types of bolted assemblies generally fall into
two groups:
> Where the load on the fasteners remains con_
stant; or
> Where the load on the fasteners is a variable
amount.
ln a variable-load assembly, the tension on
the bolt due to torque should be higher than the
forces tending to separate the components. The
bolt is then considered to be preloaded.
Drive starts chain pull
Dead weight-
3000
14OO# -
With the preload of 6400*, the fasteners wiil
remain a constant iength.
The figures represent a theoretical problem;
. actual
in use, the bearing assembly with the
lightly loaded bolts soon show polished surfaces
on the bearing base and beam. The fasteners are
slightly stretched as the drive starts, ailowing the
bearings to move a litile. When the drive stops,
the bearings are again in tight contact with the
beam. Welding stopper biocks at each end of the
bearing will keep the bearing in alignment, but
will not prevent the fastener from elongating.
Proper preloading of fasteners is eslential in
any machine with ott/on loads so as to reduce or
prevent early fastener failure.
Torque Values
Torque values shown in service manuals are
#

2000 # desig ned:

Total force separating assembly 5000 # > To give proper preload on fasteners;
Holding force of fasteners 3200 # > To prevent shear across the threads when
Effective holding force is short by using
1800# similar or difficult materials in assembly;
22 SHOP PRACTICE

To ensure a uniform loading on all the fasteners

when assembling; and
To prevent failure or cracking of metals, e.9. a
cast Browning bushing or an equivalent, used
with steel cap screws.
Tables given usually apply to a new threaded
assembly
lubrication.
- Class 2a/2b - with very light
t:fXr t= fXr
Lubrication -5X12in. : 5X1
- 60 in-lbs = 5 ft-lbs
Lubrication can have an eifect on the torque
value of any fastener assemblY. Torque Calculations
Lubricaiion is often a matter of choice or
company policy. lf the assembly is fastened "for
life", a lubricant is not critical, but if the assembly
is to be taken apart f requently, a commercial anti-
seize compound should be used. Some manuals
give a definite torque figure for lubrication and
specif ic correction factors for common lubricants.
Proper torque values dePend on:
> Accuracy of the torque wrench;
> The thread f inish; t:fXI t= fXr
> The class of fit; - 5X 25 : 5X10x250
> The age of the fasteners; 100 1 000 h--
> The type of surface f inish on the f ixed and - 1.25 m/kg 'I
25 N.m
ffiE
turning metals;
Torque Calculations
> The positioning of the holes, and 0-e
> The correct amount of thread for the assembly. Radius in centimetres is converted to radius in
Torque wrench readings are given in: metres. *:
> in-lbs (inch-pounds) - for small diameter > For convenience, 1 kg mass is taken to be 10 ;r:
fasteners or lighJly loaded assemblies; Newtons of force.
> ft-lbs (foot-pounds) - for general use; > lt is preferable to indicate dimensions in milli- ,=
> mlkgs (metreslkilograms)- the old metric metres, rather than centimetres.
system;
> N.m (Newton metres) - the new Systdme Preload
lnternational, which will be standard. Preload may be obtarned by several methods
Torque is calculated by the formula: in common practice:
t-f Xrwhere t-torque; > Turn of Nut
- used mainly with structural steel
f force in . lbs; assembly. The nut is tightened until the
- o kg; or assembly is snug and then the nut is turned a
a Newtons specif ied amount. For example, with a fastener
r radius . in; ot3/4 - 10 inches UNC using hex nuts, a turn of
- o ft; or one flat will stretch the bolt 1/16 X 1/10 0f an
am. inch toequall/60 of an inch (0.0166 of an inch);
> Preload tndicating Washers - designed to
crush on the high points. A feeler gauge is used
to measure the remaining gap A set of tables
will be needed for each washer, and care must
be taken during assemblY;
 SHOP PRACTICE

> Load Distribution per Thread _ contrary to

general belief, all threads do not take equal
amounts of loading in an assembly. ln thread
fasteners, the f irst f ull thread of the nut
next to
the f lat washer takes about 50 percent of the
f ull load; the next thread
about 25 percent; and
the remaining threads share the rest of the
load. The percentages are approximate,
but
generally accepted;
> Measured Elongation of Fasfeners _ the
method by which unif orm elongation of fasten_
ers is obtained. A micrometer reading is taken Lock Nut
for the length, and on assembly,
is stretched to a specified length. "uch-frrt"n*,
This gives
uniform tension of each fastener. > Siotted or Castellated Nuts -- used with a hole
drilled through ihe bolt or screw, and a
cotter
key. These are used in two general fashions:
o A hole is drilled in the ..r*;
then the nut is
tightened to torque value and backed
J off to
the nearest aligned slot,
-t lll c A nut is torqued to specif ied value,
and a hole
is drilled through the screw for a cotter
key;
> Special Nuls to suit machine design.
-
Leng th
The nut can be round, as with anti_friction
bearing nuts or hexagonal standard nuts.
"s" is cut from one siJe, depth A sloi
fuleasured Length of Fasteners to.rit unOu not"
'h" drilled and tapped into one part. in pracilce,
Locking Fasteners Ine nut is tightened to tne final pcsition,
then a
hoilow-head setscrew or a cap screw
Properly fastened machine assemblies should is installed
in the hole and tightened.
not separate if fasteners become loose. Where
locking means cannot be used, a frne thread
wili
Studs
give better holding power and resistance
to A sfud is a length of round stock
vibration than a coarse thr.ead. with threads
on either end of an unthreaded section:
Single positive locking of a nut/bolt assemblv
can be done by welcirng the nut to the bolt, u ,f thread can be of same style on each
or " end,
rrveting the bolt over the nut. This is guaranteed t.4,.
to
hold, but destructive removal wiji be necessary 1/2" NC X 1/2" NC; or
replacing the fasteners.
in r The thread can be of different thread
style to
Where fasteners must be removed to work suit machine and nuts available or Ioading
on
an assembiy, the following choice of lockino required, i.e..
rneans can be used: 1/2" NC x 1/2" NF; or
> Lock Washers; 1/2" NC X M12.
> Lock Nuts or Jam Nuis (thin nuts)_ in theory,
Studs are f requently used as a f ixed
threaded
the jam nut goes on first, followed by the member in a casting as a means
full of protecting the
nut; but in general mill use, the opposite internal tirread.
sequence is used; Two possible fasiener designs are.
> Defarmed fuuts; >
w Self-Locking Nutt; * using nylon, fibre, Cap Screu,,s which will i:e tightened and
wjre -
other inserts. The machine specifieationsor renioved fr"equenily, thus shoriening the iife of
the threaded hoie; and
should be checked to see if ti-r*se nuts p
can i:e Sflros
taken off and reused: - rryhich '.*iii be locked in ilre threadeC
hlie so that the ivear virili be oil ihe nr-li and
24 SHOP PRACTICE

stud. ln the case of thread damage, it is usually Metric Pitch Nomenclature

faster and easier to replace the stud than to try
and recover any damaged internal thread. ln the ISO system, there are coarse threads
called "regular" threads, and there aretwo series
of f ine threads.
ln the ISO system, the pitch is the distance
between the crests of two adjacent threads in
millimetres, so that a f ine thread metric cap screw
which is 10 mm in diameter, 75 mm long, with a
pitch of 1.25 mm, would be described as M 10 X
1.25 X 75. However, a coarse thread metric cap
screw would simply be described as having a
nominal diameter x and a length y; e.9., M 10 X
75. The table below is a reference for selecting
cap screws in the metric field.

METRIC THREAD PITCH

Screw Diameter Thread Pitch Designation

-Coarse Pitch
(millimetres) Fine Pitch

M 3x0.5 ..M 3 x 0.35

3
M 4x0.7 ..M 4 x 0.5
4
a
5 M 5x0.8 ..M 5 x 0.5
Cover Plate with a Drilled Casting with a Drilled and
6 M 6x'1 ..M 5 x 0.75
Clearance Hole Tapped Hole
8 M 8 x 1.25 ..M Bx1
M 8x0.75
Cholce ol Fasteners lor a Cover Assembly M10x1.5
..M'10 x 1.25
10
Where lhe Cover Plate is Frequently Removed M10x1
12 M 12 x 1.75 M12x1.5
--M 12 x 1.25
M 14 x2
.-M 14 x 1.5
lnternal Thread RecoverY 14
M 14 x 1.25
M16x2 ..M 16 x 1.5
lf thethreadsof thetapped hole inthecasting 16
M18x2.5 M18x2
18
(see diagram above) are stripped, thread recovery .-M 18 x 1.5
can be done bY: M20x2.5 M20x2
..M 20 x 1.5
> Tapping the existing hole deeper, or drilling M 22 x2.5 M22x2
and tapping to get another diameter of new -.M 22 x 1.5
thread (1/2 inch NC requires 1/2 inch of M24x3 "M24x2
'SIli
thread); M24x1.5
M30x3.5
-.M30x2 ',
Using the correct drill and helicoil taps in order M30xl.5
to obtain the sPecified helicoil; M36x4 -.M36x3
36
Welding, redrilling and tapping the hole (this M 36 x 1.5 Smt
can be time-consuming due to the necessity of I
heat control for cast iron);
Coarse metric thread fasteners designations nor-
Filling the hole with plastic steel or an equivalent mally do not include the thread pitch listing They
epoxy (this is good only if the base metal is are listed above for basic information only.
clean and free of rust, oil or grease. Full
These are the most widely used of the two metric fine
strength may not be obtained); or
Drilling and tapping the hole to a larger size
pitch series. f
(this also means that the correct matching hole
in the cover must be drilled to clearance size for crf,

the larger fastener). ilt

Er
 'i

SHOP PRACTICE 25

Comparison of Strength Grades
and Head Markings
*rere
is an important, basic difference
.s. inch markings:
" n the inch system, there are
-rarkings for bolt strengths less than
no strength grade
SAE
Grade 5. (Grade-3 botts ire marked with
two
rarks but are not common, so are discounted.)
r n the metric system, however, bolts with
strengths tess than g.g (equivalent to Grade
5)
?1ay or may not be marked.
Non-Heat_Treated Metric Fasleners
and Hex-Head Bolts (Cap Screws)
ers have a single listing system for strength
g rades.
There are basic differences between the
in metric strength grade designations of the ISO
metric
bolts and the SAE bolts: the ISO metric
system
uses a multiple numeral designation,
whereas the
SAE system uses a single nuri-reral desiqnation.
ln
ISO metric, the first numeral(s) indicates
the
ultimate tensile strength, anO ine number after
the decimal indicates the yietd point as
apercen_
tage of tensile strength.
For example, an ISO_4.6 bolt has a strength
equal to 60 percent of its ultimate tensile
strength,
and an tSO-S.6 bolt would also have a yield
strength equal to 60 percent of its ultimate
tensile l

strength. However, an ISO_5.g bolt would

. ::.CXIMAtE SAE have a
ISO Metric Head yield strength equal to g0 percent
I

r- I ASTM Grades Strength Grade Marking

of its ultimate
tensile strength, and an ISO_10.g bolt would
have
: -: Grade i/ a yield strength equal to 90 percent
:STM 4-307, Grade of the ultimate
A 4.6 4
tensile strength.
4.6
.During the period of changeover to ISO
N.ote:
46
4.8 4,8
standards, there will be Ootts witn non_lSO
48 markings.
none
5.6 5
Some countries do not use a numeralfollow_
5.6 ing the decimal point, and this can lead to a
::E 56 certain degree of confusion, i.e., a metric
Grade 2 5.8 bolt
5.8 marked "5" on the head does not have
5B the same
strength as an SAE Grade_5 bolt; it is equivalent
none
6.6 6
to an SAE Grade-2 bolt. A metric bolt marked ,,g,,
6.6 on the head is not the same strength as an
SAE
66 Grade-8 bott; it is equivatent to ariSRe Grade_5
6.8 6.8 bolt.
68
none Metric Strength Grades for Nuts
6.9 6.9
69 ln the metric system, it is essential that the
none nut is equal to or greater than the ultimate
SAE Grade S/ tensile
ASTM 4-449 strength of the bolt with which it is assembted;
8.8 B
i.e., f or a bolt with a 6.6 strength, the
8.8 nut should be
6 or stronger; and for a bolt with an g.g
SAE Grade 8
B8 strength,
the nut should be g or stronger.
ASTM 4-354, Grade BD 10.9 10 The f unctional tensile stiength of a
10.9 bott and
nut assembly will actually be no greater
109 than the
ASTM A-574 12.9 weakest element in the assem btyl i.e.,
tz if a 10.9_ or
12.9-bott is assembled to a meiric
129.9 irale_e nut,
the assembly will only withstand tne
same tensile
Metric Strength Grades for Bolts load as an 8.8 bolt assembled to a
metric Grade_g
nut.
Unlike American specif ications, which in_
clude both American Society for Testing ISO specif ies one-nut thickness for
and each
Materials (ASTM) and Society of Automotive nominal size, as opposed to the American
stan_
Engineers (SAE) strength grades, metric dards which are of a standard two_nut
fasten_
thickness.
There are two approved ISO metric
strength
26 SHOP PRACTICE

grade marking systems the numeral system There are other ISO metric strength values but
- they are all of lower value than the ones generally
and the "clock" system.
replaced, such that strength grade 12.9 or the
Numeral System equivalent in SAE is alwaYs used.
> Some strength Grade 6 are marked with the Because the inch system, socket head cap
numeral "6"; screws are of only one strength, it is not necessary
> ISO metric units, 6 mrn or larger, with no to mark them. This is not the case in the ISO metric
strength grade marking are always lower in system because of the many grades. lt is manda-
strength than Grade 8; and tory that all heat-treated grades (8.8, 10.9, 12'9\ ot
> lt is also possible that the "8", "10", or "12", socket head cap screws be marked with their
strength grade marking may be f ound on the f lat strength grades, as illustrated. The location of the
or side of the nut. mark is optional. Cap screws (metric) without
marking are of low strength and are not heat-
treated.

Numeral System

Clock System Socket Head Cap Screws

For proPer identif ication, the nut must be
positioned so that the "dot" is at the toP (12
o'clock) and the dash is to the left of the "dot"
Metrie Conversions for Screw
Tlrreads
The foilowing table illustrates the size
relationship of the metric vs. the inch system in

oo
screws. The M-24 screw must noi be called a "1-
inch metric", nor a M-B or M-10 screw a "3/B-inch
metric".
Metric Size Maior lnch Screw Size
Diameter, Diameler, Number Sizes and
(millimetres) ( i nches) Fraction Sizes

0111
Clock Sysiem l\l 3 0117
0 124 5

Metric Strength Grades for Socket 0 r37 6

4 0.1 57
Head Cap Screws N,,'!

0 163
0.189 10
ln the inch system, there is only one strength
M5 0 196
grade of socket head cap screw, namely,170,000 0 215 12
- 180,000 psi. ln the ISO metric system, there are M6 0.235
four strengths in PoPular use: 0.250 1/4
M7 0 275
6.6 - 85,000 psr a 312 51 16

8.8 120,000 psi MB 0 314

10.9 -- 150,000 psi 0 375 3i8
12.9 175.000 psi N4 10 0 392
0.437 / / to
The 12.9 metrrc strength is the only one M 12 0 471
1i2
s00
comparable to the inch system socket head' 0.
 SHOP PRACTICE 27

MetricSize Major lnch Screw Size lnch to Metric

Diameter, Diameter, Number Sizes and 1 inch - 25 mm (millimetre)
(millimetres) (inches) ft-lb - - 2.5 cm (centimetres)
Fraciion Sizes 10 1.4 kg/m (kilogram/metre)
- 14 N.m (Newton
metres)
1000 psi - 0.7 kg/mm: (kilograms/square millimetre)
M 14 0.550 7 Mpa (Megapascals)
-
0 562 9/16 1 pound 0.45 kg (kilograms)
0.625 - - 4.4 N (Newtons)
5/8
M 16 0.628 Metric to tnch
0.750 3/4 1 mm - 0.04 in
M 20 0.786 .10
N.m 1.1 kg/m 7.5 ft-lb
0.875 7tB 1 MPa 0.1 kg/mm, - 14S psi
M 24 0.943 toN - 1.1 kg : 2.3 tb
1.000 .t Abbrevrations: (mm) millimetres, (kg) kilograms,
(m) metre, (N) Newtons,
(MPa) Megapascals, (N.m) Newton metres.

Metric Conversions for Torque

Values strength for metric strength B.B bolts and 10.9
bolts, 6 mm in diameter through 36 mm in
The following two tables list the torque diameter. The torque values are listed in three
recommended to Eive a clamping force equivalent different units of measure, as illustrated in the
to 75 percent of the minimum specif ied load table on the previous page.
ISO Metric Strength 8.8

Diameter Clamp Load, Torque,

( pou nds) foot-pounds ktlogram-metres Newton-metres
ft-lbs kg-nr N_m

6 mm (M6) 2000 8
.t.1 '1
1
8 mm (M8) 3800 20 2.8 27
10 mm (M10) 5900 39 55 53
12 mm (M12) 8600 68 9.5 92
14 mm (M14) 11700 107 l5 145
16 mm (M16) 1 4900 156 22
20 mm (M20) 23300 306 +J 415
24 mm (M24) 33600 qro
74
30 mm (M3O) 53500 1 050 147 1424
36 mm (M36) 77800 1 835 257 2488

Nole:rTorque values based on dry, zinc-plated cap screws. These values will be approximately
30 percent less
if lubricated cap screws are used.
?Clamp loads equivalent to 75 percent of fastener proof
Load strength.

ISO Metric Strength 10.9

Diameter Clamp Load Torque

( pou nds) foot-pounds kjlogram-metres Newton_metres
ft-lbs kg-m N_m

6mm 2730 11 1.5 14.9

8mm 5120 27 3.8 Jb. b
10 mnl 81 00 53
12 mm 1 1800 93 13 126
14 mm 16100 148 21 201
16 mm 21900 230 32 312
20 mm 3420A 449 63 60s
24 mm 49400 777 109 1 054
30 rnm 78s00 1544 216 2094
36 mm 114200 2696 3556
 RIGGING AND HOISTING

3. Rigging and Hoisting

Wire Rope Wire Rope Grades

The lifting means most commonly used in a
plant is wire rope. lt is better adapted for haulage
and transmission purposes than are natural and
synthetic ropes.
Wire Rope Construction
There are over a thousand possible combina-
tions of cores, wires, and strands, each with its
own characteristics.
The general rules (there are exceptions) for
the use of wire rope in a plant depend upon the
following factors:
Grades of wire rope used in hoisting run from
"traction" grade, with a breaking load of 80 to 90
tons per square inch of wire material, to "special
improved plow" grade, with a breaking load of
120 to 130 tons per square inch. "lmproved plow
quality" grade, with a breaking load of 110 to 120
tons per square inch, is the most common grade
used in a mill.
Wire Rope Cores
A core is built into a wire rope during
construction to support the strands of the rope
and maintain the basic rope shape.

> > Fibre Cores are usually made f rom sisal, but
Crush Besistance
- - from polypropylene or other
can be made
o Steel core rope resists crushing better than
fibre core rope; synthetic rope material if the wire rope will be
> Abrasion Reslstance - subject to weathering. They are identified by
o Large diameter wires on the outside or
"fc" for f ibre core and "hc" for sisal core;
> lndependent Wire Rope or Wire Rope Cores
contact layer have better abrasion resistance
are used when wire rope is subject to sudden
-
than small wires;
> Flexibility - heavy loads, crushing, or heat. ln small
r The larger the number of wires in the outer diameter wire ropes, the wire rope core is
gallery (layer) of a strand, the more flexible replaced by a strand core. These are identified
the strand will be; and by the designations "wrc" or "iwrc".
r The larger the number of wires in a wire rope, Wire Rope Lay
the more flexible the strand will be;
> Strength - > Right-Regular Lay or Right-Ordinary Lay
the most common wire rope used. This con-
-is
r Steel core rope is strongerthan fibrecore; and
o The larger the number of wires in a rope, the sists of a number of wires twisted to the left
lower the strength; around a small core to form each of six strands,
s Lay- which are then twisted to the right around the
o Right-lay ropes are the most common style main core to form the final rope.
> Left-Regular Lay consists of wires twisted to
used; and -
the right in the strands, which themselves are
o Left-lay ropes are used for special applica-
tions. twisted to the left.
Wire ropes of six strands are the most
common, but other constructions are available.
 RIGGING AND HOISTING 29

, -ang Lay (or Lang's Lay) is laid with the Preformed ropes do not fly apart when cut,
,.,,ires - the
and strands twisted in same direc_ can be spliced without sizing each strand; and
: on, The core design is the same as that of the where there are broken wires, they willlie flat in
'egular lay. position with the rope.
Advantages of Lang lay are:
r lt is more flexible.
r it has more area in contact with the drum or
:he spools and the sheaves, thus wearing
;onger; and
o lt has more resistance to crushing and
C isto rtion.
)isadvantages of Lang lay are:
. Both ends must be permanenily fastened;
o lt must not be used with a single-part lift;
r lt must not be used with swivels; and
o lt cannot be used for slings.

Preformed
Wire Ropes

Wire Rope Classification

Left Lay Lang Lay

Wire ropes are classified by four factors:
Right Lay Lang Lay
> The number of strands;
> The number of wires per strand;
> The arrangement of wires in a strand, and
> The type of core; e.g.,
o 6 x 19 group specifies wire ropes having 6
Left Lay Regular Lay Right Lay Regular Lay strands lvith -1Z to 26 wires per strand, and
{vire Rope Lays either a fibre or a steel core;
o 6 x 37 group specifies wire ropes having 6
strands with -27 to 4g wires per strand, and
Preformed Wire Ropes
Pretormed wire ropes have a,,hetix,'or twist either a f ibre or a steel core. Fibre core
set in each wire and strand to eliminate internal construction is not generaily included in this
S: TESS, grouping.

Common Wire Rope Designs

X 26 Warrington Seale Right Heguiar Lay, Fibre Core

6 X 16 Warr Seale 6 X 41 Filter IWRC 6 X 41 Seale Filter 6 X 49 Seate Fiiler

Fibre Core Fibre Core IWRC
 RIGGING AND HOISTING
Wire Rope Size
Wire rope is measured across its greatest
diameter, and is usually very slightly oversize. For
this reason, all holes in the flange or body of the
d ru m m ust be d ril led oversize i n order to al low the
rope to be inserted.
Correct lncorrect
Measurlng lhe Diameter ol Wire Rope
Wire Rope Drums
Wire rope should be stored rolled, or on
drums, in a dry place away from extremes of heat
and moisture.
UnwindinE Wire RoPe on a Drurn
When taking a length of wire rope from a
spool, the spool should be rotated either on a
spindle or turntable, or else rolled along the f loor
or ground. The wire rope should not be taken off
thsside of the spool a wrap at a time, as this often
results in kinks. A quick way of mounting a spool
is to use a length of pipe and some blocking'
When unwinding a cable, an assistant should
be on hand at the spool to keep the wire from
Uncoiiing or Coiling a Length
Correct Method
slacking back on the wraps and the spool from
over-run n ing.
Pull off Block
from the
bottom
Unwlnding a Cable
Before cutting a length of wire from a reel,
each side of the proposed cut should be "seized"
or wrapped. Friction tape, or, if the end is to be
welded, light wire, should be used. lf one end o{
the wire is to go through a hole in a drum, a good
practice is to "braze" or weld the end and then
remove the seizing.
Seizing
Selzlng Wire Before Culting
lf using an impact cutter to cut the wire rope,
the cutter should be kept in the sa;ne position
throughout the cut. lf thc cut is partially made and
the cutter is moved to start at a new spot, short
ends of wire will lly around, creating a hazard'
of Rope Cui from a Spool
lncorrect Method
 RIGGING AND HOISTING 31

After removing a length of rope f rom a spool: Rule ol "Hand" for ihe Correct Attachment ol Rope
> Wind the slack back onto the spool and tie
down the free end;
> Put the spool back into its proper storage; and
> Make a note of the amount removed, to keep
records straight.
A cut length of wire should be coiled or
uncoiled by rolling the wire rope along the f loor. lf
the cut length of wire rope is to be used at once,
there is no trouble keeping track of it. Overwind
lf there is a special length of wire rope that Right to Left
Left-Lay Overwound
Use Left-Lay Rope -
has been cut for future use:
> Tie it securely; Start Rope at I
> Firmly attach to it a label giving its specif ica- Right Flange
tions; Right
> Store the coil in a def inite holding area, rather
than with the rest of the stock wire rope; and
> Store the rope in a dry area where the coil will
not be exposed to weathering, and where it will
not be abused by having machine parts piled Underwind '| I t

on it. Right to Left Right-Lay Underwound

Use Right-Lay Rope
-
Spooling Wire Rope on a Drum
lmproper attachment on a drum will result in
excessive rope wear, usually concentrated in one Left
or more places, as the loaded rope attempts to Hand
climb over the next wrap and pile up on itself.
To obtain good drum winding, the rope must
be started from the proper flange, this willdepend
on whether the rope is left-lay or right-lay, and
whether the rope leads from the top or from the
U nderwind
bottom of the drum. Left to Right Left-Lay Underwound
Standing behind the drum, you should ob- Use Left-Lay Rope -
serve the following: Start Rope at
Left Flange
> Wind left-lay rope leading from the top side of
Right
the drum, starting at the right flange; Hand
> Wind left-lay rope leading f rom the underside
of the drum, starting at the ielt f lange;
> Wind right-layrope leading fromthetopsideof
the drum, starting at the /eft flange; and
> Wind right-lay rope leading f rom the underside
of the drum, starting at the right tlange. Overwind r\ I t'
Left to Right Right-Lay Overwound
> The human hand represents the lay (right-lay Use Right-Lay Rope
-
or left-lay) of the rope and either over- or un-
derwound;
> The index finger shows the approach of the
Use the right fist for Right-Lay Rope, left fist for Left-
rope; and Lay Rope. For overwound rope keep your fist back up.
> The thumb shows where the rope is attached to For underwound rope, palm up. lndex fingerpointed to
the drum. the drum will indicate how the rope should lead from
the drum and from which flange.
 : \, 1 :OlS-'NG

2" Fleet Angle

is changed f requently; and
> Permanent sockets
Fleet of the rope - are installed for the life
Smooth Sheave
Drum

I ncorrect
Drum
Fleet Angles for Drums

Fleet angle
centerline through- isthethat angle between the
first f ixed sheave, the
centre of the drum and from the inside of the Correct
flange to the centre of the sheave. lnstalling Wire Rope Clips
Excessive f leet angles can cause serious
damage to wire rope, sheaves and grooved
drums. Severe scuffing will occur when rope
wears against the grooved walls, grinding them
down and causing the rope itself to become
bruised or crushed.
The fleet angles on equipment should there_
fore be kept as small as possible, preferably Correcl
between one and one-and-a-half degrees. For
smooth drums, the fleet angle should never
exceed two degrees. For grooved drums, the f leet
angle should never exceed four degrees, depend_ -"''
ing on the equipment being used. Excessive drum -.-'t'--+
wear or poor spooling will result if these toler_
ances are exceeded. lncorrect Method
lnstalling a Wedge Socket on a Wire Rope
Attachment Devices
U-bolt c/4os, commonly called Crosby ctips, Wire Rope Sheaves
are probably the most common way of attaching A sheaye is a grooved wheel or pulley.
the free end of a wire rope toa piece of equipmenl Sheave grooves should provide side support
or an anchor. All clamps (clips) should be without pinching the rope. Too wide a groove
in stalled: decreases the service life of the rope.
> With the saddle on the live end and the U_bolt As a general rule, the larger the sheave
on the dead end ',a cowboy saddles a /iye diameter, the longer the life of the cable, due to
horse, not a dead -one.', reduced bending and flexing. The minimum
> Spaced to suit WCB regulations; and sheave size also applies to the diameter of hoist
> With nuts torqued to suit manufacturers, drums.
specifications or WCB regulations (see WCB Wire rope should not be run over sheaves
lndustrial Heatth and Saf ety Regutations, smaller than the minimum size specified by the
'1978, for new wire rope manufacturer This sheave size varies
specifications on s[acing and
torque valves). with the size and construction of the wire rope but
> Double saddle ctips must be used in the the sheave/rope diameter ratio should be an
same number and with - the same spacing; average of:
> Eyes made by ctips have about g0 percent of
the strength of the -rope;
35:1 for 6 x l9 and fewer wires;
30:'l for 6 x 20 to 6 x 25 wires; and
> Wedge sockets-are used wherethemain line 20.1 for 6 x 36 and more wires.

U
 RIGGING AND HOISTING

To obtain the sheave diameters for a specific Sheave Checks

rope, consult the appropriate wire rope catalogue. A sheave should be checked on a regular
Groove prof ile can be checked by the tem- basis for:
plate of a groove gauge
- which can be bought
either as a single or in a set, or custom-made in > Free turning on the shaft if it is bushed; or free
the plant. turning in the bearings if it is keyed to a shaft;
> Rope wear on the bottom of the groove; or
Reverse Bends > Cracks or breaks in the flange or outer rim.
The reverse bends illustrated in diagram A
put excessive bending strain on the rope. lf the Wire Rope Wear
design cannot be avoided, increasing the dia- Wire rope wear can be caused by a large
meter of the sheave and the distance between the number of factors, ranging from normal service
sheaves, as shown in B, will reduce excessive
life to operator neglect.
flexing. Mechanical damage can be caused by:
> Wire being kinked, due to careless handling or
excessive slack;
> Loaded rope being dragged over sharp edges;
> Rope being run over by moving equipment;
> An operator allowing a sheave to fall over, then
making a lift;
Rope being in contact with f lame f rom a torch
or a stinger when welding is in progress;
Shock loads;
lndividual wire failure, due to excessive
bending, running the wire on flat rollers, worn
sheave grooves, etc.;
Pitting or corrosion, due to weathering or
chemicals; or
Rope running over misaligned sheaves (either
offset or angular).
Loss of diameter can be caused by:
Reverse Bend in Wire Rope Wear on individual wires creating flats, which
reduce the diameter of the rope;
Checking Groove Protile

Tight Loose Correct