4.

BASIC QUALITY IMPROVEMENT

TOOLS
There are seven “original” Quality Improvement tools.
there are:
1. Flow chart
2. Check sheet
3. Histograms
4. Pareto diagram
5. Cause and effect diagram
6. Scatter diagram
7. Control chart
The tools are designed to be simple so that they can be
understood by all employees.

BASIC QUALITY IMPROVEMENT TOOLS

TOOLS PROBLEM SOLVING

Flow chart :Understanding the situation

Check list and check sheet :Finding fact

Pareto diagram : Indentifying problems

Histogram

Fish bone : Generating Ideas

Scatter diagram : Developing solution

Run chart and Control chart : Implementation

by aman basic quality improvement 1

tools
 Flow Chart
A flow chart is a picture that shows the sequence step
required for a process. It‟s a comunication device that helps
people develop an objective understanding of the prosess

FLOW CHART

Description Purpose Methode

Simbol to show step in aprocess Visual “feel” for Lay out process step
Complexity involved using standadized symbols

: beginning or ending

: Activities in process

: Decision

: Direction of flow

by aman basic quality improvement 2

tools
Contoh Flowchart  proses mengirim surat

by aman basic quality improvement 3

tools
 Check Sheet

CHECK SHEET
DESCRIBTION PURPOSE METHODE

Form for entering data To collect data Design form

under Predetermined for clarity (kejelasan)
categories and ease of data
collection

TRAVEL REINBURSEMENT 78/1/2001-9/1/2002

CATAGORIES SALES DEPT. CLAIM DEPT
Completed per trip staff xxxx x
voucher

Voucher approved by xxxxxxx xx

Departement manager

Supporting invoices xxxx xxx

Attached after trip

Finance Departement xxx x

review

Payroll departement xxxxx

processing
Check sheet tipe kerusakan item (pabrik sepatu)

by aman basic quality improvement 4

tools
 Check List

CHECK LIST

DESCRIBTION PURPOSE METHODE

List of items that are To record Simple “ To Do List”

checked off progress for checking off
upon completion completion of tasks
Progress identified

LEARNING TO USE QUALITY IMPROVEMENT

____________________________________________________________
ITEM DONE

Review CQI Story X

Read about the CQI tool X
Work the problem X
Develop your own application
Apply tools

by aman basic quality improvement 5

tools
 Pareto Diagram
PARETO DIAGRAM
DESCRIPTION PURPOSE METHODE

A bar chart with percent Help identify what Frequency are on the
arranged so bars touch. Category is most left and cumulative
Bar are in descending significant percent on right
Order from the left

comulative comulative percent

complaint catagories number of accrance occurance (%)

claim payment delay 120 120 40

claim payment amount 80 200 66.67

insurance rate 50 250 83.33

insurance coverage 30 280 93.33

other 20 300 100.00

total 300 600

Insurance Complaints
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2 Cumulative
0
Percent

INSURANCE COMPLAIN
NUMBER OF COMPLIN

150 120
100 80
30 NUMBER OF COMPLAIN
50 20
0
INS URA NC
ES RATE S

OTHER
PA YMENT

PA YMENT
AMOUNT
DE LA Y
CLAIM

CLAIM

by aman basic quality improvement 6

tools
by aman basic quality improvement 7
tools
by aman 4.basic quality 8
improvement tools
 Histogram
HISTOGRAM

DESCRIPTION PURPOSE METHODE

Bar chart showing data se Shows pattern in dispertion Draw bar touching to
divided into classes (bars) of continous data or large show pattern as awhole
off equal width. Height descrete data sets (that is of interest) not
bars show quantity. individual classes

Histogram ->another tool used in problem identification

Pareto diagrams are used to display discrete data (countable in whole
numbers) -> no decimals
Ex : there were 5 wrong parts, 30 complaints regarding insurance coverage
Histograms are used to display continuous data (variable data) -> often
Contains a decimal numbers
Ex : measurement datas (height, width, length)

TRAFIC FINES-INSURANCE ADJUSTED

Number of Trafic Fines

15

10
Paid

0
14.5 34.50 54.50 1 74.50 94.50 114.50
fines paid

by aman basic quality improvement 9

tools
 Constructing Histogram

Histogram
Gives a picture of the population
Displays continues data
Displays variables in data set
Develops logical groupings
Patterns of variability reveal underlying fact about process
Patterns of variability can suggest theories to tested

Types of data
The statistic to be used depend on the whether of data is dis
crete or continous.
Discrete data
Discrete data is countable
There are only that spesific number of units. No decimals or
further breakdown possible.
Defective/nondefective
Pass/fail; go/no go
Continous (Variable ) data
Measurable data
Precission depend on measuring instrument
The data can be subdivided-length; weight; height

Clasification by Data Type

Weight/Height/Thickness : Continous
Average service time : Continous
No. of unsatisfied costomer: Discrete
Attitude skill ( Likert Type ): Continous
Rejections: Discrete
No. of customer: Discerete
Average Failure time: Continous
Defective Product: Discrete

by aman basic quality improvement 10

tools
PARETO diagram is used to display discrete data. Discrete data is countable
HISTOGRAM is used to display continous data to provide a picture that represents
the distribution of the data. Continousn data often called variable data
Let constructs the histogram of the continous data as follows :
45.00 35.00 120.00 75.00 25.50
50.00 49.50 75.00 69.60 75.50
18.00 16.00 110.50 25.00 20.00
15.00 25.00 70.00 19.50 30.00
22.50 49.95 55.50 15.00 55.00
49.00 26.00 100.00 33.00 52.50
199.50 201.45 531.00 237.10 258.50 1427.55
rata-rata 47.59

There are several steps required to constructs histogram beginning with

computing the range ( R ) of the data :

Step 1: Compute the range ( R ) of the data

R = Xmax – Xmin
R = 120.00 – 15.00 = 105.00
Step 2: Compute the appropriate number of classes (k):
K = √n, round up a k to of 6 classes.
Step 3: Compute the appropreate Class with ( h):
h = R/k = 105/5.48 = 19.16
Step 4: Determine the unit of measurement ( m) : 1.00 ( i.e, $1)
Step 5: Finalize the class width ( h ) by rounding up to the next
highest unit to measure. So the highest h = 20.00
Step 6: Compute the lower boundary of the first class ( L1 )
L1 = (Xmin – m/2) = 14.50

by aman basic quality improvement 11

tools
SStep 7 :Determine the lower boundary of the remaining of the classes:
L2 = L1 + h =14.50 + 20.00 = 34.50
L3 = L2 + h = 34.50 + 20.00 = 54.50
L4 = L3 + h = 54.60 +20.00 = 74.50
L5 = L4+ h = 74.50 + 20.00 = 94.50
L6 = L5 + h = 94.50 + 20.00 =114.50
L7 = L6 + h= 114.50 + 20.00 = 134.50
SStep 8 : Using the class intervals, a frequency table is constructed
shown. Note the upper boundary for L7 ia also shown.

Class interval Tally Frequency

14.50-34.50 11111 11111 111 13

34.50-54.50 11111 11 7
54.50-74.50 1111 4
74.50-94.50 111 3
94.50-114.50 11 2
114.50-134.50 1 1

Step 9
Traffic Fines- Insurence Adjusters

14
Number of traffic Fines Paid

12

10

0
14.50-34.50 54.50-74.50 94.50-114.50
34.50-54.50 74.50-94.50 114.50-134.50
Fines paid ($)

by aman basic quality improvement 12

tools
 FISHBONE DIAGRAM
CAUSE-AND EFFECT DIAGRAM ( FISHBONE DIAGRAM )
DESCRIBTION PURPOSE METHODE
Show the cause and effect Aids in identifying Fish‟s head (main
Relationship root cause activity/effect ) on right
Ribs contains
major process step/main
cause

FISHBONE DIAGRAM
Help identify root cause
Help generate idea
Is an orderly arrangement of theories
Is helpful in guiding further inquiry (penyelidikan/pemeriksaan)
The “ head” is the effect at right of major spine
Major activities are in boxes at end of minor spine

A fishbone diagram often called Ishikawa diagram is usefull as a

cause and effect analysis to help in generate ideas, and in indentifying
root cause a problem for investigation.

by aman basic quality improvement 13

tools
 Scatter Diagram

SCATTER DIAGRAM
DESCRIPTION PURPOSE METHODE

Chart where data for X and Y Shows if casual relationship Suspected cause should
Variables are entered as dots exist between variables be on X and the effect
to see if they form a pattern on the Y axis

SCATTER DIAGRAM

30
Fresh Producs( 1000 kg)

25
20
15
10
5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Number of Truck Unloaded

by aman basic quality improvement 14

tools
 Run Chart
RUN CHART – (TREND OR LINE CHART)

DESCRIPTION PURPOSE METHODE

A chart with X and Y axis. Shows direction ( trend) X axis shows time Y
Data values are shown and change over time axis shows the
as points connected by lines measurement scale.

INSURANCE COMPLAINTS RECEIVED 1988-

1993 COMPLAINTS

350
COMPLAINTS

300
NUMBER OF

250
200
150
100
50
1988 1988
1989 1990
1988 1991 1992 1932 1994 1996 1996
0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
YEARS

by aman basic quality improvement 15

tools
 Control Chart

CONTROL CHART
DESCRIBTION PURPOSE METHODE

A line graph with an average Monitors and on going Separate type of chart
line and control limit lines process and detects for continous and
change in output. descrete data

X AVERAGE

UCL

X
AVG
AVG
LCL
LCL

R AVERAGE

LCL
UCL

R AVG

LCL

by aman basic quality improvement 16

tools
 CONTROL CHART
A Control chart is used to identify statically significant changes that may
occur in process

Control Chart
Is visual display of processs
Helps organize process into manageable size
Promote greater understanding and control process
Show if processs in statistical control
Shows trend to over time

Type of Variation
Common causes Special causes

Normal Abnormal
Typical Untypical
Usual Unusual
Small effect ( by each ) Large effect (by each )
Predictable Unpredictable
(changing raw materials, (attitude of the customer
Changes due to temperature) services representative)

f the variations are put in grafic form, they usually produce a bell shape
curve, called a normal curve. The characteristic of this curve is the
tendency of most the data to cluster around some central value.
Three ways describing central value :
 Aritmatic means ( average)
 The median ( the middle value when figures are ordered )
 Mode ( value which occur most often )
All control chart have three lines
 A center lines which provide the average line of the process
 Upper Control Limit (UCL)
 Lower control limit (LCL)

by aman basic quality improvement 17

tools
 STABLE POINTS OUTSIDE

UC UC
L L

AVG AVG

LCL LCL

RUN HUGGING

UC UC
L L

AVG AVG

LCL LCL

TREND CYCLING

UC UC
L L
AVG AVG

LCL LCL

by aman basic quality improvement 18

tools
Is sample values fall outside the contol limits or if nonrandom patterns
occur in the chart, then special causes may be affecting the process,
the process is not stable. The process should be examined and corrective
action should be taken as appropriate.
Of course, control chart alone can not determine the source of a problem.
Operators, supervisors, and engineers may have to resort to seek the
problem root cause with another problem-solving tools.

IDEAS FOR CONSIDERATION WHEN CHECKING AN OUT OF

CONTROL PROCESS:

Are new or untrained people involved ?

Does operator fatigue occur ?
Are different methodes used by different employees ?
Are operators consistently reporting all data as well as
bad ?
Do the samples come from different operators on different
mechines, on different shifts ?
Has there been change in raw materials ?
Have tools become worn ?
Has there been a change in maintenamce procedures ?
Has there been a change in the environment (e.g,
temperature, humidity ) ?

by aman basic quality improvement 19

tools
Constructing X and R Chart
There are two types of data : attribute data = discrete data and variable
data = continous data. We will later develop control chart for attributes
data using a „p chart’. Our discussion is now directed to developing
control chart for variable data.UCL and LCL values correspond to
statistical range of 3 standard deviation. That is, control chart defect if
the vartiation is large enough to indicate that the process is out of
control.
The values D3 and D4 from the table are used in the formula in
computing the LCLR and UCLR line in the R-Chart.
LCLR = D3 + R
UCLR = D4 + R
The A2 from the table is used to compute LCLx and UCLx for X control
chart.
LCLx = X (rata2) – A2* R
UCLx = X (rata2)+ A2*R

by aman basic quality improvement 20

tools
 Factor for Computing Control Chart Limits

Number of Factor for Factor for

observation in X chart R-Chart
sample

n A2 D3 D4

2 1.830 0 3.268
3 1.023 0 2.574
4 0.729 0 2.282
5 0.577 0 2.114
6 0.483 0 2.004
7 0.419 0.076 1.924
8 0.373 0.136 1.864
9 0.337 0.184 1.816
10 0.308 0.223 1.777
11 0.285 0.256 1.744
12 0.266 0.284 1.717
13 0.249 0.308 1.692
14 0.235 0.329 1.671
15 0.233 0.348 1.652

by aman basic quality improvement 21

tools
Sample problem
For the past six days, sample ( weight in ounces) were taken of a process.
Using data as shown, create mean and range control chart forthe
process.After constructing the control chart, assume Friday samples were
15, 14, 21. Using the chart constructed, is the process in control ?.

Day of Sample Sample values

Saturday 22, 19, 20

Sunday 21, 20, 17
Monday 16, 17, 18
Tuesday 20, 16, 21
Wednesday 23, 29, 20
Thursday 19, 16, 21

Solution to process out put problem

Day Sample Values R(rata) Sigma X X(rata)

Saturday 22, 19, 20 3 61 20.33
Sunday 21, 20, 17 4 58 19.33
Monday 16, 17, 18 2 51 17.00
Tuesday 20, 16, 21 5 57 19.00
Wednesday 23, 20, 20 3 63 21.00
Thursday 19, 16, 21 5 56 18.67
22 115.33

R(rata) = 22/6 = 3.667

X(rata) = 115.33/6 = 19.22
LCLR = D3*R=0*3.667 = 0
UCLR = D4 R = 2.574x3.667 = 9.44
LCLX = Xrata – A2 R = 19.22- 1.023 *3.667 = 15.47
UCLx = Xrata + A2*R = 19.22+ 1.023*3.667 =22.97

by aman basic quality improvement 22

tools
 22.97 UCLX

AVR
19.22

LCLX
15.47

Sat San Mon Tu Wed Thur Fri

9.44 UCLR

3.67 AVR

0.00 LCLR

Sat San Mon Tu Wed Thur Fri

by aman basic quality improvement 23

tools
 Xbar/R Chart for I-III

24
23 UCL=22.97
Sample Mean

22
21
20
19 Mean=19.22
18
17
16
LCL=15.47
15
Subgroup 1 2 3 4 5 6

10
UCL=9.439
Sample Range

5
R=3.667

0 LCL=0

by aman basic quality improvement 24

tools
Process Capability
Process capability is ability of a process ( people, machine, materials, and
methode) to produce a product or service that consistently meet design
specification.
There are three components to process capability :
1. . The product specification
2. The centering of the natural process variation
• 3. The range ( spreads ) of the variation.

Product Specification
(a) The process will be able
to produce product that
conform to spec
Natural Process
Selection

Product Specification
Most of products produced
(b ) will be acceptable but there
will still be a small
percentage of noncorming
Natural Process Product. The process have
Selection to be monitored closely

Product Specification
Impossible for this process
to meet product specifications
(c)
Natural Process
Selection

Product Specification Large portion of the output

will not meet specification,
Although the process itself
seem to be in control
(d )
Natural Process
Selection

by aman basic quality improvement 25

tools
Measurement of Process Capability
Index Equation Purpose

Cp USL  LSL Summurize process potential to meet

6 the two side specification limits

Cpu USL  x Summurize process potential to meet

the one sides upper specification
3
limits
Cpl x  LSL
Summurize process potential to meet
3
the one side lower specification limits

Cpk = Min Cpl, Cpu Summurize process potential to meet

two-side specification limits

n
 ( X i  x) 2
i 1
 
n
n
( X i  x )2
i 1

n 1

If the standart deviation of a sample ( s ) is not available , then  can be

used
Cp = USL  LSL
6
R
Where 
d2
R  the average of subgroup ranges
d2 = a table value based on the subgroup samples size

by aman basic quality improvement 26

tools
 Factor for estimating

n (subgroup sample size) d2

2 1.128
3 1.693
4 2.059
5 2.326
6 2.534
7 2.704
8 2.847
9 2.970
10 3.078
11 3.173
12 3.258

What Cp various value means :

A Cp =1 , occurs when spread of the design specification equals the natural
process variation.

A Cp < 1 indicates the process variation exceeds the spread of the design
specification. Defects are being produced.
A Cp > 1 indicates the process variation is less than spread of the design
specification. However defect may still be made if the process is not
centered on the target value.s

by aman basic quality improvement 27

tools
 Process meet
specification 2.5
percent reject
Cp = 1.00

Numerous defect
are produced

Cp = 0.50

Few defects are

produced
provided process
is centered

Cp = 2.00

by aman basic quality improvement 28

tools
 Example :
Suppose control chart was maintained on a process and the following statistics
were produced
R  1.3 X  212.1 n=6

Product specification are 211 ±2 ( LSL = 209, USL=213 )

R 1.3
   0.513
d 2 2.534

Cp = USL _ LSL = 213  209  4  1.30

6 6 * 0.513 3.078 is „ looking good‟.

X  LSL 212.1  209 3.1 , tbis is excellent statistics

Cpl =    2.01
3 3 * 0.513 1.539

USL  X 213  212.1 The process isnt capable to meet its upper spec.
Cpu = ,   0.58
3 * 3 * 0.513

 X =212.1

LSL = 209 USL = 213

207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216

by aman basic quality improvement 29

tools
 CONSTRUCTING p CHART
A p chart is used for attribute data (dicrete) such as percent defective, where a
large number of potential defective can occur, but the actual number that do accur
tend to small.a p chart is drawn at p , p
Represent the average defect for the process, and n is the small sample size.
p(1  p)
p 
n
For example : , suppose 100 record entered by the data-entry people
processing medical forms were sampled daily for 20 days. A table was then
constructed to identifyn the number of errors ( shown an errors) and the
percent of defective
( shown as percent)

Data entry errors : Insurance Forms

S# Errors % S# Errors %

1 5 0.05 11 1 0.01
2 0 0.00 12 8 0.08
3 6 0.06 13 6 0.06
4 1 0.01 14 7 0.07
5 4 0.04 15 5 0.05
6 2 0.02 16 4 0.04
7 5 0.05 17 11 0.11
8 3 0.03 18 3 0.03
9 3 0.03 19 0 0.00
10 2 0.02 20 4 0.04
Total =80

by aman basic quality improvement 30

tools
 Total.number.of .erros 80
P   0.04
Total.number.of .records .exa min ed 10 * 20
100*20
p(1  p) (0.04)(1  0.04)
p    0.02
n `100

p  3  UCLp = 0.04-3(0.02) =0.10

p  3  LCPp = 0.04-3(0.02) =0.00 ------ ( we can not have below zero.)

P Chart – Insurance Form Errors

0.10
UCLp

0.08

0.06

0.04 AVG

0.02

0.00
LCLp
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

by aman basic quality improvement 31

tools
 P chart : Insurance from errors
0.12

0.1

0.08

avg p
0.06 UCLp
LCLp
Series4
0.04

0.02

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

by aman basic quality improvement 32

tools
by aman basic quality improvement 33
tools
by aman basic quality improvement 34
tools
by aman basic quality improvement 35
tools
by aman basic quality improvement 36
tools