Pigging Terminology

NARMADA OFFSHORE CONSTRUCTION PVT LTD.
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¾ PIGGING TERMINOLOGY
¾ PIGS
¾ PIGGING
¾ SAMPLE DISCS
¾ ASSEMBLY OF PIG
¾ GAUGE PLATE
¾ GEOMETRY PIGS
¾ PIGS:
Pipeline pigs are devices that are inserted into and travel throughout the length of a
pipeline driven by a product flow. They were originally developed to remove deposits
which could obstruct or retard flow through a pipeline. Today pigs are used during all
phases in the life of a pipeline for many different reasons.
Although each pipeline has its own set of characteristics which affect how and why
pigging is used, there are basically three reasons to pig a pipeline:
• To batch or separate dissimilar products;

• For displacement purposes;
• For internal inspection.
The pigs which are used to accomplish these tasks can be divided into three categories:
¾ Utility Pigs, which are used to perform functions such as cleaning, separating, or
dewatering.
¾ In Line Inspection Tools, which provide information on the condition of the line, as
well as the extent and location of any problems.
¾ Gel Pigs, which are used in conjunction with conventional pigs to optimize pipeline
dewatering, cleaning, and drying tasks.
The type of pig to be used and its optimum configuration for a particular task in a
particular pipeline should be determined based upon several criteria, which include:
¾ The purpose
z Type, location, and volume of the substance to be removed or displaced in
conventional pigging applications,
z Type of information to be gathered from an intelligent pig run,
z Objectives and goals for the pig run.
¾ The line contents

z The contents of the line while pigging,
PIONEERS IN PIGGING & TESTING OF PIPELINES
kevin pinto Page 1 11-May-10

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z Available vs. required driving pressure,

z Velocity of the pig.
¾ Characteristics of the pipeline

z The minimum and maximum internal line sizes,
z Maximum distance pig must travel,
z Minimum bend radius, and bend angles,
z Additional features such as valve types, branch connections, and the elevation
profile.
¾ UTILITY PIGS
Utility pipeline pigs can be divided into two groups based upon their fundamental
purpose:
¾ Cleaning Pigs, which are used to remove solid or semi-solid deposits or debris from
the pipeline.
¾ Sealing Pigs, which are used to provide a good seal in order to either sweep liquids
from the line, or provide an interface between two dissimilar products within the
pipeline. Within these two groups, a further subdivision can be made to
differentiate among the various types or forms of pigs:
¾ Mandrel pigs, which have a central body tube, or mandrel, and various components
which can be assembled onto the mandrel to configure a pig for a specific duty;

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¾ Foam pigs, which are molded from polyurethane foam with various configurations of
solid polyurethane strips and/or abrasive materials permanently bonded to them;
¾ Solid cast pigs, which are moulded in one piece, usually from polyurethane, and;
¾ Spherical pigs or spheres, which are of either a solid composition or inflated

to their optimum diameter with glycol and/or water.

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¾ GEOMETRY PIGS
¾ A geometry / caliper pig is a configuration pig designed to record conditions,
such as dents, wrinkles, ovality, bend radius and angle, and occasionally
Indications of significant internal corrosion by making measurements of the
Inside surface of the pipe.
¾ IN LINE INSPECTION TOOLS (ILI) / SMART PIGS

In Line Inspection provides information on the condition of the pipe and/or its
contents. With few exceptions, the In Line Inspection Tool itself is simply the tool
which gathers the data, which is then analysed by the engineers and technicians to
determine and report on the condition of the line.
Although the two most common requirements are for geometry/diameter

measurement and for metal-loss/corrosion devices, the information which can be
provided by these intelligent pigs covers a much wider range of inspection and
troubleshooting needs which include:
• Diameter/geometry measurements;
• Curvature monitoring;
• Pipeline profile;
• Temperature/pressure recording;
• Metal-loss/corrosion detection;
• Product sampling, and;
• Mapping.
• Crack detection;
• Wax deposition measurement;
• Bend measurement;
• Leak detection;
• Photographic inspection;

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¾ PLUGS
A plug is a specialist pig that can be used to isolate a section of pipeline at pressure
while some remedial work is undertaken. The plugs can withstand pressures up to 200
bars typically. The plug works by gripping into the line pipe and then having a separate
sealing system. Lower pressure techniques include High Friction pigs, which provide a
barrier for depressurized systems.
¾ GEL PIGS
Gel pigs are a series of gelled liquid systems which have been developed for use in
pipeline operations, either during initial commissioning, or as a part of a continuing
maintenance program. Most pipeline gels are water-based, but a range of chemicals,
solvents, and even acids can be gelled. Some chemicals can be gelled as the bulk liquid
and others only diluted in a carrier. Gelled diesel is commonly used as a carrier of
corrosion inhibitor in gas lines.

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There are four main types of gel that are used in pipeline applications:
• Batching, or separator gel

• Debris pickup gel
• Hydrocarbon gel
• Dehydrating gel
As a liquid, although highly viscous, the gel can be pumped through any line which will
accept liquids. Gel pigs can be used alone (in liquid lines), in place of batching pigs, or
in conjunction with various types of conventional pigs. When used with conventional
pigs, gelled pigs can improve overall performance while almost eliminating the risk of
sticking a pig.
Gel pigs do not wear out in service like conventional pigs. They can, however, be
susceptible to dilution and gas cutting. Care must be taken, therefore, when designing a
pig train that incorporates gel pigs to minimize fluid bypass of the pigs, and to place a
conventional pig at the back of the train when displacing with gas.
The principle pipeline applications for gel pigs are as follows:

• Product separation
• Debris removal
• Line filling/hydro testing
• Dewatering and drying
• Condensate removal from gas lines
• Inhibitor and biocide lay down
• Special chemical treatment
• Removal of stuck pigs
Specially formulated gels have also been used to seal gate valves during hydrostatic
testing. Gels have been developed with a controlled gellation time and a controlled
viscosity for temporary pipeline isolation purposes.

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¾ PIG TRAPS/LAUNCHERS/RECEIVERS
Pig traps are used for inserting pigs into a pipeline then launching, receiving, and
finally removing them without flow interruption. Pig traps are not generally proprietary
products and are usually made to a specification drawn up by the user. However, pig
trap closures are proprietary products and form a critically important part of a pigging
system. Safety is a major consideration in the selection of a closure. All closures must
have a built-in safety lock which prevents them being opened while the trap is
pressurised.
¾ Pigging for Pipeline Efficiency

¾ The purpose of operational pigging is to obtain and maintain efficiency of the pipeline
to be pigged. The pipeline's efficiency depends on two things: first, it must operate
continuously, and second, the required throughput must be obtained at the lowest
operating cost.
¾ Pipelines are pigged for many reasons. In crude oil pipelines, wax removal or control is
important to maintain line efficiency. Liquid removal in wet gas pipelines and removal
of debris in the pipe are also important.
¾ After determining the cause of the reduced pipeline efficiency and selecting the desired
pig, a pigging program can be established.
¾ The effectiveness of the pigging program can be evaluated by how much debris is in the
receiving trap, or by monitoring the discoloration of the liquid that accumulates in the
receiving trap.
¾ Pre-Run Inspection
¾ The pig must be in good condition if it is to do the job it was selected to do. If the pig
has been run before, it should be inspected to assure it will run again without stopping
in the pipeline.
¾ Measure the outside diameter of the pig's sealing surface with a special diameter tape
or, using a regular tape, measure the circumference of the pig's sealing surface and
divide the measurement by 3.1416. This diameter must be larger than the inside pipe
diameter to maintain a good seal.
¾ Inspect the sealing surfaces to assure there are no cuts, tears, punctures or other damage
which will affect the pig's ability to run in the pipeline.

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¾ The unrestrained diameter of brush pigs should also be measured to assure that the
brushes will maintain contact with the pipe wall during the complete run.
¾ When using brush type mandrel cleaning pigs, the brushes should be inspected for
corrosion or breakage. Every precaution should be taken to prevent these brushes from
breaking in the pipeline. Loose bristles can damage valves, instrumentation, and other
pipeline equipment. All components of brush type mandrel pigs should be checked to
be certain that they are tight and in good condition.
¾ Pig Launching & Receiving

¾ Pig launchers are used to launch the pig into the pipeline, and pig receivers are used to
receive the pigs after they have made a successful run. The design of these pig traps
will depend on the type of pig to be run and pipeline design conditions. These designs
are not covered here.
¾ Provisions in the station design should include handling equipment for pigs 20" and
larger. Caution should be taken for liquid spillage from the pig traps.
¾ Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to further the knowledge of pigging and review the various
pig designs available to do it. We will discuss the reasons for pigging and the various
types of pigs available to accomplish our pigging objectives. For many years on stream
pigging was considered a necessary evil. After construction cleaning and testing, most
companies would not pig on a regular basis. As the years passed and the capacities of

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the lines increased, the efficiency of the lines decreased. The decrease in efficiency
relates to increased power costs, so the lines were pigged to increase the efficiency.
As pipelines get older we see increased corrosion. This is caused by lack of operational
pigging, whether it is because of water accumulation in the line causing MIC, paraffin
accumulation on the walls, or other reasons. So we begin pigging the line to clean it or
batch inhibitors, etc.
¾ What is a pig?
A pig is defined as "A device that moves through the inside of a pipeline for the
purpose of cleaning, dimensioning, or inspecting." This definition covers in excess of
500 different designs and types of pigs. In this paper we will discuss many of the
various designs.
¾ Why Pig a Pipeline?

There are various reasons to pig a pipe-line. After the pipeline is built, it will be
necessary to run pigs to remove any debris left in the line from new construction; items
such as lunch boxes, tools, welding rods, dead animals trapped in the line, etc. Pigging
will also remove mill scale or welding icicles in the line. The owner may also require a
pig to verify the ovality of the pipeline. This will require a gauging pig and sometimes a
geometry pig.
¾ After the pipeline has been cleaned, the next phase is acceptance testing where pigs are
used for filling the line with water for hydrostatic testing, de-watering (removing the
water after testing), and drying. If it is a liquid line, a pig is used to fill the line with a
product during the commissioning and start up of the line.
¾ When the pipeline is in service, it will be necessary to pig the line to maintain line
efficiency and aid in the control of corrosion. It is necessary to remove the liquids in
wet gas systems, remove accumulated water in product pipelines, and paraffin removal
and control in crude oil pipelines. Pigs are also used to batch inhibitors.
¾ As time passes special cleaning applications may arise. Pre-Inspection pigging before
running an ILI (In Line Inspection) tool will not only require the pipe be clean but a
dummy pig be run to assure the ILI tool will go through the line. Under certain
conditions pipelines may require chemical cleaning or a train of gel pigs may be used
for certain cleaning conditions. Lines are sometimes abandoned and require cleaning
before moth balling the line.
¾ Other applications include running a Geometry Pig to determine if there are any dents
or buckles in the line. To determine the amount of corrosion or metal loss in the
pipeline, an ILI (In Line Inspection) tool is used. Pipelines that handle multiple
products such as various grades of gasoline, heating oils, and jet fuels, often use a pig
or sphere to separate these products. Pigs are often run to remove any water that has
accumulated in the low spots of the pipeline and reduce corrosion. The running of pigs
in dual diameter lines always poses a challenge.

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¾ Types of Pigs
¾ Pigs can be divided into three general categories; the conventional or utility pig for "on
stream" or routine pigging, the geometry pigs for inspection, and the ILI (In Line
Inspection) tools for metal loss and corrosion. This presentation is intended to discuss
conventional or utility pigs.
¾ Conventional or utility pigs can be divided into two categories: Cleaning and Sealing
pigs.
¾ A. Cleaning pigs are used to remove accumulated solids and debris from the walls of
the pipeline. This is normally paraffin in crude oil pipelines. When inhibitors are used
in a gas pipeline, the solvents in the inhibitors evaporate, forming a gunk on the pipe
walls which can be removed by cleaning pigs. Cleaning pigs are also used in
conjunction with chemical treating of the lines to disturb the corrosion sites and remove
water, microbes, corrosion products, and food for microbes. Cleaning pigs are normally
equipped with brushes or blades to do the cleaning.
¾ B. Sealing pigs are used during hydrostatic testing of pipelines to fill the line with
water and then de-water the line. Removing condensate and water in wet gas systems,
water from product pipelines or separating dissimilar products in a products pipeline,
are other applications. Sealing pigs can be spheres, solid cast polyurethane pigs, or
mandrel type pigs with sealing cups or discs.
¾ These categories can be further broken down into four different types of pigs. They are
Polly-Pigs (foam), Mandrel, Solid Cast, and Spheres.
¾ Polly-Pigs (Foam)

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¾ Foam pigs, better known as Polly-Pigs, are manufactured from open cell polyurethane
foam. The foam is of various densities ranging from light density (2 lbs/ft3), medium
density (5-8 lbs/ft3), to heavy density (9-10 lbs/ft3). Although normally found in a
bullet shape, they can have concave ends, flat ends, or bullet noses on both ends. The
Polly-Pig can be bare foam or coated with a 90-durometer polyurethane material. The
coated pigs may have a spiral coating of polyurethane, various brush materials or
silicon carbide coating. If the pig is of bare foam, it will have the base coated. The
standard Polly-Pig length is twice the diameter. Some advantages of Polly-Pigs are that
they are compressible, expandable, light weight, and flexible. Polly-pigs will travel
through multiple diameter pipelines, go around mitered bends, and short radius 90º
bends. They will make abrupt turns in tees so laterals can be cleaned. They will also go
through valves with as little as 65% opening. Polly-pigs are also inexpensive.
¾ The disadvantages of Polly-Pigs are that they are a one time use product, shorter length
of runs, and high concentrations of some acids will shorten life.
¾ Polly-pigs are used for line proving (proving a pig will pass through the line), drying
and wiping, removal of thick soft deposits, condensate removal in wet gas pipelines and
pigging multiple diameter lines. Polly-pigs coated with a wire brush or silicon carbide
are used for scraping and mild abrasion of the pipeline.
¾ Mandrel (Steel Shaft) Pigs

¾ Mandrel pigs have a metal body (steel or aluminum) and are equipped with seals
(scraper cups or discs) to provide the differential pressure to propel the pig in the
pipeline. For cleaning the line the pig is equipped with wire brushes or polyurethane
blades.
¾ One advantage of the mandrel pig is that it can be either a cleaning pig, sealing pig or a
combination of both. The seals and brushes can be replaced to make the pig reusable.
Cleaning pigs are designed for heavy scraping and can be equipped with wire brushes
or polyurethane blades. These pigs are designed for long runs. Bypass holes in the nose
of the pig control the speed or act as jet ports to keep debris suspended in front of the
pig.
¾ There are also disadvantages to the mandrel pig; the cost of redressing the pig is high,
and larger pigs require special handling equipment to load and unload the pig.
Occasionally the wire brush bristles will break off and get into instrumentation and
other unwanted places. Smaller size mandrel pigs will not negotiate 1.5D bends.

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¾ Cleaning Pigs
¾ Cleaning pigs are designed to remove solids or accumulated debris in the pipeline. This
increases the efficiency and lowers the operating cost. They have wire brushes to scrape
the walls of the pipe to remove the solids. Pigs 14" and smaller normally use rotary
wire wheel brushes. These brushes are easy to replace and inexpensive. Special rotary
brushes are used on some larger pigs. Larger pigs have wear compensating brushes.
¾ These brushes can be individually replaced as needed and are mounted on either leaf
springs, cantilever springs, or coil springs. The springs push the brushes against the
pipe wall. As the wire brushes wear, the force of the spring keeps it in contact with the
pipe wall compensating for the brush wear.
¾ There are many different brush materials available. The standard brushes are made of
fine or coarse carbon steel wire. For pipe lines with internal coatings, Prostran is the
material of choice. Some service requires a stainless steel brush. Special brush designs
such as the pit cleaning brush are also available.
¾ When soft deposits of paraffin, mud, etc., need to be removed, the urethane blade is an
excel-lent choice. The blade design is interchangeable with the brushes.
¾ Bypass ports are installed in the nose of the pig or on the body. These ports are used to
control fluid bypass. If the ports are on the body of the pig, the flow will also flow
through the brushes and keep them clean. As the fluid passes through the ports on the
nose of the pig, it helps keep the debris in front of the pig stirred up and moving. Plugs
are used to regulate the bypass.
¾ The sealing elements are either elastomer cups or discs. They are used as a combination
cleaning and sealing element to remove soft deposits. Cups are of standard or conical
design. Specialty cups are available for some applications. The cup and disc material is
normally manufactured from a polyurethane material which gives outstanding abrasion
and tear resistance but is limited in temperature range. Neoprene, nitrile, EPDM, and
Viton are available for higher temperature applications.

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¾ Batching Pigs
¾ Batching pigs are used to separate dissimilar fluids such as various grades of gasoline,
heating oils, etc., in multiple product pipelines. These pigs are unidirectional if they
have scraper cups and bidirectional if equipped with discs.
¾ Displacement Pigs
¾ Displacement pigs displace one fluid with another. They can be bidirectional or
unidirectional in design. They are used in the testing and commissioning phase of the
pipeline, i.e., hydrostatic testing, line fills and de-watering, etc. Line evacuation and
abandonment is another application for the displacement pig.
¾ Gauging Pigs
¾ Gauging pigs are used after constructing the pipeline to determine if there are any
obstructions in the pipeline. It assures that the ovality of the line is within accepted
tolerance. The gauging plate may be mounted on the front or rear of the pig and is made
of a mild steel or aluminum. The plate may be slotted or solid. The outside diameter of
the plate is 90-95% of the pipe's inside diameter.
¾ Profile Pig
¾ A profile pig is a gauging pig with multiple gauging plates, usually three plates. One
plate is mounted on the front, one in the middle, and one on the rear of the pig. It is
normally used before running an ILI (In Line Inspection) tool to assure the tool's
passage around bends and through the pipeline.
¾ Dual Diameter Pigs

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¾ There are many miles of dual diameter pipelines crossing the country side. The lines are
normally two pipe sizes different, i.e., 4" x 6", 8" x 10", etc. The mandrel pig is usually
fitted with solid discs for the smaller line and slotted discs for the larger line. If it's a
cleaning pig, the brushes will support it in the line and keep the pig centered. The
Polly-Pig is also widely used in this application.
¾ Transmitter Pigs
¾ Occasionally pigs will get stuck in a line. The location of the stuck pig can be found by
using a detector pig with a transmitter in its body. The transmitter will emit a signal so
it can be located with a receiver. After the pig is located, the line can be dug up and the
pig removed. Transmitters will normally mount into a mandrel, solid cast, or Polly-Pig.
¾ Specialty Pigs
Many applications require special pigs. Manufacturers in the pigging industry have
made special pigs for many applications. A pinwheel pig which uses steel pins with
hardened tips was developed to remove wax and scale from a pipeline. A magnetic
cleaning pig was developed to pick up ferrous debris left in the pipeline.
¾ Solid Cast Pigs

¾ Solid cast pigs are of various designs and are usually made of polyurethane; however,
neoprene, nitrile, Viton, and other rubber elastomers are available in smaller size pigs.
They are considered sealing pigs although some solid cast pigs are available with wrap
around brushes and can be used for cleaning purposes. The solid cast pig is available in
the cup, disc, or a combination cup / disc design. Most of the pigs are of one piece
construction but several manufacturers have all urethane pigs with replaceable sealing
elements.

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¾ Because of the cost to redress a mandrel pig, (material and labor), and to transport
them, many companies use the solid cast pig up through 14" or 16". Some solid cast
designs are available in sizes up to 36".
¾ Solid cast pigs are extremely effective in
removing liquids from product pipelines,
removing condensate and water from wet gas
systems, and controlling paraffin build-up in
crude oil systems.
¾ Spheres
¾ Spheres have been used for many years as a
sealing pig. There are four basic types of
spheres; inflatable, solid, foam, & soluble. The
soluble sphere in usually used in crude oil
pipelines and contains a micro crystalline wax
and amorphous polyethylene which act as a
paraffin inhibitor. Although the sphere will
normally dissolve in a few hours, the dissolving
rate is a function of fluid temperature, fluid
movement, friction, and absorbability of the
crude. If the line has never been pigged, it is a good idea to run the soluble pig. If it
hangs up in the line, it will not obstruct the flow.
¾ The inflatable sphere is manufactured of various elastomers (polyurethane, neoprene,
nitrile and Viton) depending on the application. It has a hollow center with filling
valves which are used to inflate the sphere with liquid. Spheres are filled with water, or
water and glycol and inflated to the desired size. Spheres should never be inflated with
air. Depending on the application and material, the sphere is inflated 1%-2% over the
pipe inside diameter. As the sphere wears from ser-vice, it is resized, extending its life.
In small sizes the sphere can be manufactured solid, eliminating the need to inflate it.
The solid sphere does not have the life of an inflatable sphere because it cannot be
resized.
¾ Spheres can also be manufactured from open cell polyurethane foam. They can be
coated with a polyurethane material to give better wear. For cleaning purposes they can
have wire brushes on the surface. The advantages of the foam sphere are that they are
light weight, economical, and do not need to be inflated.
¾ Spheres in general are easy to handle, will negotiate short radius 90's, irregular turns
and bends. They will go from smaller lateral lines to larger main lines and are easier to
automate than other styles of pigs.
¾ Spheres are commonly used to remove liquids from wet gas systems, water from
product pipelines, batching dissimilar products, meter prover service, paraffin control in
crude oil pipelines, and hydrostatic testing and de-watering after pipeline rehabilitation
or new construction.
¾ Special design considerations for the pipeline should be considered when using spheres.
They should never be run in lines that do not have special flow tees installed.

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Hydrostatic Test:
A hydrostatic test is the common way in which leaks can be found in pressure vessels such as
pipelines and plumbing. This method of testing should not be confused with the Hydrostatic
Body Fat Test that uses the principles of buoyancy to calculate a persons body fat. Hydrostatic
tests, on the other hand, performance verify fluid pressure vessels. Using this test helps
maintain safety standards and durability of a vessel over time. Newly manufactured pieces are
initially qualified using the hydrostatic test and continually re-qualified at regular intervals
using the proof pressure test which is also called the modified hydrostatic test. Hydrostatic
testing is also a way in which a gas pressure vessel such as a gas cylinder or a boiler is checked
for leaks or flaws. Testing is very important because such containers can explode if they fail
when containing compressed gas.
Testing Procedures
Hydrostatic tests are conducted under the constraints of either the industry's or the customer's
specifications. The vessel is filled with a nearly incompressible liquid - usually water or oil -
and examined for leaks or permanent changes in shape. Red or fluorescent dyes are usually
added to the water to make leaks easier to see. The test pressure is always considerably more
than the operating pressure to give a margin for safety, typically 150% of the design pressure.
Water is commonly used because it is almost incompressible, so will only expand by a very
small amount should the vessel split. If high pressure gas were used, then the gas would
expand to perhaps several hundred times its compressed volume in an explosion, with the
attendant risk of damage or injury. This is the risk which the testing is intended to mitigate.
Small pressure vessels are normally tested using a water jacket test. The vessel is visually
examined for defects and then placed in a container filled with water, and in which the change
in volume of the vessel can be measured by monitoring the water level. The vessel is then
pressurized for a specified period and depressurized again. The water level in the jacket is then
examined. The level will be greater if the vessel being tested has been distorted by the pressure
change and did not return to its original volume or some of the pressurized water inside has
leaked out. In both cases, this will normally signify that the vessel has failed the test. This
measures the overall leakage of a system instead of locating the leaks and additives can be
added to the water to reduce resistivity and increase the sensitivity of the test. Hydrostatic test
fluid can also clog small holes (1x10^-6 std cm^3/s or smaller) as a result of the increase in
pressure.
A simpler test, that is still considered a hydrostatic test but has probably been performed by
anyone who has a garden hose, is to pressurize the vessel by filling it with water and to
physically examine the outside for leaks.

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Water jacket test
Examples
Portable fire extinguishers are safety tools that are required to be on hand in almost every
public building. Fire extinguishers are also highly recommended in every home. Over time the
conditions in which they are housed and the manner in which they are handled have an impact
on the structural integrity of the extinguisher. A structurally weakened fire extinguisher can
malfunction or even burst when it is needed the most. To maintain the quality and safety of this
product, hydrostatic testing must be utilized. All critical components of the fire extinguisher
must be tested to ensure proper function. The cylinder would be tested by using the water
jacket test.
As previously mentioned, the water pressure inside the tank will usually be 150% of the
normal operating pressure. The change in volume of the cylinder is calculated by measuring
the change in the water levels outside the cylinder. The cylinder can also be visually checked
for leaks or the pressure drop method can be utilized to measure the overall efficiency of the
cylinder.
Pipeline Testing
Buried high pressure oil and gas pipelines are tested for strength by pressurising them to at
least 125% of their maximum operating pressure (MAOP). Since many long distance
transmission pipelines are designed to have a steel hoop stress of 80% of specified minimum
yield (SMYS) at MAOP, this means that the steel is stressed to SMYS and above during the
testing, and test sections must be selected to ensure that excessive plastic deformation does not
occur.

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Leak testing is performed by balancing changes in the measured pressure in the test section
against the theoretical pressure changes calculated from changes in the measured temperature
of the test section.
Australian standard AS2885.5 "Pipelines—Gas and liquid petroleum: Part 5: Field pressure
testing" gives an excellent explanation of the factors involved.
Testing Frequency
Most countries have legislation or building code that requires pressure vessels to be regularly
tested, for example every two years (with a visual inspection annually) for high pressure gas
cylinders and every five or ten years for lower pressure ones such as used in fire extinguishers.
Gas cylinders which fail are normally destroyed as part of the testing protocol to avoid the
dangers inherent in them being subsequently used.
Theses common gas cylinders have the following requirements:
• DOT-3AL gas cylinders must be tested every 5 years and have an unlimited life.
• DOT-3HT gas cylinders must be tested every 3 years and have a 24 year life.
In the U S and Canada, organizations such as ASTM, and ASME specify the guidelines for the
different types of pressure vessels.
What is Hydrostatic Leak Testing?

Hydrostatic Leak Testing is used to test components for leaks by pressurizing them inside with
a liquid. This testing method can be used on piping, tanks, valves and containers with welded
or fitted sections. Leaks can be found up to about 1x10-4 std cc/sec . NOTE: Hydrostatic
Testing can be a nondestructive test as well as used as a burst test.
Method
Hydrostatic Leak Testing requires that a component be completely filled with a liquid such as
water. Pressure is slowly applied to the liquid until the required pressure is reached. this
pressure is held for the required time at which point the component is inspected visually to
locate leaks.
Work included in this section:

A. The WORK of this Section includes requirements for hydrostatic and leakage
testing of pressure pipelines and appurtenances for transmission and
distribution mains.

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SUBMITTALS
A. The following shall be submitted in compliance with Section 1300.
1. Pressure test bulkhead locations and design calculations, water supply
details including backflow preventors, flow meters, valves and drains.
2. Requests for use of water from waterlines of DISTRICT 48 hours in
advance.
3. Provide a recent record of pressure gauge calibrations.
4. Provide records of each pipe section during testing. Test records shall
include:
a. Date of test.
b. Identification of pipeline, or pipeline section, tested or retested.
c. Identification of pipeline material.
d. Identification of pipe specification.
e. Test pressure.
f. Remarks: Leaks identified (type and location), types of repairs,
or corrections made.
g. Certification by CONTRACTOR that the leakage rate measured
conformed to the specifications.
h. Test duration.
i. Allowable losses.
j. Actual losses.
TEST BULKHEADS
Design and fabricate test bulkheads per Section VIII of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Materials shall
comply with Part UCS of said code. Design pressure shall be at least 2.0 times the
specified test pressure for the section of pipe containing the bulkhead. Limit stresses
to 70 percent of yield strength of the bulkhead at the bulkhead design pressure.
Include air-release and water drainage connections.
VISTA IRRIGATION DISTRICT PRESSURE TESTING OF PIPELINES
REV. 3/99 02610-2
TEST OUTLETS AND TEMPORARY VALVES

Provide additional outlets and temporary valves for releasing air or apply the test
where automatic air valves or other outlets are available in the pipeline. Construct
the outlets in the same manner as for a permanent outlet and after use, seal with a
blind flange, pipe cap, or plug and coat equal to the adjacent pipe.
TEST FLUID AND TEMPORARY PIPING

Use only potable water for the hydrostatic pressure test. Provide an approved and
certified reduced pressure backflow prevention assembly if source of potable water
is from public waterlines. Provide temporary piping to convey and dispose of the
test fluid used in the pipeline. Disconnect and remove temporary piping after
complying with the allowable leakage.

INDUCTION TRAINING
TEST EQUIPMENT
Provide calibrated pressure gauges, pipes, pumps, meters, and other equipment
necessary to perform the hydrostatic pressure test.
GENERAL
All testing shall be performed in the presence of the DISTRICT. Subject the pipeline
and appurtenances to a hydrostatic pressure test after the pipe has been laid and
backfilled for required restraint. Allow concrete pipe anchors, collars, encasements
and thrust blocks to cure prior to pressure testing. Allow concrete structures to
attain the specified 28-day compressive strength prior to testing. Existing facilities
will be operated by or under the direction of the DISTRICT only. When the
DISTRICT furnishes and installs valves at takeoffs from its existing system, the
contractor shall omit a length of pipe, provide adequate blocking and test the piping
independently of the DISTRICT’s existing system. Test shall not be made against
DISTRICT furnished or installed valves.
CLEANING
A. In pipelines less than 24-inches in diameter, before conducting hydrostatic
tests, flush pipes with water to remove dirt and debris. Maintain flushing
velocity of at least 3 fps. Flush pipes for the minimum time period as given
by the formula below and as required to thoroughly clear the pipeline of dirt
and debris.
T=2L
3
Where:
T = flushing time (seconds)
L = pipe length (feet)
REV. 3/99 02610-3
B. In pipes 24-inches or larger in diameter, clean the pipe using high-pressure
water jet, sweeping, scrubbing, or equally effective means. All water,
sediment, dirt, and foreign material accumulated during this cleaning
operation shall be discharged, vacuumed, or otherwise removed from the
pipe.
TESTING AND DISENFECTION SEQUENCE

A. Perform required disinfection after the completion of hydrostatic testing per
Section 2600. Disinfection and hydrostatic testing may be carried on
simultaneously upon approval of the DISTRICT.
LENGTH OF TEST SECTION

A. Test the pipeline in sections. In any one test, do not exceed more than 2,500
feet, or as directed by the DISTRICT.

INDUCTION TRAINING
INITIAL PIPELINE FILLING FOR HYDROSTATIC TESTING

A. Maximum rate of filling with test fluid shall not cause water velocity in the
pipeline to exceed 1 fps. Expel air from the pipeline while filling and prior to
testing. Provide necessary outlets to fill and test pipeline. When testing
cement mortar lined piping, fill the pipe to be tested with potable water and
allow it to soak for at least 48 hours to absorb water before conducting the
pressure test.
PRESSURE AND DURATION OF HYDROSTATIC TEST

A. Test pressure at the lowest point of the section being tested shall be 50 psi in
excess of the class of pipe , but not less than 25 pounds per square inch in
excess of the class of pipe at the highest point in the section.
B. Maintain the test pressure for the duration indicated below by restoring it
whenever it falls an amount of 5 psi. Use a calibrated recorder during the test
and provide a record to the District.
Pipe Diameter
(inches) Hours
18 and less 4
20 to 36 8
The test duration for PVC pressure pipe may be reduced to two (2) hours
upon approval of the DISTRICT.
ALLOWABLE LEAKAGE
A. Apply the test pressure with a positive displacement pump. Provide a
snubber or dampener between the pump and the pipeline to reduce
instantaneous pressure pulses to 10-percent of the test pressure. Draw water
from containers in which the volume of water can be readily measured or as
directed by the DISTRICT.
REV. 3/99 02610-4
B. Leakage shall be considered as the total amount of water pumped into the
pipeline during the test period. The allowable leakage rate is defined by the
formula:
L= HND(P)1/2
148,000
Where:
L = allowable leakage (gallons)
D = diameter of the pipe (inches)
N = length of pipe being tested (feet)
P = specified test pressure (psig)
H = duration of test (hours)
C. The allowable leakage for welded steel pipe shall be zero gallons.
D. The allowable leakage for buried piping having threaded, brazed, or welded
(including solvent welded) shall be zero gallons.

INDUCTION TRAINING
E. Repair and retest any pipes showing leakage rates greater than that allowed
in the above criteria.
REPITION OF TEST
A. If the actual leakage exceeds the allowable, locate and correct the faulty work
and repeat the test until the leakage does not exceed the allowable. Restore
the work and all damage resulting from the leak and its repair. All visible
leakage shall be eliminated.
BULKHEAD AND TEST FACILITY REMOVAL

A. After a satisfactory test, remove test bulkheads and other test facilities,
restore the pipe lining and coatings, and fill the pipeline section tested with
water and maintain it full until disinfection of pipeline at the completion of
the contract. The CONTRACTOR shall assume all responsibility for any
damage to the pipeline as a result of pressure imposed during the operations
of filling the pipeline with water and conducting the tests.
VARIOUS STAGES OF OPERATION IN A PROJECT:

1) Proposal making
2) Procedure
3) Preparation
4) Mobilisation
5) Pre-test of header, Header welding, Rig up & trial run
6) Cleaning of pipeline
7) Gauging of Pipeline
8) Header cutting & welding of test header
9) Water filling
10) Insertion of temperature probes
11) Thermal stabilization
12) Pressurisation
13) Air Volume check
14) 24 Hours hold period
15) Depressurisation
16) Dewatering
17) Header cutting & pigging header welding
18) Swabbing
19) Drying
20) Nitrogen Purging
21) Commissioning
22) Hand Over of pipeline

INDUCTION TRAINING
1) Proposal Making: The first process is the proposal making. Here in we submit a
consolidated method statement and prices that the client would have to pay for the
services provided by us.
Based on the activity involved and the time duration that would be consumed for the
completion of the project will be gauged before submitting the proposal.
2) Procedure: After getting the work order from client. The procedure will be prepared
based on the project specification given by the client to successfully complete the
project safely and in stipulated time. Here in all the activities involved and the method
we carry out to successfully complete it will have to be approved by Client/
Consultant/T.P.I before starting of the operation. All instruments will be calibrated
based on the mobilization date so that even if the project takes 3 months to complete,
the instrument is within the stipulated valid calibration period.
3) Preparation for project: Based on the date of mobilization all equipments and
instruments will be prepared for the smooth completion of the project. All materials
required will be listed and purchased based on the availability in store. Man power list
will prepared which will include 1 or 2 engineer per spread, 2 technicians, pump
operators and as required riggers. Based on the project requirements pumps and other
accessory will be made ready.
A site survey will be done prior to mobilization to check for the various components
present in the system .In case of onshore project lodging and food will be finalized for
the personnel involved in the project.
4) Mobilisation: Based on the date provided by client the materials will be sent to the site
in trucks. Personnel will be mobilized in the same time so that they can go and unload
the materials safely without any hassle.
5) Pre-Test of header, Header Welding, Rig up & trial Run:

Onshore: After arrival at site. Pigging header and testing header will be fabricated at
site. The testing header will be pre-tested to 1.25~1.5 times of test pressure, it will be
kept for a stipulated time as specified in the specification and approved procedure.
Pigging headers will be welded to pipeline and all preparations including trial run of
compressor will be carried out before commencement of operation. After all
preparations are completed client will be informed regarding the readiness to start the
operation.
Offshore: materials will be set up in the supply vessel provided to us by the client. All
materials will be rigged up and checked before starting of the operation. All materials
will be sea fastened while traveling to the field. Once at site permission will be taken
from platform representative for preparatory works. Work permit will be signed by the
engineer/safety engineer before commencement of operation. Temporary pigging header
will be fastened to riser top flange if pigging is to be carried out from riser top. In case of
pig barrel, preparation will be made to start operation from pig barrel.

INDUCTION TRAINING
6) Cleaning of pipeline:
Onshore: Upon clearance to start operation has been obtained from client cleaning
operation will be started. Based on the requirements brush/ batching pig will be
propelled by air using air compressors. Care shall be taken to minimize whiplash effect
in hoses. The speed of the pig shall be controlled to 0.5 m/s ~ 2.5m/s by throttling
valves at receiver end .Calculation shall be made to find out approximate time of arrival
of pigs in the receiver and same shall be informed to personnel at receiver end. The
arrival of pigs can be verified by the dust coming out at the receiver end. Lot of dust is
generated just before arrival of pigs.
Cleaning shall be considered accepted as per the project requirement. Care shall be
taken while disposing the dusty air coming out form the pipeline.
Offshore: Upon clearance to start operation has been obtained from client cleaning
operation will be started. The vessel will be fastened few meters away from the
platform. Here in offshore cleaning, Gauging & water filling is a continuous process.
First a brush pig followed by batch then again a brush & finally gauge pig will be
launched propelled by sea water. Chemical & sea dye will be added after launch of
final pig. These pigs will be propelled until all the pigs reach there in safe condition. If
final gauge plate is received in safe condition without any damage. Cleaning cum
filling process will be considered acceptable.
For gauge plate details refer gauging onshore.
7) Gauging:
Onshore: After cleaning operation has been termed satisfactory by the client, gauging
operation will be commenced. Aluminium plate having thickness as specified by the
client spec will be inserted into the batching pig in place of a spacer disc. The OD of
the plate will be 0.95 times the ID of the pipe or as specified by the client. Care shall be
taken while inserting the gauge pig so has not to damage the plate. Gauge plate will be
fitted on the back side towards the metal plate on pig body( before the third sealing
disc). It will be propelled by air , speed of the pig shall be controlled so as controlled
speed is obtained. Gauge plate shall be accepted if no severe damage or bends are
observed on the periphery of the plate.
8) Header Cutting & welding of testing header:

Onshore: After gauge plate has been accepted by the client. Pigging header will be cut
and tested testing header will be welded in its place. Before welding pigs will be
inserted in to the header to remove all the air out during filling with water, no of pigs
will depend on whether the water will be dewatered from launcher side to receiver side.
If dewatering is from launcher side then 3 no of batching pigs will be inserted or else 2
no of batching pigs will be inserted into the testing header. . All preparation will be
made for water filling. Water filling will be started only after clearance is obtained from
client side.
9) Water Filling:
Onshore: After permission has been obtained to start water filling from client. Water
filling will be started. Initially for flushing 250 meter length of water will be propelled.

INDUCTION TRAINING
(this is for smooth passage of pig as well as to control the speed of pig while going
down a slope gradient in order to avoid air entering the system). After which first pig
will be launched propelled by 250 meter length of water, followed by second pig .
Water filling will take place until both the pigs are received safely in the pig receiver.
After launch of second pig chemical will be injected using dosing pump to the required
dosing rate specified by the chemical manufacturer.
10) Insertion of temperature probes

Onshore: Temperature probes will be placed to take temperature readings during the
testing period. 2 probes will be inserted, one for soil & another one for pipe. The soil
probe will be placed at least 0.5 m from the surface. Pipeline probe will be fixed to the
bare pipe after removing its coating. The distance will be specified by the client.
Generally every 2.5 Km of the pipeline and 100 meters from the headers.
Offshore: In offshore 2 probes will be used one for pipeline temperature, probe been
kept on the pipeline surface. Second one for sub-sea temperature. The probe will be
inserted in the sea water at a depth of more than 20 mts.
11) Thermal stabilization

Onshore: After completion of filling pipeline will be left to attain thermal stabilization.
During this time the temperatures of both pipeline and soil will be taken in 2 hour
interval time. The pipeline will be considered to have attained thermal stabilization
when the difference between the average pipe temperature reading and the soil reading
is within 1ºC.
Offshore: In offshore pipeline will be considered to have attained thermal stabilization

when two corresponding readings of pipe and soil are within 2ºC.
12) Pressurisation
Onshore: Pressurisation will be started only after approval has been obtained from
client. Pressure Pump having a know stroke volume will be used for pressurization.
During pressurization volume injected to increase the pressure by 5 Bar will be noted
down using the stroke counter provided in the pressure pump. The pump flow rate will
be controlled so as to increase the pressure at the rate of 1 Bar/minute. Care shall be
taken so as not to increase the pressure more than 105% of test pressure.
Offshore: After acceptance of gauge plate and thermal stabilization. Pigging header
will be removed and a testing blind inserted before starting of pressurization. As in case
of onshore so also in offshore pressurization shall be in a controlled manner so as not to
induce stresses in the pipeline. Air volume check will be carried out at 35% or 50% of
test pressure. Pipeline shall be pressurized to 101% of test pressure to take into account
stabilization of the pressure in the system.

INDUCTION TRAINING
13) Air Volume check

Onshore: Air volume check will be conducted when the pressure in the pipeline is 35%
or 50% of test pressure as stated by client. In order to check the presence of air in the
pipeline, two separate consecutive pressures lowering of 0.5 bars shall be carried out
when the internal pressure rises to test pressure.
For calculation of air in the pipeline the second pressure lowering shall be used and the
relevant drained water shall be accurately measured (Vi)
The measured amount shall be compared to the corresponding to the pressure lowering.
The theoretical water amount that is necessary for filling the section to be tested shall be
obtained from the geometrical volume of the section considering the pipe tolerances.
Vp = ( 0.884 ri / t + A ) x 10 –6 x Vt x Δ P X K
Where,
Vp = computed water amount required to raise by P in the section to be tested (m3)
ri = nominal inner radius of the pipe (mm)
t = nominal pipe thickness (mm)
Vt = geometrical volume of the section (m3)
Δ P = pressure rise (bar)
A = isothermal compressibility factor for water at the pressurisation temperature in the

P range (bar –1) x 10 6
(Refer water compressibility factor Vs pressure and temperature chart)
K= a dimensionless coefficient factor that is equal to 1.02 for longitudinally welded

pipe.
If no air is present in the test:
Vi / Vp =1
In order that the above ratio is acceptable ,
It shall differ from 1 by more than 6% (i.e.1.06) then the pressurisation cannot continue
and additional pig passage shall be performed to remove the air pockets present in the
line .

INDUCTION TRAINING
The test shall be repeated as per the above procedure until above estimated tolerances
are satisfied then the pressurising can continue until to reach test pressure.
Offshore:
Air volume check will be conducted when the pressure in the pipeline is 35% or 50% of
test pressure as stated by client.
At 35% of the test pressure during the hold period a graph of the pressure and added
volume readings and the pressure vs theoretical volume readings shall be plotted. Time
delay and pressure gradient along the pipeline during pressurisation will be considered
in recording the data and in calculations.
The air content in the pipeline shall be less than 0.2% of the volume of test section. In
case the air content is more than 0.2% the pipeline system shall be depressurised and
any air present shall be vented out.
The pipeline system shall be re pressurised to 35% of test pressure and an air volume
calculation shall be performed till the air volume content is below 0.2% of test section
volume. In case even after repeated attempts the air volume is still above 0.2% the
pipeline shall be refilled using batching/displacement pigs.
In case the air volume content is within 0.2% of the test section volume.
repressurisation shall commence.
The followings formula can be used to calculate the theoretical volume of water
required to raise the pressure in the pipeline:
Δv / Δp = V x [ D / E t x (1- u 2 ) + 1 / B ]
Where, Δv = incremental volume in m3 (Vp)
Δp = incremental pressure in bar
V = pipeline volume in m3
D = pipeline outside diameter in m
t = nominal wall thickness in m
E = Young’s elastic modulus of steel = 2.07 x 10 6 bar
u = Poisson’s ratio = 0.3 bar
B = Bulk modulus of Sea water in bar

INDUCTION TRAINING
14) 24 Hours hold period
Onshore: After 101% of test pressure has been attained. The system shall be left for a
period of 4 hours to attain stabilization. After which 24 hours hold period will be
started. During this period temperature readings shall be taken every 2 hours.
After completion of the test periods the collected data shall be used to evaluate the
hydrotest the pressure change value as a function of temperature change shall be
calculated as per the following formula and algebraically added to the pressure value as
read on the dead weight tester. The pressure thus adjusted shall be compared with the
initial value and the test shall be considered as acceptable, if the difference is less or
equal to 0.3 bar .Incase of doubt the testing period shall be extended by 24 hrs.
The pressure change due to a water temperature change shall be calculated through the
following formula:
B ΔT
ΔP =
0.884 ri / t + A
Where,
ΔP = Pressure change resulting from a temperature (bar)
ΔT = Algebraic difference between pipe wall temperature at the beginning of the test
and pipe wall temperature as measured at the end of the test (deg C)
B= value of the difference between the thermal expansion of water and steel at the
Pressure and temperature as measured at the end of the test and that of steel (o c – 1) x10 6
A= Isothermal compressibility value of water as estimated at the pressure and

Temperature value obtained at the end of the test
(bar – 1 ) x 10 6
ri = nominal inner radius of the pipe (mm)
t = nominal pipe thickness (mm)
After receiving of owner’s written acceptance of the test, preparation will be made for
section depressurization.
Offshore: After 101% of test pressure has been attained. The system shall be left for a
period of 4 hours to attain stabilization. After which 24 hours hold period will be
started. During this period temperature readings shall be taken every 2 hours.

INDUCTION TRAINING
The hydro test shall be accepted if during the test pressure in the tested section maintain
their integrity and no leaks are found and the variation in Pressure is as per DNV 1981
limits. However if pressure drop exceed the permissible values due to temperature,
calculations will be made to get the effects of temperature of test liquids, temperature of
environment, restraints on pressure drop in the system and thus demonstrating the
maintenance of hydro test pressure in the system as per Appendix E .
Temperature Effect:
∆P γ-2(1+ u) α
=
∆T D/Et (1-u2) +1/B
Where
∆P= Incremental pressure BAR
∆T= Incremental temperature °C
γ= Volumetric expansion coef of water °C-
u= Poisson’s ratio ( for steel 0.3bar)
α= coef of linear expansion of steel °C-
E = Young’s elastic modulus of steel = 2.07 x 10 6 bar
B = Bulk modulus of water in bar
D = pipeline outside diameter in m
t = nominal wall thickness in m
15) Depressurisation:
Onshore: After successful completion of hydro test and after obtaining permission
from client. Depressurisation shall be started at a rate not exceeding 2 Bar/minute. Care
shall be taken to minimize whiplash effect.
Offshore: After successful completion of hydro test and after obtaining permission
from client. Depressurisation shall be started at a rate not exceeding 2 Bar/minute. Care
shall be taken to minimize whiplash effect.
16) Dewatering
Onshore: Dewatering operation will be started after permission as been
granted by the client. Pigs will be propelled using air generated from air compressor.
Care shall be taken while disposing water since it is treated with chemicals. Passivating

INDUCTION TRAINING
chemicals will be added to the water before disposing it to surroundings. Dewatering

will be considered to have been completed when the all the pigs have been received in
the receiver header.
Offshore: If operation is been carried out from riser top, then blind flange will be
removed and pigging header inserted in his place. 2 Pigs will be propelled along the
pipeline with a considerable distance between them. Pigs will be propelled with air
from a compressor. Pigs will be received in the receiver header. Dewatering shall be
considered as complete after receiving both the pigs. In case of dewatering from pig
barrel, Pigs will be inserted into the pig barrel and driven using air.
17) Header cutting & pigging header welding

Onshore: After dewatering operation, testing headers will be cut and pigging headers
will be welded in its place.
18) Swabbing: (Generally for Gas pipelines)

Onshore: A series of High, Medium, Low density foam pigs will be propelled in the
pipeline to remove all the remaining water molecules present in the pipeline. These pigs
will be propelled using air generated from compressors, Swabbing will be considered to
have been achieved when the weight of the last pig received is within 10% of its initial
weight.
Offshore: Generally in offshore pipeline will be considered to have been swab dry by
running 2 foam pigs. (It depends) since it is very difficult to get a swab dry state by
swabbing operation.
19) Drying:
Drying operation will be started after acceptance of swabbing operation. Air delivery of
compressor will be connected to a dryer which cools the air coming out to -10ºC. This
cool air is passed into the pipeline with pig in front to remove any remaining water
particles. Drying temperature will differ from projects to projects. Generally -1 to -
10ºC.
20) Nitrogen Purging

Nitrogen purging is carried out to remove oxygen molecules present in the pipeline.
This is required only for gas pipelines as this can cause a combustible mixture when
mixed with hydro carbon. In this nitrogen will be propelled through the entire pipeline.
A pig will be inserted behind which nitrogen will be propelled. Care shall be taken as
nitrogen is an inert gas and there will not be oxygen in nitrogen environment. Generally
purging will be considered complete after receiving the nitrogen propelled pig and
keeping the system in a positive pressure.
21) Commissioning
Commissioning is the process where in the end product is launched in the pipeline.

INDUCTION TRAINING
22) Hand Over of pipeline

After all operations have been completed successfully to client’s specification and all
the documents have been signed the line shall be handed over to client for operations.
Geometry inspection
A geometry inspection service is used to find the change in wall thickness and general
condition of Pipelines.
Narmada Testing is capable of providing the means for propelling any inspection tool through
pipeline regardless of the inspection phase. While using an inspection tool it is critical that the
instrument move at a constant predetermined speed. Because of Narmada’s Extensive
experience in pigging operations we are capable of propelling inspection tools through a
pipeline so that the data received will be of Utmost accuracy
Typical Operations
• Run tool with water during filling operations, prior to test

• Run tool after dewatering, prior to drying operations
• Provide and run sizing-plate pigs for baseline geometry inspection specifications
Inspection Services
• Supervise the loading of the inspection tool using a Trans-Asia launcher.

• Provided propulsion system and insure accurate launching of the tool.
• Insure safe removal of the tool from the line with a Trans-Asia receiver.
• Propel the tool at a constant pre-determined speed (Typically 4-7Km/Hour), applying
our many to years of pigging experience.
¾ INSTRUMENTATION
1) Dead weight Tester

2) Pressure recorder
3) Pressure Gauge
4) Temperature recorder
5) Temperature Probe
6) R T D meters
7) Pig Detector

INDUCTION TRAINING
1) Dead weight tester: This instrument is used for accurate checking of pressure in the
pipeline. It can give an accuracy of 0.01%. It can read a least count of 0.02 Bar.
Requires: 15W40 engine oil for operation.
2) Pressure Recorder: These are used to record pressure in the pipeline. It consists of a
24 hour circular wound chart which records the pressure over 24 hrs period of time. It
consists of a mechanical clock and uses Bourdon principle for pressure measurement.t
Requires: pen, key, charts,
3) Pressure Gauges: These are used to check pressure in the system. Their accuracy
depends from gauge to gauge. They are less accurate when compared to Dead weight
tester. They are defined in terms of pressure & dial Size.

INDUCTION TRAINING
4) Temperature Recorder: These are used to record Temperature in the pipeline. It

consists of a 24 hour circular wound chart which records the temperature over 24 hrs
period of time. It consists of a mechanical clock and uses Bourdon principle for
temperature measurement.
Requires: pen, key, charts,
5) Temperature Probes: These are used to note the temperature of the medium.
Generally they are used to measure soil, pipeline & sub sea temperatures. Thermo wells
are used to measure temperature of filled water in the pipeline. It uses a sub sea probe
placed in a metal tube which is placed inside the pipeline.

INDUCTION TRAINING
6) RTD meters: these are used to measure temperature reading use the probes (mentioned
earlier). They are operated by means of dry cell batteries.
7) Pig Detectors: these are used to detect pigs inserted in the pipeline. It consists of a
transmitter a amplifier and a signal detecting device. Transmitter is fixed in the pig
required to be traced. As the pig propels it transmits signals which can be tracked by
detector to identify the exact location of pig. Based on the signal type there are 2 types
of transmitters, one is ultrasonic transmitter and other one is acoustic transmitter.
Acoustic transmitter work in offshore and ultrasonic one is used in onshore. They each
contain a battery for emitting signal.
¾ Equipments:
1) Filling Pump
2) Pressure Pump
3) Dosing Pump
4) Compressor
5) Dryers
6) Break Tank
7) Nitrogen Unit

INDUCTION TRAINING
1) Filling Pump:
These are used to fill water into the pipeline.

They are classified based on their flow rate; maximum head generated, type of impeller,

INDUCTION TRAINING
2) Pressure Pump:
HIGH PRESSURE PUMP - 04 Nos.
Capacity 500 liters / Minute

Maximum Pressure 5000 psi
Engine Make VOLVO PENTA
Pump Make HUGHES
They are basically classified based on flow, Maximum

pressure and diameter of plunger.
3) Dosing Pump:
These are used to inject chemicals, sea dye at a uniform rate into the pipeline during water
filling. They are classified based on their flow as well as maximum pressure generated.
4) Compressors:
These are used to generate air to propel pigs. They are classified based on their flow capacity
and maximum pressure that they can generate.
Compressor - 02 Nos.
Capacity 750 CFM
Maximum Pressure 150 psi
Compressor Make CUMMINS
Year of Manufactured 2001

INDUCTION TRAINING
XHP900WCAT 900 cfm 350 psi
Compressor Data Ingersoll Rand Engine Data

Type Two Stage Oil Flooded
Air supply 900 cfm Caterpillar 3406 DIT
@ psi 250 / 350 psi operating Bhp 400
pressure
Performance Tested to ISO 1217 Full load RPM 1850
Air outlet 1 Air On/Off Value 3" Fuel tank capacity 681 Lts /
180gall
Ambient 120F
operating
Features
• Electric Start 24v

• Lucas Electric Isolator
• Engine Overspeed Shut Down Valve
• Engine Exhaust Spark Arrester.
• Engine Breather Steel Flame Trap
• FlameTec UK. BS EN Iso 9001:9004
• Engine Oil Screw Locked Dipstick
• Anti Static Drive Belts CAT
• Equipped with Auto Shut Down for
• Hi Engine Temperature
• Low Engine Oil Pressure
• Compressor Hi Air Discharge Temperature
• Low Fuel Level

INDUCTION TRAINING
Dimensions Std. ISO 20’ Container Dimensions

Lth. 6.058 Wth. 2.438 Ht. 2.591 including Skid & Frame
Lift / Handling 4 Point Lift with Pre Fitted 4 Leg Lift Slings to Master Link
Gross weight (swl) 7500 kg.
5) Dryers:
These are used to cool the air to -10ºC. They are classified based on their cooling capacity and
flow rate.
DRYING UNIT - 02 Nos.

Air Quantity 1625 cfm
Air Quantity ( Inlet ) 3000 nm3/hr
Air Quantity ( Outlet) 2800 nm3/hr
Outlet Dew Point Temperature at ATM Pressure - (40) deg C
Working Pressure 7 kg/cm2
Supply 220 Volts, 50 Hz, 1 phase
6) Break tank
These are used to store water for feeding the filling pump while running.
They are specified in terms of their capacity.

INDUCTION TRAINING
7) Nitrogen Tank:
These are used to fill nitrogen in to the pipeline. It consists of a liquid nitrogen tank and a
vaporizing unit which converts liquid nitrogen to gaseous form and is then injected into the
system. It is given in terms of capacity.
Weights & Dimensions

Tank Size 2000 2000 1500 600 8000 8000 5600 2350
gal std gal std gal std gal std ltr std ltr ISO ltr std ltr std
Length 16 ft 19 ft 13 ft 10 ft 4.95m 6.06m 4.00m 3.10m

0 ins 10 ins 2 ins 2 ins
Weight 8ft 8 ft 6 ft 4 ft 2.44m 2.44m 2.00m 1.50m
Height 8ft 8 ft 6 ft 4 ft 2.59m 2.44m 2.44m 1.50m
Weight, Full 11.61 t 13.38 t 8.27 t 3.44 t 11,800 13,600 8,400 3,500
kg kg kg

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kg
Weight, Empty 5.41 t 7.18 t 3.44 t 1.77 t 5,500 7,300 3,500 1,800
kg kg kg kg
Specifications
Tank Size 2000 2000 1500 600 8000 8000 5,600 ltr 2,250 ltr
gal gal ISO gal gal ltr std ltr ISO
Capacity 2000 2000 1500 600 7,960 7,960 5,600 2,250

gal gal gal gal ltr ltr ltr ltr
Maximum Operating 44 & 88 88 88 88 3 & 6 bar 6 bar 6 bar 6 bar

Pressure psi psi psi psi
Features
• Strong protective frames to suit rigours of Offshore Environment

• All tanks fitted with relief valves and / or burst discs
• Drip trays fitted as standard
• Certified for North Sea operations
• Double valves fitted on discharge lines
• Insulation Type : Vacuum Super Insulated
¾ Flanges:
Flanges are given in terms of diameter, class and type.
According to their size 2”,3”,4” etc
According to their class 150#, 300#, and 600#. Where in class refers to a set standard where
the thickness, PCD, ID and OD of flange is fixed by a specification Body. So a 2” 600# flange
will be same whether u buy it in India or US.
According to their type there are two types of faces in a flange
1) Raised face (RF) is one which has a raised face on the flange.
2) Ring Face/ joint (RTJ) is one which has a grove for placing ring. Hence the name ring
joint.

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Based on its application
1) Weld neck Flange (WF): is one which has a weld neck. These have high yield strength
hence are used during hydro test.
A - Hub Diameter at Point of Weld Y - Length thru Hub *
B - Weld Neck Bore O - Outside Diameter
C - Thickness * R - O.D. of Raised Face
X - Diameter at Base of Hub
* raised face is not included in thickness C and length through hub Y.
2) Blind flange ( BF): It is used to blind various flanges hence the name blind flange.

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R - O.D. of Raised Face
O - Outside Diameter
C - Thickness *
* raised face is not included in thickness C .
3) Slip On Flange (SO): It is a weld neck flange without the neck. It is used for lower pressure
range.
X - Diameter at Base of Hub T - Length Thru Hub *

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B - Slip-on Bore O - Outside Diameter
C - Thickness * R - O.D. of Raised Face
* raised face is not included in thickness C and length through hub T.
4) Socket weld: is one which has a socket
X - Diameter at Base of Hub C - Thickness *
D - Depth of Socket T - Length thru Hub *
B - Slip on Bore O - Outside Diameter
B2 - Weld Neck Bore R - O.D. of Raised Face

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5) Threaded : is one in which inner side is threaded
Y - Slip-on Threaded
Q - Hub Diameter at Point of Weld
Socket*
T - Min. Thread Length
O - Outside Diameter
C - Thickness *
R - O.D. of Raised Face
X - Diameter at Base of Hub
* raised face is not included in thickness C and length through hub Y.

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6) Lap
X - Diameter at Base of Hub T - Length thru Hub *
B - Lap Joint Bore O - Outside Diameter
C - Thickness * r - Lap Radius

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¾ PIPES:
Pipes are specified in terms of schedule and size
Eg. 2” sch 40 pipe
As in case of flanges so also in pipes. Thickness is fixed for a schedule.

Generally pipes are given in terms of 2” sch 40, 4” sch 80.
Generally schedule is used in US system and class in British system.
There are 4 types of gaskets that we use in testing.
1) Spiral Gasket – for raised face flange made of metal. Single time use.
2) Ring Gasket – for ring joints, made of metal. Good sealing at high pressures.
3) Sheet Gasket- used for raised face or a plain face, can be used multiple times.
4) Rubber Neoprene- generally used at low pressures made of rubber neoprene

material.

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FITTINGS
Fittings: We here in Narmada generally use 6000 psi pressure rating fittings for use.
Fittings are defined in terms of male and female. The one which has a protrusion (outside
threaded) is called the male and the other without the protrusion (inside threaded) is called the
female.
Some of the fittings are

1) coupling
2) Hose connector
3) Nipple
4) Plug
5) Cap
6) Reducer
7) Adaptor
8) Tee
9) Union
10) Elbow
1) Coupling:
Rigid coupling provides reliable holding power and maintain alignment when no movement is
required. They are ideal for unsupported shafts, shafts running at high speeds and vertical
shafts with suspended loads.
Rigid coupling transmits around three times the torque of conventional clamp-type couplings,
are available with or without a keyway and are easy to assemble and remove. Their simple,
robust construction provides for easy installation and adjustment.

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2) Hose Connector
A hose connector is used to connect 2 hoses. The hoses will have female end fitting and the
hose connector will be having both sides male fitting.
3) Nipple
A Pipe Nipple is a short pipe (12 inches or less), with small opening which provides way for
the liquids or gases to pass through the pipe. It has a male thread on each end and is used for
extension from a fitting.
4) Plug
Pipe Plugs/Sewer Pipe Plugs are designed to provide a quick and simple means to perform a
variety of jobs such as stopping flow in a pipeline (for maintenance or repair), down stream
pipeline acceptance testing, or to stop flow so that infiltration of a section can be measured etc.
Thus, a Sewer Pipe Plug is thus a device that is used to arrest the flow of contents further in the
pipe. It is available in a variety of styles, sizes, and configurations so as to match your specific
job requirements.
Plugs are mainly used in fluid plumbing applications to plug off a FPT fitting, have varying
pressures (from low pressure to high pressure) and are available as expandable, mechanical and
inflatable, something just right for virtually any application.
These plugs simplify the maintenance of all types of shell and tube heat exchangers and speed
the performance of in-service inspection of pipe, pipelines, piping systems and pressure
vessels.

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5) Cap
A pipe cap is a fitting with a female (inside) thread. It is used like a plug, except that the pipe
cap screws on the male thread of a pipe or nipple. A cap may have a solvent weld socket end or
a female threaded end and the other end is closed off. If a solvent weld cap is used to provide
for a future connection point, it must be left several inches of pipe before the cap (as when the
cap is cut off for the future connection, there will need to be enough pipe present to glue a new
fitting onto).
6) Reducer
Reducer is used to connect two pipes of different sizes.

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7) Adaptor
A pipe adapter is a fitting that is used to connect pipes of different materials or pipes that
require different joining methods. For example, it can join a pipe that is threaded to a pipe or
tube that is not threaded, one of the most important type of pipe fittings. Adapters are available
in various materials like aluminum, brass, bronze, copper, steel, stainless, plastic etc,
depending on their final application. Apart from being available in various materials, these are
also custom made in a large range of sizes, depending on their Inner and Outer Diameters (ID
and OD).
8) Tee
A tee is amongst the most common pipe fittings and is available with all female thread sockets,
all solvent weld sockets, or with opposed solvent weld sockets and a side outlet with female
threads. This is a T-shaped device which has three openings that act as an outlet for the pipe.
A tee is used for connecting pipes of different diameters or for changing the direction of pipe
runs. A common type of pipe tee is the STRAIGHT tee, which has a straight-through portion
and a 90-degree takeoff on one side. All three openings of the straight tee are of the same size.
Tees (branch outlets) are manufactured as “Equal” or “Reducing”. Equal tees are exactly that,
all three ends are of the same size. Reducing tees come with a combination of different outlet
sizes. They are used for branch connections in irrigation systems.
Typically, standard Tees are belled on all ends but any combination of belled or plain can be
produced. There are many different combinations of sizes. Unusual combinations of sizes can
also be achieved using component parts of tees, reducing tees and “street” reducers.

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9) Union
Pipe Union is a fitting equipment that unites two pipes and they can be detached without
causing any deformation to the pipes. Small diameter piping connections that require a positive
seal and easy assembly as well as disassembly are made with the help of union.
Union provides a leak-proof disconnection point in any PVC plumbing application and at a low
cost. If a valved-disconnection point is required, use a single-union ball valve. A standard
union pipe is made in three parts, consisting of :
A nut
A female end
A male end
When the female and male ends are joined, the nuts then provide the necessary pressure to seal
the joint. Since the mating ends of the union are interchangeable, changing of a device can be
achieved with a minimum loss of time.
Unions are commonly used for inserting metering and regulating devices into a piping system
or for connecting piping system to vessels. There are two types of pipe unions:
Ground Joint Union

Flange Union
The Ground joint union consists of three pieces. It most commonly has a brass grounding
section between the two halves.
A Flange Union is made in two parts. An economical, practical and reliable alternative to
welded and screwed systems, a Union Flange joins plain-ended pipe to flange-ended
equipment, fittings and valves and on-site installation is simple. Union Flange is a unique
solution to the problems which can occur in the use of pro-fabricated flanged piping, such as
downtime, reliance on off-site suppliers and inaccurate dimensions. The design of the Union
Flange comprises three elements: the flange, the gasket and the restraint.
Both types are used for joining two pipes together and are designed so that they can be
disconnected easily. Unions are successful in numerous municipal and industrial applications
such as fire protection, water and wastewater, and process piping systems.

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10) Elbow
45 degree elbow, also called "45 bends or 45 ells" are typically made as LR (Long Radius)
elbows. Available in various sizes (in mm or inches), 45 degree pipe elbow is available with
different male to female BSP thread connections. Providing a wide choice of colors, these
elbows can be manufactured to meet different specifications, in terms of size and diameter.
They can be made from different materials like 3 ply material, silicone etc and both long and
short radius elbows are available in the market.

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Valves:
A valve is a device that regulates the flow of substances (either gases, fluidized solids, slurries,
or liquids) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. Valves are
technically pipe fittings, but usually are discussed separately.
Valves are used in a variety of applications including industrial, military, commercial,

residential, and transportation. Plumbing valves are the most obvious in everyday life, but
many more are used.
Some valves are driven by pressure only, they are mainly used for safety purposes in steam
engines and domestic heating or cooking appliances. Others are used in a controlled way, like
in Otto cycle engines driven by a camshaft, where they play a major role in engine cycle
control.
Application
Large varieties of valves are available and have many applications with sizes ranging from
small to large. The cost of valves ranges from very cheap simple disposable valves, in some
items to very expensive valves for specialized applications. Often not realized by some, small
valves are even inside some common household items including liquid or gel mini-pump
dispenser spigots, spray devices, some rubber bulbs for pumping air, etc., manual air pumps
and some other pumps, and laundry washers. Valves are almost as ubiquitous as electrical
switches. Often a valve is part of some object, the valve body and the object made in one piece;
for example, a separatory funnel. Faucets, taps, and spigots are all variations of valves. Many
fluid systems such as water and natural gas lines in houses and other buildings have valves.
Fluid systems in chemical and power plants and other facilities have numerous valves to
control fluid flow.
Valve parts
Body
The majority of the valve consists of the valve body, including most of the exterior. The valve
body is the vessel or casing that holds the fluid going through inside the valve. Valve bodies

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are most commonly made of various metals or plastics, although valve bodies fused with glass
laboratory items in one piece are also made of glass.
Ports
The body consists of two or more openings, called ports from which movement occurs from
one opening to the next. These ports are controlled by a valve. Valves with two or three ports
are the most common, while valves consisting of four or more ports are not as frequently used.
Extra ports that are not needed can be closed off by the valve. Manufacturing of valves often
occurs with the intent that they will be connected with another specific object. These objects
can vary, but generally these include some type of piping, tubing, or pump head. In some cases,
a valve port is immediately connected to a spray nozzle or container. To make a connection,
valves are commonly measured by the outer diameter the ports they connect to. For example, a
1-inch valve is sized to connect to 1-inch outer diameter tubing.
Combined with a valve, ports have the ability to act as faucets, taps, or spigots, all while one or
more of its remaining ports are left unconnected. Most valves are built with some means of
connection at the ports. This includes threads, compression fittings, glue or cement application
(especially for plastic), flanges, or welding (for metals).
Discs and rotors
Inside the valve body, flow through the valve may be partly or fully blocked by an object
called a disc. Although valve discs of some kinds of valves are traditionally disc-shaped, discs
can come in various shapes. Although the valve body remains stationary within the fluid
system, the disc in the valve is movable so it can control flow. A round type of disc with fluid
pathway(s) inside which can be rotated to direct flow between certain ports can be called a
rotor. Ball valves are valves which use spherical rotors, except for the interior fluid
passageways. Plug valves use cylindrically-shaped or conically-tapered rotors called plugs.
Other round shapes for rotors are possible too in rotor valves, as long as the rotor can be turned
inside the valve body. However not all round or spherical discs are rotors; for example, a ball
check valve uses the ball to block reverse flow, but is not a rotor because operating the valve
does not involve rotation of the ball.
Seat
The valve seat is the interior surface in the body which contacts or could contact the disc to
form a seal which should be leak-tight, particularly when the valve is shut (closed). If the disc
moves linearly as the valve is controlled, the disc comes into contact with the seat when the
valve is shut. When the valve has a rotor, the seat is always in contact with the rotor, but the
surface area of contact on the rotor changes as the rotor is turned. If the disc swings on a hinge,
as in a swing check valve, it contacts the seat to shut the valve and stop flow. In all the above
cases, the seat remains stationary while the disc or rotor moves. The body and the seat could

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both come in one piece of solid material, or the seat could be a separate piece attached or fixed
to the inside of the valve body, depending on the valve design.
Stem
The stem is a rod or similar piece spanning the inside and the outside of the valve, transmitting
motion to control the internal disc or rotor from outside the valve. Inside the valve, the rod is
joined to or contacts the disc/rotor. Outside the valve the stem is attached to a handle or
another controlling device. Between inside and outside, the stem typically goes through a valve
bonnet if there is one. In some cases, the stem and the disc can be combined in one piece, or
the stem and the handle are combined in one piece.
The motion transmitted by the stem can be a linear push or pull motion, a rotating motion, or
some combination of these. A valve with a rotor would be controlled by turning the stem. The
valve and stem can be threaded such that the stem can be screwed into or out of the valve by
turning it in one direction or the other, thus moving the disc back or forth inside the body.
Packing is often used between the stem and the bonnet to seal fluid inside the valve in spite of
turning of the stem. Some valves have no external control and do not need a stem; for example,
most check valves. Check valves are valves which allow flow in one direction, but block flow
in the opposite direction. Some refer to them as one-way valves.
Valves whose disc is between the seat and the stem and where the stem moves in a direction
into the valve to shut it are normally-seated (also called 'front seated'). Valves whose seat is
between the disc and the stem and where the stem moves in a direction out of the valve to shut
it are reverse-seated (also called 'back seated'). These terms do not apply to valves with no
stem nor to valves using rotors.
Bonnet
A bonnet basically acts as a cover on the valve body. It is commonly semi-permanently

screwed into the valve body. During manufacture of the valve, the internal parts were put into
the body and then the bonnet was attached to hold everything together inside. To access
internal parts of a valve, a user would take off the bonnet, usually for maintenance. Many
valves do not have bonnets; for example, plug valves usually do not have bonnets.
Spring
Many valves have a spring for spring-loading, to normally shift the disc into some position by
default but allow control to reposition the disc. Relief valves commonly use a spring to keep
the valve shut, but allow excessive pressure to force the valve open against the spring-loading,

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Valve balls
A valve ball is also used for severe duty, high pressure, high tolerance applications. They are
typically made of stainless steel, titanium, Stellite, Hastelloy, brass, and nickel. They can also
be made of different types of plastic, such as ABS, PVC, PP or PVDF.
Valve operating positions

Valve positions are operating conditions determined by the position the disc or rotor in the
valve. Some valves are made to be operated in a gradual change between two or more
positions.
2-way valves
2-port valves are commonly called 2-way valves. Operating positions for such valves can be
either shut (closed) so that no flow at all goes through, fully open for maximum flow, or
sometimes partially open to any degree in between. Many valves are not designed to precisely
control intermediate degree of flow; such valves are considered to be either open or shut,
which maybe qualitative descriptions in between. Some valves are specially designed to
regulate varying amounts of flow. Such valves have been called by various names like
regulating, throttling, metering, or needle valves. For example, needle valves have elongated
conically-tapered discs and matching seats for fine flow control. For some valves, there may be
a mechanism to indicate how much the valve is open, but in many cases other indications of
flow rate are used, such as separate flow meters.
In some plants with fluid systems, some 2-way valves can be designated as normally shut or
normally open during regular operation. Examples of normally shut valves are sampling
valves, which are only opened while a sample is taken. Examples of normally open valves are
isolation valves, which are usually only shut when there is a problem with a unit or a section of
a fluid system such as a leak. Then, isolation valve(s) are shut in order to isolate the problem
from the rest of the system.
Although many 2-way valves are made in which the flow can go in either direction between
the two ports, when a valve is placed into a certain application, flow is often expected to go
from one certain port on the upstream side of the valve, to the other port on the downstream
side. Pressure regulators are variations of valves in which flow is controlled to produce a
certain downstream pressure, if possible. They are often used to control flow of gas from a gas
cylinder. A back-pressure regulator is a variation of a valve in which flow is controlled to
maintain a certain upstream pressure, if possible.
3-way valves
3-way valves have three ports. 3-way valves are commonly made such that flow coming in at
one port can be directed to either the second port in one position or the third port in another

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position or in an intermediate position so all flow is stopped. Often such 3-way valves are ball
or rotor valves. Many faucets are made so that incoming cold and hot water can be regulated in
varying degrees to give outcoming water at a desired temperature. Other kinds of 3-port valves
can be designed for other possible flow-directing schemes and positions; for example, see Ball
valve.
The "motor valve" on a domestic heating system is an example of a 3-way valve. Depending
on demand the motor head rotates the spindle to control the proportion of the flow that goes to
the two outlet pipes: One to radiators, one to hot water system. In a conventional system the
valve usually sits just after the pump and by the cylinder ("hot tank").
In valves having more than 3 ports, even more flow-directing schemes are possible. For
examples, see this external site. Such valves are often rotor valves or ball valves. Slider valves
have been used also.
Control
A valve controlled by a wheel (left).
Many valves are controlled manually with a handle attached to the valve stem. If the handle is
turned a quarter of a full turn (90°) between operating positions, the valve is called a quarter-
turn valve. Butterfly valves, ball valves, and plug valves are often quarter-turn valves. Valves
can also be controlled by devices called actuators attached to the stem. They can be
electromechanical actuators such as an electric motor or solenoid, pneumatic actuators which
are controlled by air pressure, or hydraulic actuators which are controlled by the pressure of a
liquid such as oil or water. Actuators can be used for the purposes of automatic control such as
in washing machine cycles, remote control such as the use of a centralized control room, or
because manual control is too difficult; for example, the valve is huge. Pneumatic actuators and
hydraulic actuators need pressurized air or liquid lines to supply the actuator: an inlet line and
an outlet line. Pilot valves are valves which are used to control other valves. Pilot valves in the
actuator lines control the supply of air or liquid going to the actuators.
The fill valve in a commode water tank is a liquid level-actuated valve. When a high water
level is reached, a mechanism shuts the valve which fills the tank.

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In some valve designs, the pressure of the flow fluid itself or pressure difference of the flow
fluid between the ports automatically controls flow through the valve. In an open valve, fluid
flows in a direction from higher pressure to lower pressure.
Other considerations
Valves are typically rated for maximum temperature and pressure by the manufacturer. The
wetted materials in a valve are usually identified also. Some valves rated at very high pressures
are available. When a designer, engineer, or user decides to use a valve for an application,
he/she should ensure the rated maximum temperature and pressure are never exceeded and that
the wetted materials are compatible with the fluid the valve interior is exposed to.
Some fluid system designs, especially in chemical or power plants, are schematically
represented in piping and instrumentation diagrams. In such diagrams, different types of valves
are represented by certain symbols.
Valves in good condition should be leak-free. However, valves may eventually wear out from
use and develop a leak, either between the inside and outside of the valve or, when the valve is
shut to stop flow, between the disc and the seat. A particle trapped between the seat and disc
could also cause such leakage.
Types of valves
Generic Type Valves
• Ball valve, which is good for on/off control.

• Butterfly valve, particularly in large pipes.
• Choke valve: a valve that lifts up and down a solid cylinder which is placed around or
inside another cylinder which has holes or slots.
• Check valve or Non-return valve, allows the fluid to pass in one direction only.
• Diaphragm valve, a sanitary valve predominantly used in the pharmaceutical industry
• Gate valve, mainly for on/off control.
• Globe valve, which is good for regulating flow.
• Needle valve for gently releasing high pressures.
• Piston valve
• Plug valve, for on/off control.
Specific Valve Types
• 4-stroke cycle engine valves: a application of piston valve.

• Aspin valve, a cone-shaped metal part fitted to the cylinder head of an engine.
• Ball cock: often used as a water level controller (cistern).
• Bibcock, provides a connection to a flexible hosepipe

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• Blast valve, used to prevent rapid overpressures in a fallout shelter or a bunker.

• Cock, colloquial term for a small valve or a stopcock.
• Demand valve on a diving regulator.
• Double check valve
• Duckbill valve
• flow control valve: a application which maintains a constant flow rate through the
valve.
• Foot valve: a check valve on the foot of a suction line to prevent backflow.
• Freeze valve: in which freezing and melting the fluid creates and removes a plug of
frozen material acting as the valve.
• Gas pressure regulator regulates the flow and pressure of a gas.
• heart valve: regulates blood flow through the heart in many organisms.
• leaf valve: one-way valve consisting of a diagonal obstruction with an opening covered
by a hinged flap.
• Pilot valve: regulate flow or pressure to other valves.
• A poppet valve is commonly used in piston engines to regulate the fuel mixture intake
and exhaust. The sleeve valve is another valve type used for this purpose.
• A pressure reducing valve (PRV), also called pressure regulator, reduces pressure to a
preset level downstream of the valve.
• A pressure sustaining valve, also called back-pressure regulator, maintains pressure at
a preset level upstream of the valve.
• Presta and Schrader valves are used to hold the air in bicycle tires.
• A Reed valve consists of two or more flexible materials pressed together along much of
their length, but with the influx area open to allow one-way flow, much like a heart
valve.
• A regulator is used in SCUBA diving equipment and in gas cooking equipment to
reduce the high pressure gas supply to a lower working pressure
• Rotary valves and piston valves are parts of brass instruments used to change their
pitch.
• A saddle valve, where allowed, is used to tap a pipe for a low-flow need.
• A safety valve or relief valve operates automatically at a set differential pressure to
correct a potentially dangerous situation, typically over-pressure.
• Schrader valves are used to hold the air inside automobile tires.
• Solenoid valve, an electrically controlled hydraulic or pneumatic valve.
• Stopcocks restrict or isolate the flow through a pipe of a liquid or gas.
• Tap (British English), faucet (American English) is the common name for a valve used
in homes to regulate water flow.
• Thermostatic Mixing Valve
• Some trap primers either include other types of valves, or are valves themselves
• Vacuum breaker valves prevent the back-siphonage of contaminated water into
pressurized drinkable water supplies.

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Ball valve Globe valve
Ball valve
A ball valve (like the butterfly valve, one of a family of valves called quarter turn valves) is a
valve that opens by turning a handle attached to a ball inside the valve. The ball has a hole, or
port, through the middle so that when the port is in line with both ends of the valve, flow will
occur. When the valve is closed, the hole is perpendicular to the ends of the valve, and flow is
blocked. The handle position lets you "see" the valve's position.
Ball valves are durable and usually work to achieve perfect shutoff even after years of disuse.
They are therefore an excellent choice for shutoff applications (and are often preferred to globe
valves and gate valves for this purpose). They do not offer the fine control that may be
necessary in throttling applications but are sometimes used for this purpose.
The body of ball valves may be made of metal, ceramic, or plastic. The ball may be chrome
plated to make it more durable.
Types of ball valve

There are four general body styles of ball valves: single body, split body, top entry, and welded.
There are four general types of ball valves: full port, standard port, reduced port, and v port.
• A full port ball valve has an oversized ball so that the hole in the ball is the same size as
the pipeline resulting in lower friction loss. Flow is unrestricted, but the valve is larger.
• A standard port ball valve is usually less expensive, but has a smaller ball and a
correspondingly smaller port. Flow through this valve is one pipe size smaller than the
valve's pipe size resulting in slightly restricted flow.
• In reduced port ball valves, flow through the valve is one pipe size smaller than the
valve's pipe size resulting in restricted flow.
• A v port ball valve has either a 'v' shaped ball or a 'v' shaped seat. This allows the
orifice to be opened and closed in a more controlled manner with a closer to linear flow
characteristic. When the valve is in the closed position and opening is commenced the
small end of the 'v' is opened first allowing stable flow control during this stage. This

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type of design requires a generally more robust construction due to higher velocities of
the fluids, which would quickly damage a standard valve.
• A trunnion ball valve has a mechanical means of anchoring the ball at the top and the
bottom, this design is usually applied on larger and higher pressure valves(say 4 inch
and above 600 psi and above)
Manually operated ball valves can be closed quickly and thus there is a danger of water
hammer. Some ball valves are equipped with an actuator that may be pneumatically or motor
(electric) operated. These valves can be used either for on/off or flow control. A pneumatic
flow control valve is also equipped with a positioner which transforms the control signal into
actuator position and valve opening accordingly.
Straight Through, Two Way OR Three Way Ball Valves
schematic 3 way ball valve - L-shaped ball right, T-shaped left
Three-way ball valves have a L- or T-shaped hole through the middle. The different
combination of flow are shown in the picture. Multi port ball valves with 4 or more ways are
also commercially available, the inlet way often being orthogonal to the plane of the outlets.
For special applications, such as driving air powered motors from forward to reverse by
rotating a single lever operated 4 way ball valve. This valve has two L-shaped ports in the ball
that do not interconnect, sometimes referred to as an "x" port.
Ball Valves in sizes up to 2 inch generally come in single piece, two or three piece designs.
One piece ball valves are almost always reduced bore, are relatively inexpensive and generally
are throw-away. Two piece ball valves are generally slightly reduced (or standard) bore, they
can be either throw-away or repairable. The 3 piece design allows for the center part of the
valve containing the ball, stem & seats to be easily removed from the pipeline. This facilitates

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efficient cleaning of deposited sediments, replacement of seats and gland packings, polishing
out of small scratches on the ball, all this without removing the pipes from the valve body. The
design concept of a three piece valve is for it to be repairable
Butterfly valve
A butterfly valve is a type of flow control device, typically used to regulate a fluid flowing
through a section of pipe. The valve is similar in operation to a ball valve. A flat circular plate
is positioned in the center of the pipe. The plate has a rod through it connected to an actuator
on the outside of the valve. Rotating the actuator turns the plate either parallel or perpendicular
to the flow. Unlike a ball valve, the plate is always present within the flow, therefore a pressure
drop is always induced in the flow regardless of valve position.
A butterfly valve is from a family of valves called quarter turn valves. The "butterfly" is a
metal disc mounted on a rod. When the valve is closed, the disc is turned so that it completely
blocks off the passageway. When the valve is fully open, the disc is rotated a quarter turn so
that it allows unrestricted passage. The valve may also be opened incrementally to regulate
flow.
There are different kinds of butterfly valves, each adapted for different pressures and different
usage. The resilient butterfly valve, which uses the flexibility of rubber, has the lowest pressure
rating. The high performance butterfly valve, used in slightly higher-pressure systems, features
a slight offset in the way the disc is positioned, which increases the valve's sealing ability and
decreases its tendency to wear. The valve best suited for high-pressure systems is the tricentric
butterfly valve, which makes use of a metal seat, and is therefore able to withstand a greater
amount of pressure.
Summarizing these are the three types of butterfly valves:
1. Resilient butterfly valve which has a flexible rubber seat. Working pressure 232 PSI
2. High performance butterfly valve which is usually double eccentric in design.
Working pressure up to 725 PSI
3. Tricentric butterfly valve which is usually with metal seated design. Working
pressure up to 1450 PSI
The butterfly valve has a body, a resilient seat, a butterfly disk, a stem, packing, a notched
positioning plate, and an actuator. The resilient seat is under compression when it is mounted
in the valve body, thus making a seal around the periphery of the disk and both upper and
lower points where the stem passes through the seat. Packing is provided to form a positive
seal around the stem for added protection in case the seal formed by the seat should become
damaged. To close or open a butterfly valve, the actuator is turned only one quarter turn to
rotate the disk from 0° to 90°. Actuators used on butterfly valves vary based on the application
and size of the valve. A simple handle oriented in the same direction of the metal disc (to

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indicate valve position) is common. Some larger butterfly valves may have a handwheel that
operates through a gearing arrangement to operate the valve. This method is used especially
where space limitation prevents use of a long handle. Acuators may also be air driven or
electrically operated when used as part of an automated control system. Butterfly valves are
relatively easy to maintain. The resilient seat is held in place by mechanical means, and neither
bonding nor cementing is necessary, Because the seat is replaceable, the valve seat does not
require lapping, grinding, or machine work.
Butterfly valves are valves with a circular body and a rotary motion disk closure member
which is pivotally supported by its stem. A Butterfly valve can come in various styles
including eccentric and high-performance valves. These are normally a type of valve that uses
a flat plate to control the flow of water. As well as this, Butterfly valves are used on fire
apparatus and typically are used on larger lines, such as front and rear suctions and tank to
pump lines. A Butterfly valve is also a type of flow control device, used to make a fluid start or
stop flowing through a section of pipe. The valve is similar in operation to a ball valve.
Rotating the handle turns the plate either parallel or perpendicular to the flow of water, shutting
off the flow. It is a very well known and well used design.
Wafer versus Lug Style Butterfly Valve

• Wafer Style Butterfly Valves
Wafer style is the more common of the two and is less expensive than the lug style. The wafer
style butterfly valve is just about the standard. It ís so common that no one even bothers to use
the word "wafer" when ordering a butterfly valve. They take it for granted that if they order a
butterfly valve, they will get a wafer style one.
The wafer style butterfly valve is installed between two flanges. The valve is kept in place by
using bolts or studs and nuts from flange to flange. This type of installation, of course, makes it
impossible to disconnect just one side of the piping system from the valve. That is where the
lug style valve comes in.
• Lug Style Butterfly Valves
Lug style valves have threaded inserts at both sides of the valve body. This allows them to be
installed into a system using two sets of bolts and NO nuts. The valve is installed between two
flanges using a separate set of bolts for each flange. This setup permits either side of the piping
system to be disconnected without disturbing the other side.
A lug style butterfly valve used in dead end service generally has a reduced pressure rating. For
example a lug style butterfly valve mounted between two flanges has a 150 psi pressure rating.
The same valve mounted with one flange, in dead end service, has a 75 psi rating.

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Choke valve
In automotive contexts, a choke valve is a valve that modifies the air pressure in the intake
manifold of an internal combustion engine, and thereby modifies the ratio of fuel and air
quantity entering the engine. Choke valves are generally used in engines with carburetors, to
supply a richer fuel mixture during engine start than at other times. Most choke valves in
engines are actually butterfly valves that are mounted in the manifold above the carburetor jet,
to produce a higher partial vacuum and thereby draw more fuel into the intake stream.
In heavy industrial or fluid engineering contexts, a choke valve is a particular design of valve
that lifts up and down a solid cylinder (called a "plug" or "stem") which is placed around or
inside another cylinder that has holes or slots. The design of a choke valve means fluids
flowing through the cage are coming from all sides and that the streams of flow (through the
holes or slots) collide with each other at the center of the cage cylinder, thereby dissipating the
energy of the fluid through "flow impingement". The main advantage of choke valves is that
they can be designed to be totally linear in their flow rate.
Choke valves (both senses) draw their names from choked flow: over a wide range of valve
settings the flow through the valve can be understood by ignoring the viscosity of the fluid
passing through the valve; the rate of flow is determined only by the ambient pressure on the
upstream side of the valve.
Industrial
Heavy duty industrial choke valves control the flow to a certain Flow Coefficient (Cv)
determined by how far the valve is opened. They are regularly used in the oil industry and for
highly erosive and corrosive purposes, they are often made of tungsten carbide or inconel.
Automotive
A choke valve is sometimes installed in the carburetor of internal combustion engines. Its
purpose is to restrict the flow of air, thereby enriching the fuel-air mixture while starting the
engine. Depending on engine design and application, the valve can be activated manually by
the operator of the engine (via a lever or pull handle) or automatically by a temperature-
sensitive mechanism called an autochoke.
Choke valves are important for carbureted gasoline engines because small droplets of gasoline
do not evaporate well within a cold engine. By restricting the flow of air into the throat of the
carburetor, the choke valve raises the level of vacuum inside the throat, which causes a
proportionally greater amount of fuel to be sucked out of the main jet and into the combustion
chamber during cold-running operation. Once the engine is warm (from combustion), opening

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the choke valve restores the carburetor to normal operation, supplying fuel and air in the
correct stoichiometric ratio for clean, efficient combustion.
Note that the term "choke" is applied to the carburettor's enrichment device even when it works
by a totally different method. Commonly SU carburettors have "chokes" that work by lowering
the fuel jet to a narrower part of the needle. Some others work by introducing an additional fuel
route to the constant depression chamber.
Chokes were nearly universal in automobiles until fuel injection replaced carburetion in the
late 1980s. Choke valves are still extremely common in other internal-combustion applications,
including most small portable engines, motorcycles, small prop-powered airplanes, and
carbureted marine engines.
Check valve
Check valve in a fire hydrant
Check valve symbol on P&IDs
A check valve is a mechanical device, a valve, that normally allows fluid (liquid or gas) to
flow through it in only one direction. Check valves are two-port valves, meaning they have two
openings in the body, one for fluid to enter and the other for fluid to leave. There are various
types of check valves used in a wide variety of applications. Check valves are often part of
common household items. Although they are available in a wide range of sizes and costs, many
check valves are very small, simple, and/or cheap. Check valves work automatically and most
are not controlled by a person or any external control; accordingly, most do not have any valve
handle or stem. The bodies (external shells) of most check valves are made of plastic or metal.
An important concept in check valves is the cracking pressure which is the minimum upstream
pressure at which the valve will operate. Typically the check valve is designed for and can
therefore be specified for a specific cracking pressure.

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Heart valves are essentially inlet and outlet check valves for the heart ventricles, since the
ventricles act as a pump.
Types of check valves

A closed ball check valve.
An open ball check valve.
A Ball check valve is a check valve in which the disc, the movable part to block the flow, is a
spherical ball. In many ball check valves, the ball is spring-loaded to stay shut, but also many
do not have a spring inside. For those designs without a spring, reverse flow is required to
move the ball toward the seat and create a seal. The interior surface of the seats of ball check
valves are more or less conically-tapered to guide the ball into the seat and/or form a positive
seal when stopping reverse flow.
Ball check valves are often very small, simple, and cheap (although some are expensive). They
are commonly used in liquid or gel mini-pump dispenser spigots, spray devices, some rubber
bulbs for pumping air, etc., manual air pumps and some other pumps, and refillable dispensing
syringes. Although the balls are most often made of metal, they can be made of other materials,
or in some specialized cases out of artificial ruby. High pressure HPLC pumps and similar
applications commonly use small inlet and outlet ball check valves with balls made of artificial
ruby and seats made of artificial sapphire, both for hardness and chemical resistance. After

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prolonged use, such check valves can eventually wear out or the seat can develop a crack,
requiring replacement. Therefore, such valves are made to be replaceable, sometimes placed in
a small plastic body tightly-fitted inside a metal fitting which can withstand high pressure and
which is screwed into the pump head.
There are similar check valves where the disc is not a ball, but some other shape, such as a
poppet energized by a spring. Ball check valves should not be confused with ball valves, which
is a different type of valve in which a ball acts as a controllable rotor to stop or direct flow.
A diaphragm check valve uses a flexing rubber diaphragm positioned to create a normally-
closed valve. Pressure on the upstream side must be greater than the pressure on the
downstream side by a certain amount, the pressure differential, for the check valve to open
allowing flow. Once positive pressure stops, the diaphragm automatically flexes back to its
original closed position.
A swing check valve is a check valve in which the disc, the movable part to block the flow,
swings on a hinge or trunnion, either onto the seat to block reverse flow or off the seat to allow
forward flow. The seat opening cross-section may be perpendicular to the centerline between
the two ports or at an angle. Although swing check valves can come in various sizes, large
check valves are often swing check valves.
This Siamese clappered inlet allows one or two inputs into a deluge gun.
A clapper valve is a type of check valve used in or with firefighting, and has a hinged gate
(often with a spring urging it shut) that will only remain open in the outflowing direction.
A stop-check valve is a check valve with override control to stop flow regardless of flow
direction or pressure. When the valve is open, it acts as a check valve, but the valve can be
deliberately shut to stop flow.
A lift-check valve is a check valve in which the disc, sometimes called a lift, can be lifted up
off its seat by higher pressure of inlet or upstream fluid to allow flow to the outlet or
downstream side. A guide keeps motion of the disc on a vertical line, so the valve can later
reseat properly. When the pressure is no longer higher, gravity or higher downstream pressure
will cause the disc to lower onto its seat, shutting the valve to stop reverse flow.
A double check valve is often used as a backflow prevention device to keep potentially
contaminated water from siphoning back into municipal water supply lines.

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There are also double ball check valves in which there are two ball/seat combinations
sequentially in the same body to ensure positive leak-tight shutoff when blocking reverse flow;
and piston check valves, wafer check valves, and ball-and-cone check valves.
Applications
Check valves are often used with some types of pumps. Piston-driven and diaphragm pumps
such as metering pumps and pumps for chromatography commonly use inlet and outlet ball
check valves. These valves often look like small cylinders attached to the pump head on the
inlet and outlet lines. Many similar pump-like mechanisms for moving volumes of fluids
around use check valves such as ball check valves.
Check valves are used in many fluid systems such as those in chemical, and power plants, and
in many other industrial processes.
Check valves are also often used when multiple gases are mixed into one gas stream. A check
valve is installed on each of the individual gas streams to prevent mixing of the gases in the
original source. For example, if a fuel and an oxidizer are to be mixed, then check valves will
normally be used on both the fuel and oxidizer sources to ensure that the original gas cylinders
remain pure and therefore nonflammable.
Some types of irrigation sprinklers and drip irrigation emitters have small check valves built
into them to keep the lines from draining when the system is shut off.
Diaphragm valve
Diaphragm valves (or membrane valves) consists of a valve body with two or more ports, a
diaphragm, and a "saddle" or seat upon which the diaphragm closes the valve. The valve is
constructed from either plastic or steel.
Originally, the diaphragm valve was developed for use in non-hygienic applications. Later on
the design was adapted for use in the bio-pharmaceutical industry by using compliant materials
that can withstand sanitizing/sterilizing methods.
There are two main categories of diaphragm valves: one type seals over a "weir" (saddle) and
the other (sometimes called a "straight-way" valve) seals over a seat. The main difference is
that a saddle-type valve has its two ports in line with each other on the opposite sides of the
valve, whereas the seat-type has the in/out ports located at a 90 degree angle from one another.
The saddle type is the most common in process applications and the seat-type is more
commonly used as a tank bottom valve but exists also as a process valve. While diaphragm
valves usually come in two-port forms, they can also come with three ports and even more.
When more than three ports are included, they generally require more than one diaphragm;
however, special dual actuators can handle more ports with one membrane.

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Diaphragm valves can be manual or automated. Their application is generally as shut-off

valves in process systems within the food and beverage, pharmaceutical and biotech industries.
The older generation of these valves is not suited for regulating/controlling process flows,
however newer developments in this area have successfully tackled this problem.
In addition to the well known, two way shut off diaphragm valve, there are many other forms
of the diaphragm valve including: three way zero deadleg valve, sterile access port, block and
bleed, valbow and tank bottom valve just to name a few.
Actuators
Diaphragm valves can be controlled by various types of actuators. The most common
diaphragm valves use pneumatic actuators; in this type of valve, air pressure is applied through
a Schrader valve which raises the diaphragm and opens the valve. This type of valve is
extremely quick and as such is one of the more common valves used in operations where valve
speed is a necessity.
Hydraulic diaphragm valves also exist for higher pressure and lower speed operations. Some
diaphragm valves are also controlled manually.
Materials used to construct diaphragm valve body

• ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene)
• PVC-U (Polyvinyl chloride, unplasticized) also known as PVCu or uPVC
• PVC-C (Polyvinyl chloride, post chlorinated) also known as PVCc or cPVC
• PP (Polypropylene)
• PE (Polyethylene) also known as LDPE, MDPE and HDPE (see note)
• PVDF (Polyvinylidene fluoride)
• Stainless Steel316L
• AL-6XN
• Hastelloy C22
• “Superaustenitic” stainless steel 254 SMO
• Stainless Steel 904L
Materials used in the construction of the diaphragm seal

depending on temperature, pressure and chemical resistance, one of the following is used
• EPDM
• PTFE
• PTFE with EPDM back

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• Ultraz
• Ultraz 2
• Silicone
• Viton
• NBR
• FKM
• FFKM
• TFM
Gate valve
22mm Gate Valve on domestic hot water pipe.
Gate Valves are prone to corrosion. Here the shaft has broken.
A Gate Valve, or Sluice Valve, as it is sometimes known, is a valve that opens by lifting a
round or rectangular gate/wedge out of the path of the fluid. The distinct feature of a gate valve
is the sealing surfaces between the gate and seats are planar. The gate faces can form a wedge
shape or they can be parallel. Gate valves are sometimes used for regulating flow, but many are
not suited for that purpose, having been designed to be fully opened or closed. When fully
open, the typical gate valve has no obstruction in the flow path, resulting in very low friction
loss.
Gate valves are characterised as having either a rising or a nonrising stem. Rising stems
provide a visual indication of valve position. Nonrising stems are used where vertical space is
limited or underground.
Bonnets provide leakproof closure for the valve body. Gate valves may have a screw-in, union,
or bolted bonnet. Screw-in bonnet is the simplest, offering a durable, pressure-tight seal. Union

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bonnet is suitable for applications requiring frequent inspection and cleaning. It also gives the
body added strength. Bolted bonnet is used for larger valves and higher pressure applications.
Another type of bonnet construction in a gate valve is pressure seal bonnet. This construction
is adopted for valves for high pressure service, typically in excess of 15 MPa (2250 psi). The
unique feature about the pressure seal bonnet is that the body - bonnet joints seals improves as
the internal pressure in the valve increases, compared to other constructions where the increase
in internal pressure tends to create leaks in the body-bonnet joint.
Gate valves normally have flanged ends which are drilled according to pipeline compatible
flange dimensional standards. Cast iron, cast carbon steel, gun metal, stainless steel, alloy
steels, and forged steels are different materials from which gate valves are constructed.
Maintenance
To avoid failure, it is a very good practice to use the valve three or four times a year. From its
normal position of nearly full-open: wind it fully closed, then fully open, then half a turn
closed. Make sure the system that the pipes are connected to doesn't require water flow whilst
you do this.
Globe valve
A Globe valve is a device (specifically a type of valve) for regulating flow in a pipeline,
consisting of a movable disk-type element and a stationary ring seat in a generally spherical
body.[1]
Globe Valves are named for their spherical body shape with the two halves of the body being
separated by an internal baffle. This has an opening that forms a seat onto which a movable
plug[2] can be screwed in to close (or shut) the valve. The plug is also called a disc or
disk.[3][4][5] In globe valves, the plug is connected to a stem which is operated by screw action in
manual valves. Typically, automated valves use sliding stems. Automated globe valves have a
smooth stem rather than threaded and are opened and closed by an actuator assembly. When a
globe valve is manually operated, the stem is turned by a handwheel.
Although globe valves in the past had the spherical bodies which gave them their name, many
modern globe valves do not have much of a spherical shape. However, the term globe valve is

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still often used for valves that have such an internal mechanism. In plumbing, valves with such
a mechanism are also often called stop valves since they don't have the global appearance, but
the term stop valve may refer to valves which are used to stop flow even when they have other
mechanisms or designs.
Globe valves are used for applications requiring throttling and frequent operation. For
example, globe valves or valves with a similar mechanism may be used as sampling valves,
which are normally shut except when liquid samples are being taken. Since the baffle restricts
flow, they're not recommended where full, unobstructed flow is required.
Parts of a typical globe valve

Body
The main pressure containing structure of the valve and the most easily identified as it forms
the mass of the valve. It contains all of the valve's internal parts that will come in contact with
the substance being controlled by the valve. The bonnet is connected to the body and provides
the containment of the fluid, gas, or slurry that is being controlled.
Globe valves are typically two-port valves, although three port valves are also produced. Ports
are openings in the body for fluid flowing in or out. The two ports may be oriented straight
across from each other on the body,[6] or oriented at an angle such as a 90° angle.[7] Globe
valves with ports at such an angle are called angle globe valves. A globe valve can also have a
body in the shape of a y.[8] ==

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Bonnet
Provides leakproof closure for the valve body. The threaded section of stem goes through a
hole with matching threads in the bonnet. Globe valves may have a screw-in, union, or bolted[9]
bonnet. Screw-in bonnet is the simplest bonnet, offering a durable, pressure-tight seal. Union
bonnet is suitable for applications requiring frequent inspection or cleaning. It also gives the
body added strength. A bonnet attached with bolts is used for larger or higher pressure
applications. Bonnets also contain the packing, which is a wearable material that maintains the
seal between the bonnet and the stem during valve cycling operations
Plug or disc (disk)
The closure member of the valve. Plugs are connected to the stem which is slid or screwed up
or down to throttle the flow. Plugs are typically of the balance or unbalanced type. Unbalanced
plugs are solid and are used with smaller valves or with low pressure drops across the valve.
The advantages are simpler design, with one possible leak path at the seat and usually lower
cost. The disadvantages are the limited size; with a large unbalanced plug the forces needed to
seat and hold the flow off become impractical. Balanced plugs have holes through the plug.
Advantages include easier shut off as the plug does not have to overcome static forces.
However, a second leak path is created between the plug and the cage, cost is generally higher.
Stem
The stem serves as a connector from the actuator to the inside of the valve and transmits this
actuation force. Stems are either smooth for actuator controlled valves or threaded for manual
valves. The smooth stems are surrounded by packing material to prevent leaking material from
the valve. This packing is a wear material and will have to be replaced during maintenance.
With a smooth stem the ends are threaded to allow connection to the plug and the actuator. The
stem must not only withstand a large amount of compression force during valve closure, but
also have high tensile strength during valve opening. In addition, the stem must be very
straight, or have low runout, in order to ensure good valve closure. This minimum runout also
minimizes wear of the packing contained in the bonnet, which provides the seal against
leakage.
Cage
The cage is part of the valve that surrounds the plug and is located inside the body of the valve.
Typically, the cage is one of the greatest determiners of flow within the valve. As the plug is
moved more of the openings in the cage are exposed and flow is increased and vise versa. The
design and layout of the openings can have a large effect on flow of material (the flow
characteristics of different materials at temperatures, pressures that are in a range). Cages are
also used to guide the plug to the seat of the valve for a good shutoff, substituting the guiding
from the bonnet.

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Seat ring
The seat ring provides a stable, uniform and replaceable shut off surface. Seat rings are usually
held in place by pressure from the fastening of the bonnet to the top of the body. This pushes
the cage down on the lip of the seat ring and holds it firmly to the body of the valve. Seat rings
may also be threaded and screwed into a thread cut in the same area of the body. However this
method makes removal of the seat ring during maintenance difficult if not impossible. Seat
rings are also typically beveled at the seating surface to allow for some guiding during the final
stages of closing the valve.
Economical globe valves or stop valves with a similar mechanism used in plumbing often have
a rubber washer at the bottom of the disc for the seating surface, so that rubber can be
compressed against the seat to form a leak-tight seal when shut.
Many globe valves have a class rating that corresponds to the pressure specifications of ANSI
16.34. Bibcocks and sillcocks are variations of globe or stop valves used in plumbing. Needle
valves are variations of globe valves where instead of a separate attached disc piece, the
internal end of the stem is conically tapered to act as the disc to fit into a matching seat for fine
flow adjustment. Other different types of valve usually are called globe style valves because of
the shape of the body or the way of closure of the disk. As an example typical swing check
valves could be called globe type.
Materials
Typically globe valves are made of metallic alloys, although some synthetic materials are
available. These materials are chosen based on pressure, temperature, controlled media
properties. Corrosive and/or erosive process streams may require a compromise in material
selection or exotic alloys or body coatings to minimize these material interactions and extend
the life of the valve or valve trim components. Typically, carbon steel alloys are specified for
noncorrosive applications. Other alloys such as Hastelloy, Monel, Inconel and others are
available.
Packing material must also be considered during valve selection. Typically the requirement for
a low friction packing conflict with a durable material that will provide low maintenance
requirements during service life. Corrosive applications can further complicate packing
material selection as the typical packing materials may or may not be compatible with the
processed materials. Typically graphite or PTFE is used due to its low friction coefficient.
Enviro-seal applications also have the availablilty of constant applied force (live-load) packing.
While more complex, it allows for constant packing force load throughout the life of the
packing material. This packing helps meet contemporary environmental laws.

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Needle valve
A needle valve is a type of valve having a small

orifice and a threaded, needle-like plunger. It allows precise regulation of flow, although it is
generally used for, and is capable of, only relatively small flow rates.
Construction and operation

A needle valve has a relatively small orifice with a long, tapered, conical seat. A needle-shaped
plunger, on the end of a screw, exactly fits this seat. As the screw is turned and the plunger
retracted, flow between the seat and the plunger is possible; however, until the plunger is
completely retracted the fluid flow is significantly impeded. Therefore, and since it takes many
turns of the fine-threaded screw to retract the plunger, precise regulation of the flow rate is
possible.
Uses
Needle valves are usually used in flow metering applications, especially when a constant,
calibrated, low flow rate must be maintained for some time, such as the idle fuel flow in a
carburetor.
Since flow rates are low and many turns of the valve stem are required to completely open or
close, needle valves are not used for simple shutoff applications.
Since the orifice is small and the force advantage of the fine-threaded stem is high, needle
valves are usually easy to shut off completely, with merely "finger tight" pressure. Small,
simple needle valves are often used as bleed valves in hot water heating applications.
Unlike a ball valve, it is impossible to tell from examining the handle position whether the
valve is open or closed.

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Piston valve
Piston valve in a brass instrument
A piston valve is a device used to control the motion of a fluid along a tube or pipe by means
of the linear motion of a piston within a chamber or cylinder.
Examples of piston valves are:
• The valves used in the valve gear of many stationary steam engines and most steam
locomotives.
• The valves used in many brass instruments.
• The valves used in pneumatic cannons.
Steam engines
Piston valves were used by James Watt in his stationary steam engines, and in many of the
engines that followed.
In the 19th century, most steam locomotives used slide valves to control the flow of steam into
and out of the cylinders. In the 20th century, slide valves were gradually superseded by piston
valves, particularly in engines using superheated steam. There were two reasons for this:
• With piston valves, the steam passages can be made shorter. This reduces resistance to
the flow of steam and improves efficiency
• It is difficult to lubricate slide valves adequately in the presence of superheated steam
The usual locomotive valve gears, e.g. Stephenson valve gear, Walschaerts valve gear, and
Baker valve gear can be used with either slide valves or piston valves. Where poppet valves are
used, a different gear, such as Caprotti valve gear is needed.
Brass instruments
Cylindrical piston valves are used to change the pitch in the playing of many brass instruments.
Brass instruments can be grouped into four categories, according to the primary means used to
change the pitch:
• Those using piston valves. These include most trumpets, all cornets and almost all
tubas, and many others.
• Those using rotary valves. These include French horns and some specialist trumpets.

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• Those using a slide, such as the trombone family.
• Those using keys, such as the serpent and the keyed bugle.
There is some overlap between these categories. In addition to its three valves, the trumpet uses
a small slide for pitch correction, while the tenorbass and bass trombone both use one or two
rotary valves in addition to the slide. The superbone does not fit in to any of the above
categories.
Where piston (or rotary) valves are used, three is the normal minimum (as on a trumpet) and
four is not uncommon.
When a piston valve is opened ("pressed" and "pushed down"), each valve changes the pitch by
diverting the air stream through additional tubing, thus lengthening the instrument and
lowering the harmonic series on which the instrument is vibrating. The following list shows
how each valve or combination of valves will affect the pitch from the fundamental. This is
true of all brass instruments, however some alternative fingerings are necessary to provide
accurate pitch using the fourth and subsequent valves in instruments which have them.
• second valve - one half step

• first valve - one whole step
• first and second valves - one and a half steps. Also achievable by third valve alone but
the note will usually be flat
• second and third valves - two whole steps
• first and third valves - a perfect fourth, or two and a half steps. Will be sharp unless
some means of compensation is used.
• first, second, and third valves - a tritone, or three whole steps. Will be very sharp unless
some means of compensation is used.
A fourth valve is sometimes found on more professional instruments, which creates a perfect
fourth, or two and a half steps. Instruments such as the tuba, euphonium, and piccolo trumpet
have this valve. A common use is to use a fingering of 2-4 in place of 1-2-3, which tends to
create pitch problems. Additionally, by using one valve to lower the pitch by a perfect fourth,
the valve functions like an F extension on a trombone.
Also, on rare instruments, there is a fifth valve, which creates a lower octave of the note, or six
tones. These valves are found mostly on tubas and other low brass instruments. More valves
than five is ultra rare, but they have been seen, such as on the six-valved cimbasso.
The first piston valve instruments were developed just after the start of the 19th century. The
Stölzel valve (invented by Heinrich Stoelzel in 1814) was an early variety. In the mid 19th
century the Vienna valve was an improved design. However most professional musicians
preferred rotary valves for quicker, more reliable action, until better designs of piston valves

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were mass manufactured in towards the end of the 19th century. Since the early decades of the
19th century, piston valves have been the most common on brass instruments.
Pneumatic cannons
Piston valves are some of the most powerful available in spudgunning (Spud guns), with the
ability to dump several litres of pressurised air in a few thousands of a second. This fast
moving air is used to fire a projectile from the exhaust barrel. As the name suggests they are
used to fire vegetables, such as potatoes; wood, to simulate hurricanes; and t-shirts. They are
used extensively in the film and special effects industry to simulate explosions in war films.
Plug valve
Plug valves [1]are valves with cylindrical or conically-tapered "plugs" which can be rotated
inside the valve body to control flow through the valve. The plugs in plug valves have one or
more hollow passageways going sideways through the plug, so that fluid can flow through the
plug when the valve is open. Plug valves are simple and often economical.
When the plug is conically-tapered, the stem/handle is typically attached to the larger diameter
end of the plug. Plug valves usually do not have bonnets but often have the end of the plug
with the handle exposed or mostly exposed to the outside. In cases like that, there is usually not
much of a stem. The stem and handle often come in one piece, often a simple, approximately
L-shaped handle attached to the end of the plug. The other end of the plug is often exposed to
the outside of the valve too, but with a mechanism which retains the plug in the body.
The simplest and most common general type of plug valve is a 2-port valve, which has two
positions, open to allow flow, and shut (closed) to stop flow. Ports are openings in the valve
body through which fluid can enter or leave. The plug in this kind of valve has one passageway
going through it. The ports are typically at opposite ends of the body; therefore, the plug is
rotated a fourth of a full turn to change from open to shut positions. This makes this kind of
plug valve a quarter-turn valve. There is often a mechanism limiting motion of the handle to a
quarter turn, but not in glass stopcocks.
Slightly conically-tapered metal (often brass) plug valves are often used as simple shut-off
valves in household natural gas lines.
It is also possible for a plug valve to have more than two ports. In a 3-way plug valve, flow
from one port could be directed to either the second or third port. A 3-way plug valve could
also be designed to shift flow between ports 1 and 2, 2 and 3, or 1 and 3, and possibly even
connect all three ports together. The flow-directing possibilities in multi-port plug valves are
similar to the possibilities in corresponding multi-port ball valves or corresponding multi-port
valves with a rotor. An additional possibility in plug valves is the have one port on one side of
the plug valve and two ports on the other side, with two diagonal and parallel fluid pathways

INDUCTION TRAINING
inside the plug. In this case the plug can be rotated 180° to connect the port on the one side to
either of the two ports on the other side.
Stopcocks used in laboratory glassware are typically forms of conically-tapered plug valves.
When fused with the glassware, the valve bodies are made of glass. Otherwise, they can be
made of an inert plastic such as Teflon. The plugs can be made of a similar plastic or glass.
When the plug is made of glass, the handle and plug are fused together in one piece out of
glass. When glass is used for both the stopcock body and the plug, the contacting surfaces
between them are special ground glass surfaces (see Laboratory glassware) often with stopcock
grease in between. Special glass stopcocks are made for vacuum applications, such as in use
with vacuum manifolds. Stopcock grease is always used in high vacuum applications to make
the stopcock air-tight.
Pressure reducing valve:
It is used to control the pressure in the system.

INDUCTION TRAINING
Cup pig
4CupBatching Pig, 2 Cup Batching Pig, 3 Cup Batching Pig
Disc Pig
4 Disc Batching Pig
Polyurethane Guide / Sealing / Spacer

Discs
for Bidirectional Pigs
Replacement Parts for Steel Mandrel Pipeline Pigs
by Girard Industries & other manufacturers
A general standard chart
• Made of liquid cast polyurethane.

• Outstanding cut and abrasion resistance.
• Center hole and bolt circle can be modified to fit ALL pig bodies.
• High tear strength.
• Disc OD can be sized to fit any pipeline ID.
• Custom disc thickness available.

INDUCTION TRAINING
Sizes 4" - 14" OD
A B C Approx.
Size Type
OD Thickness Center Hole Weight
Guide Disc 4.0" 3/8" 9/16" 0.2 lbs
4" Sealing Disc 4 3/8" 1/4" 9/16" 0.2 lbs
Spacer Disc 2.0" 1/4" 9/16" 0.1 lbs
Guide Disc 6.0" 5/8" 1 1/16" 0.8 lbs
6" Sealing Disc 6 5/8" 3/8" 1 1/16" 0.6 lbs
Spacer Disc 3.0" 1/2" 1 1/16" 0.2 lbs
Guide Disc 8.0" 5/8" 1 1/16" 1.4 lbs
8" Sealing Disc 8 5/8" 1/2" 1 1/16" 1.3 lbs
Spacer Disc 4.0" 1/2" 1 1/16" 0.3 lbs
Guide Disc 10.0" 3/4" 1 1/16" 2.6 lbs
10" Sealing Disc 10 3/4" 5/8" 1 1/16" 2.5 lbs
Spacer Disc 6.0" 5/8" 1 1/16" 0.8 lbs
Guide Disc 12.0" 1.0" 1 1/16" 5.0 lbs
12" Sealing Disc 12 3/4" 5/8" 1 1/16" 3.5 lbs
Spacer Disc 8.0" 5/8" 1 1/16" 1.4 lbs
Guide Disc 13 1/4" 1.0" 1 1/16" 6.0 lbs
14" Sealing Disc 14.0" 5/8" 1 1/16" 4.2 lbs
Spacer Disc 10.0" 5/8" 1 1/16" 2.2 lbs
Sizes 16" - 48" OD

INDUCTION TRAINING
A B C D E
Approx.
Size Type Center
OD Thickness Bolt Circle Bolt #-size Weight
Hole
Guide Disc 15 1/4" 1 1/8" 8 7/8" 11.0" 8 - 9/16" 5.9 lbs.
16" Sealing Disc 16.0" 3/4" 8 7/8" 11.0" 8 - 9/16" 4.5 lbs.
Spacer Disc 13.0" 3/4" 8 7/8" 11.0" 8 - 9/16" 2.3 lbs.
Guide Disc 15 1/4" 1 1/8" 6 7/8" 8 1/2" 8 - 9/16" 7.3 lbs.
16cc Sealing Disc 16.0" 3/4" 6 7/8" 8 1/2" 8 - 9/16" 5.5 lbs.
Spacer Disc 10 3/4" 3/4" 6 7/8" 8 1/2" 8 - 9/16" 2.4 lbs.
Guide Disc 15 1/4" 1 1/8" 4 3/4" 8 1/2" 8 - 9/16" 8.2 lbs.
16ccs Sealing Disc 16.0" 3/4" 4 3/4" 8 1/2" 8 - 9/16" 6.1 lbs.
Spacer Disc 10 3/4" 3/4" 4 3/4" 8 1/2" 8 - 9/16" 3.3 lbs.
Guide Disc 17 1/4" 1 1/8" 11" 12 3/4" 8 - 9/16" 6.8 lbs.
18" Sealing Disc 18.0" 3/4" 11" 12 3/4" 8 - 9/16" 5.2 lbs.
Spacer Disc 14 3/4" 3/4" 11" 12 3/4" 8 - 9/16" 2.5 lbs.
Guide Disc 17 1/4" 1 1/8" 8 7/8" 11.0" 8 - 9/16" 8.5 lbs.
18/16 Sealing Disc 18.0" 3/4" 8 7/8" 11.0" 8 - 9/16" 6.4 lbs.
Spacer Disc 13.0" 3/4" 8 7/8" 11.0" 8 - 9/16" 2.3 lbs.
Guide Disc 17 1/4" 1 1/8" 8 7/8" 10 1/2" 12 - 9/16" 8.5 lbs.
18CC Sealing Disc 18.0" 3/4" 8 7/8" 10 1/2" 12 - 9/16" 6.4 lbs.
Spacer Disc 12 3/4" 3/4" 8 7/8" 10 1/2" 12 - 9/16" 2.2 lbs.
Guide Disc 19 1/4" 1 1/4" 11" 13 1/2" 12 - 9/16" 10.7 lbs.
20" Sealing Disc 20.0" 1.0" 11" 13 1/2" 12 - 9/16" 9.5 lbs.
Spacer Disc 15 1/2" 1.0" 11" 13 1/2" 12 - 9/16" 4.1 lbs.
Guide Disc 19 1/4" 1 1/4" 8 7/8" 10 1/2" 12 - 9/16" 12.6 lbs.
20CC Sealing Disc 20.0" 1.0" 8 7/8" 10 1/2" 12 - 9/16" 11.1 lbs.
Spacer Disc 12 3/4" 1.0" 8 7/8" 10 1/2" 12 - 9/16" 2.9 lbs.
Guide Disc 19 1/4" 1 1/4" 6 7/8" 10 1/2" 12 - 9/16" 13.7 lbs.
20CCS Sealing Disc 20.0" 1.0" 6 7/8" 10 1/2" 12 - 9/16" 12.2 lbs.
Spacer Disc 12 3/4" 1.0" 6 7/8" 10 1/2" 12 - 9/16" 4.0 lbs.
24" Guide Disc 23 1/4" 1 1/4" 14 1/4" 16 1/2" 14 - 9/16" 14.4 lbs.

INDUCTION TRAINING
Sealing Disc 24.0" 1.0" 14 1/4" 16 1/2" 14 - 9/16" 12.8 lbs.

Spacer Disc 18 1/2" 1.0" 14 1/4" 16 1/2" 14 - 9/16" 4.8 lbs.
Guide Disc 23 1/4" 1 1/4" 11.0" 13.0" 14 - 9/16" 18.2 lbs.
24CC Sealing Disc 24.0" 1.0" 11.0" 13.0" 14 - 9/16" 14.0 lbs.
Spacer Disc 15.0" 1.0" 11.0" 13.0" 14 - 9/16" 3.6 lbs.
Guide Disc 25 1/4" 1 1/4" 14 1/4" 16 1/2" 14 - 9/16" 18.6 lbs.
26" Sealing Disc 26.0" 1.0" 14 1/4" 16 1/2" 14 - 9/16" 16.2 lbs.
Spacer Disc 18 1/2" 1.0" 14 1/4" 16 1/2" 14 - 9/16" 4.8 lbs.
Guide Disc 27 1/4" 1 1/2" 15 1/4" 18.0" 14 - 9/16" 26.1 lbs.
28" Sealing Disc 28.0" 1 1/8" 15 1/4" 18.0" 14 - 9/16" 21.2 lbs.
Spacer Disc 20 1/2" 1 1/8"~ 15 1/4" 18.0" 14 - 9/16" 7.2 lbs.
Guide Disc 29 1/4" 1 5/8" 16 1/4" 19 1/2" 16 - 9/16" 33.2 lbs.
30" Sealing Disc 30.0" 1 1/4" 16 1/4" _ 19 1/2" 16 - 9/16" 27.5 lbs.
Spacer Disc 21 1/2" 1 1/4" 16 1/4" 19 1/2" 16 - 9/16" 8.6 lbs.
Guide Disc 29 1/4" 1 5/8" 14 1/2" 18.0" 18 - 9/16" 36.3 lbs.
30CC Sealing Disc 30.0" 1 1/4" 14 1/2" 18.0" 18 - 9/16" 29.8 lbs.
Spacer Disc 20 1/4" 1 1/4" 14 1/2" 18.0" 18 - 9/16" 8.7 lbs.
Guide Disc 31 1/4" 1 5/8" 16 1/4" 19 1/2" 16 - 9/16" 40.0 lbs.
32" Sealing Disc 32.0" 1 1/4" 16 1/4" 19 1/2" 16 - 9/16" 32.9 lbs.
Spacer Disc 21 1/2" 1 1/4" 16 1/4" 19 1/2" 16 - 9/16" 8.6 lbs.
Guide Disc 33 1/4" 1 5/8" 20 1/4" 23.0" 18 - 9/16" 39.2 lbs.
34" Sealing Disc 34.0" 1 1/4" 20 1/4" 23.0" 18 - 9/16" 32.3 lbs.
Spacer Disc 25 1/4" 1 1/4" 20 1/4" 23.0" 18 - 9/16" 9.9 lbs.
Guide Disc 35 1/4" 1 3/4" 22 1/4" 25.0" 22 - 9/16" 44.6 lbs.
36" Sealing Disc 36.0" 1 1/4" 22 1/4" 25.0" 22 - 9/16" 34.2 lbs.
Spacer Disc 27 1/2" 1 1/4" 22 1/4" 25.0" 22 - 9/16" 11.2 lbs.
Guide Disc 35 1/4" 1 3/4" 16 1/2" 20.0" 22 - 9/16" 58.7 lbs.
36CC Sealing Disc 36.0" 1 1/4" 16 1/2" 20.0" 22 - 9/16" 44.3 lbs.
Spacer Disc 22 1/4" 1 1/4" 16 1/2" 20.0" 22 - 9/16" 9.7 lbs.
Guide Disc 39 1/4" 1 3/4" 22 1/4" 26.0" 24 - 5/8" 62.5 lbs.
40" Sealing Disc 40.0" 1 3/8" 22 1/4" 26.0" 24 - 5/8" 52.0 lbs.
Spacer Disc 28 1/2" 1 3/8" 22 1/4" 26.0" 24 - 5/8" 15.0 lbs.
Guide Disc 41 1/4" 2.0" 24 1/2" 30.0" 24 - 5/8" 76.0 lbs.
42" Sealing Disc 42.0" 1 3/8" 24 1/2" 30.0" 24 - 5/8" 55.4 lbs.
Spacer Disc 32 1/2" 1 3/8" 24 1/2" 30.0" 24 - 5/8" 22.1 lbs.
Guide Disc 47 1/4" 2 3/8" 32 1/4" 36.0" 24 - 5/8" 96.8 lbs.
48" Sealing Disc 48.0" 1 1/2" 32 1/4" 36.0" 24 - 5/8" 64.7 lbs.
Spacer Disc 38 1/2" 1 1/2" 32 1/4" 36.0" 24 - 5/8" 22.7 lbs.

INDUCTION TRAINING
Guiding Disc: guides the pig during travel
Sealing disc: seals the total diameter for smooth running of pig without bypassing.
Spacer disc: is added to compensate or add some space between sealing, guiding disc
Some important safety points while testing:

1) Never tighten fittings or flanges when the pressure is above 70 Bar.
2) Always keep the receiver blinded during pigging operation.
3) Always perform a rig up safety check before starting the operation
4) After handling chemicals, wash hand immediately.
5) Always see that all personnel involved in the work are with proper P.P.E clothing.
6) Always keep high point open during venting, so that vacuum is not created.
7) During depressurisation keep a positive pressure on the line.
8) Before starting the operation check all connections including battery connections.
9) Before starting the pressurisation see that all air is vented out from the system.
10) Before pressurisation, note down the stroke reading of the pump.
11) Check delivery valve of pressure pump before starting it. Always keep bypass valve open
before starting
12) Before starting filling pump, priming has to be done to ensure all air is removed from
suction hose

INDUCTION TRAINING
Various charts needed during testing offshore / onshore

FIGURE E.1 DETERMINATION OF RESIDUAL AIR VOLUME
The theoretical slope shall be calculated from the formula as mentioned in section E.2 of and
plotted in the actual P/V plot by the test engineer before pressurising commences. The bulk
modulus for the line-fill water should be taken at the pipeline medium temperature .
NOTES: 1. To ensure accuracy, the P/V plot shall be made only up to 50 bar.
2. If the P/V plot has not become linear at 50% of the MAOP it should be
continued up to a maximum value of 35 bar or the test pressure, whichever
is the lesser.

INDUCTION TRAINING
FIGURE E.2 BULK MODULUS OF FRESH WATER

INDUCTION TRAINING
FIGURE E.3 BULK MODULUS OF SEA-WATER

INDUCTION TRAINING
FIGURE E.4 VOLUMETRIC EXPANSION COEFFICIENT OF FRESH WATER

INDUCTION TRAINING
FIGURE E.5 VOLUMETRIC EXPANSION COEFFICIENT OF SEA-WATER

Pigging Terminology

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Pigging Terminology

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NARMADA OFFSHORE CONSTRUCTION PVT LTD.

• To batch or separate dissimilar products;

¾ The line contents

kevin pinto Page 1 11-May-10

z Available vs. required driving pressure,

¾ Characteristics of the pipeline

PIONEERS IN PIGGING & TESTING OF PIPELINES

kevin pinto Page 2 11-May-10

¾ Spherical pigs or spheres, which are of either a solid composition or inflated

PIONEERS IN PIGGING & TESTING OF PIPELINES

kevin pinto Page 3 11-May-10

¾ IN LINE INSPECTION TOOLS (ILI) / SMART PIGS

Although the two most common requirements are for geometry/diameter

PIONEERS IN PIGGING & TESTING OF PIPELINES

kevin pinto Page 4 11-May-10

PIONEERS IN PIGGING & TESTING OF PIPELINES

kevin pinto Page 5 11-May-10

PIONEERS IN PIGGING & TESTING OF PIPELINES

kevin pinto Page 6 11-May-10

• Batching, or separator gel

The principle pipeline applications for gel pigs are as follows:

PIONEERS IN PIGGING & TESTING OF PIPELINES

kevin pinto Page 7 11-May-10

¾ Pigging for Pipeline Efficiency

PIONEERS IN PIGGING & TESTING OF PIPELINES

kevin pinto Page 8 11-May-10

¾ Pig Launching & Receiving

PIONEERS IN PIGGING & TESTING OF PIPELINES

kevin pinto Page 9 11-May-10

¾ Why Pig a Pipeline?

kevin pinto Page 10 11-May-10

PIONEERS IN PIGGING & TESTING OF PIPELINES

kevin pinto Page 11 11-May-10

¾ Mandrel (Steel Shaft) Pigs

PIONEERS IN PIGGING & TESTING OF PIPELINES

kevin pinto Page 12 11-May-10

kevin pinto Page 13 11-May-10

¾ Dual Diameter Pigs

PIONEERS IN PIGGING & TESTING OF PIPELINES

kevin pinto Page 14 11-May-10

¾ Solid Cast Pigs

PIONEERS IN PIGGING & TESTING OF PIPELINES

kevin pinto Page 15 11-May-10

kevin pinto Page 16 11-May-10

PIONEERS IN PIGGING & TESTING OF PIPELINES

kevin pinto Page 17 11-May-10

Water jacket test

PIONEERS IN PIGGING & TESTING OF PIPELINES

kevin pinto Page 18 11-May-10

Theses common gas cylinders have the following requirements:

What is Hydrostatic Leak Testing?

Work included in this section:

PIONEERS IN PIGGING & TESTING OF PIPELINES

kevin pinto Page 19 11-May-10

 TEST OUTLETS AND TEMPORARY VALVES

 TEST FLUID AND TEMPORARY PIPING

PIONEERS IN PIGGING & TESTING OF PIPELINES

kevin pinto Page 20 11-May-10

 TESTING AND DISENFECTION SEQUENCE

 LENGTH OF TEST SECTION

kevin pinto Page 21 11-May-10

 INITIAL PIPELINE FILLING FOR HYDROSTATIC TESTING

 PRESSURE AND DURATION OF HYDROSTATIC TEST

TEST OUTLETS AND TEMPORARY VALVES

TEST FLUID AND TEMPORARY PIPING

TESTING AND DISENFECTION SEQUENCE

LENGTH OF TEST SECTION

INITIAL PIPELINE FILLING FOR HYDROSTATIC TESTING

PRESSURE AND DURATION OF HYDROSTATIC TEST

BULKHEAD AND TEST FACILITY REMOVAL