Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed important but controversial theories concerning the
connection between aberrant human behavior and the unconscious mind. Freud believed that each person
must resolve the tension between individualism and society. According to Freud, criminal behavior may
result from a failure to resolve this tension.
Culver Pictures
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Émile Durkheim
Émile Durkheim, one of the fathers of sociology, utilized scientific methods to approach the study of
society and social groups. Durkheim believed that individuals are products of complex social forces and
cannot be considered outside of the context of the society in which they live. He used the conception of
the collective conscience to describe the condition of a particular society. According to Durkheim, this
collective conscience is something entirely separate from the individual consciences that together form it.
He studied various aspects of this conscience in his books. In Suicide, Durkheim studied the reasons why
individuals commit suicide and how the rate of such suicides indicates whether or not there are problems
in the society in question.
THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE
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Auguste Comte
Auguste Comte’s positive philosophy, or positivism, abandoned speculation about the nature of reality in
favor of scientific investigation. According to Comte, knowledge of all subjects, from astronomy to
sociology, should come from the correlation of evidence gathered from investigation and observation. This
materialistic approach helped to lay the foundations for modern sociology, which Comte first called social
physics.
Hulton Deutsch
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Max Weber
Max Weber, a German economist and sociologist, is considered one of the founders of modern sociological
thought. In The Protestant Work Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, his most famous work, Weber explored
the influence of ethics and religion on the development of capitalism.
Keystone Pressedienst GmbH
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Jeremy Bentham
The writings of British political philosopher Jeremy Bentham inspired legal reforms in many countries
during the 19th century. Bentham argued that systems of laws should be designed to produce “the
greatest happiness of the greatest number,” a doctrine that became known as utilitarianism.
Archive Photos
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Gabriel Tarde
Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904), French sociologist and criminologist, born in Sarlat, Dordogne. After
serving the French government as a provincial magistrate, he was appointed director of
criminal statistics at the ministry of justice in 1894. In 1900 he became professor of modern
philosophy at the Collège de France. In La Criminalité comparée (Comparative Criminology,
1886), Tarde criticized the theories of the Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso and developed
the thesis that the causes of crime are chiefly social. In his social philosophy, historical
progress is the outcome of a conflict between the inventive and conservative members of
society. Tarde distinguished three recurring phases of social development: repetition,
opposition, and adaptation. His works include The Laws of Imitation (1890; trans. 1903), La
logique sociale (Social Logic, 1895), and L'Opposition universelle (Universal Opposition, 1897).

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Trainees at the FBI Academy

Agents-in-training rappel off of a building at the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia. New recruits at the
academy undergo 17 weeks of training in firearms use, defensive tactics, and other skills required by FBI
special agents.
Liaison Agency/Patrick Adventurier
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Raid by FBI Agents

Outfitted with body armor, assault rifles, and submachine guns, this team of FBI agents prepares to subdue
a riot in a federal penitentiary in Atlanta, Georgia, in 1987.
Corbis/John Dickerson
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Oklahoma City Bombing

The bombing of the federal building in Oklahoma City on April 19, 1995 was one of the worst acts of
terrorism in United States history, killing 168 people and injuring 850 others. In June 1997 former U.S.
soldier Timothy McVeigh was found guilty of the bombing and given a sentence of death.
Black Star/Lisa Rudy Hoke
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FBI “Wanted” Poster
James Earl Ray, who confessed to the murder of American civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr., appears
in this “wanted” poster released by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 1968. Displayed in federal
post offices, these posters are officially called identification orders.
Corbis
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John Dillinger
One of the most notorious gangsters of the 1930s, John Dillinger became the object of an intense manhunt
following his stunning escape in March 1934 from a heavily guarded jail in Crown Point, Indiana. Left,
Dillinger poses with a revolver and a submachine gun shortly after his escape. Right, a June 1934 reward
poster offers $10,000 for Dillinger’s capture and $5,000 for information leading to his arrest. Dillinger was
killed in Chicago in July 1934 by agents from the Bureau of Investigation, now known as the Federal Bureau
of Investigation (FBI).
Corbis
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DNA Fingerprinting
DNA fingerprinting can help investigators identify the suspect in a crime. The horizontal pattern of lines
represents a person's genetic makeup. In the sample shown, suspect S2 matches the evidence, blood
sample E(vs).
Peter Arnold, Inc./Leonard Lessin
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Types of Fingerprints
Human fingerprint patterns fall into three main groups: whorls, loops, and arches. Loops are the most
common type, accounting for about 65 percent of all fingerprints. Whorls account for 30 percent of
fingerprints, and arches for 5 percent. Despite these broad patterns, each individual has a unique set of
fingerprints, which can be used as a means of personal identification.
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Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Fingerprint Analysis
Storing fingerprint records in computers has made it much easier for the FBI to identify latent fingerprints
—fingerprints left at the scene of a crime.
Photo Researchers, Inc./Philippe Plailly/Science Photo Library
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Trainees at the FBI Academy
Agents-in-training rappel off of a building at the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia. New recruits at the
academy undergo 17 weeks of training in firearms use, defensive tactics, and other skills required by FBI
special agents.
Liaison Agency/Patrick Adventurier
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Raid by FBI Agents

Outfitted with body armor, assault rifles, and submachine guns, this team of FBI agents prepares to subdue
a riot in a federal penitentiary in Atlanta, Georgia, in 1987.
Corbis/John Dickerson
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Terrorists Destroy World Trade Center
A fireball erupts from the south tower of the World Trade Center in New York City after a hijacked passenger
jet crashed into it on September 11, 2001. Another hijacked jet had crashed into the north tower about 15
minutes earlier. Both of the 110-story skyscrapers soon collapsed completely. Hijackers crashed a third
plane into the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, and a fourth hijacked plane crashed in Pennsylvania. The
terrorist attacks, which killed about 3,000 people, were the deadliest in United States history.
Getty Images
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Osama bin Laden
Osama bin Laden, a wealthy Saudi exile, is believed to be responsible for the September 11 terrorist
attacks on the United States, in which more than 3,000 people were killed. Fiercely opposed to U.S.
influence in the Islamic world, bin Laden also allegedly financed and directed several earlier, smaller
terrorist attacks on U.S. interests from his base in Afghanistan.
REUTERS
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Pentagon
Home of the United States Department of Defense, the Pentagon is the largest office building in the world.
The Pentagon has some of the world’s largest telephone, food service, and pneumatic tube systems and
includes a 27-hectare (67-acre) parking lot.
Photo Researchers, Inc.
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World Trade Center, New York City

Preferring steel and glass to concrete and brick, American architect Minoru Yamasaki designed modern
buildings with decorative details. His most famous work, a pair of towers with a sparkling exterior, was the
World Trade Center in New York City. The towers were destroyed in a September 2001 terrorist attack.
The Stock Market/Berenholtz
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

CIA Headquarters
Built in 1959, the headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is located in Langley, Virginia. In
1998 President Bill Clinton signed congressional legislation that renamed the headquarters the George
Bush Center for Intelligence, in honor of former President George Bush. Bush served as director of the CIA
from 1976 to 1977.
Corbis/Roger Ressmeyer
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Bombing of U.S. Embassy in Kenya
Bystanders gaze at the wreckage of the United States Embassy in Nairobi, Kenya, after it was destroyed by
a terrorist bombing in 1998. Counterterrorism officials describe the bombing, which was carried out by al-
Qaeda, as an example of how difficult it is to protect against terrorist attacks. Because there had been no
previous terrorist attacks against U.S. interests in the region, officials considered East Africa a “low-threat”
area.
AP/Wide World Photos/Sayyid Azim
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Chemical Assault
The first use of chemical agents as weapons of mass destruction occurred during World War I (1914-1918).
Chemical weapons were also used during the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1985). Chemical weapons were a
concern during the Persian Gulf War (1990-1991), and more recently, were used by a terrorist group in
Japan. A Russian soldier wears a gas mask, top left, during a chemical attack in World War I; a subway
passenger in Tokyo, Japan, top right, is aided by two others after succumbing to nerve gas released in
March 1995 by the religious sect Aum Shinrikyo; an explosion at an Iraqi ammunition bunker, bottom, after
the Persian Gulf War, exposes United States troops to a chemical agent.
Hulton Getty/Liaison Agency, Kurt Cashion/Sygma, Asahi Shimbun/Sygma
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Airport Security Checkpoint

Airplane passengers and their luggage pass through a security checkpoint at Denver International Airport.
Airports use x-ray machines and metal detectors to scan for potentially dangerous objects.
Photo Researchers, Inc./David R. Frazier Photolibrary
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.