CCT 15

Linear Momentum
Forces due to moving fluids- conservation of momentum.
eg.
• Drag of vehicles

• Lift on aircraft

• Wind forces on buildings

• Thrust of jets, rockets

• Flows in pipes

u Drag Wake = momentum deficit

F

Force F to maintain equilibrium

J. H. Kent 70

Linear Momentum

Cyclone Larry Qld.

Moderate wind forces on

buildings Tacoma Narrows, USA, suspension
bridge collapse by wind forces, 1940
J. H. Kent 71

1
 Linear Momentum CCT 15

External Flows - Drag

Drag Coefficient, often obtained from wind-tunnel tests:

FD
CD 
2 V A
1 2
• CD is dimensionless

• FD is drag force

• A is projected area in direction normal to the flow (silhouette)

• CD = CD (Re) where Reynolds No. Re = VL/ classifies turbulence.
( is density,  is dynamic viscosity)
• Then predict drag load in any situation by FD = CD ½V2A

J. H. Kent 72

Linear Momentum CCT 15

FD
CD 
2 V A
1 2
Drag coefficients for high Re.

CD
A Square bar 2.0
Circular bar 0.3 – 1
Truck 0.96
Truck with deflector 0.76
Bicycle upright rider 1.1
Car 0.3 – 0.4
Parachute 1.4

J. H. Kent 73

2
Linear Momentum CCT 15

J. H. Kent 74

Linear Momentum CCT 15

Typical max. speed

Dimples cause turbulence

which shifts b.l.
separation back and
causes narrower wake –
less drag.

J. H. Kent 75

3
 Linear Momentum CCT 15

P
P

Backspin

P
P

Cricket ball swing

Topspin J. H. Kent 76

Linear Momentum CCT 15

Lift Air accelerated down;

force on wing up.

Wing

u
u
Thrust Jet: increased
momentum

Jet engine

J. H. Kent 77

4
 Linear Momentum CCT 13

Newton: force = rate of change of momentum 𝐹⃗ = (𝑚𝑢)

Use control volume (CV) with fluid flow crossing boundaries.

For non-accelerating CV and steady inflows and outflows:

(𝑚𝑢) = 𝑚̇ 𝑢 − 𝑚̇ 𝑢 and 𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇
𝑚̇ = mass flow rate (kg/s)
∑   𝐹⃗ = 𝑚̇(𝑢 −𝑢 )
F to hold engine in equilibrium
∑   𝐹⃗ includes pressure uout
uin
forces on CV boundaries Thrust

Jet engine CV
J. H. Kent 78

Linear Momentum CCT 13

Sum of forces  F includes pressures acting on CV faces.

(P1g+ Patm) A1
(P2g+ Patm) A2
u1 u1 A1 A2 u2
Nozzle
FH = force applied Patm (A1 – A2)
to hold CV in FH
Hose CV
equilibrium

For Patm all around exterior of CV, (Patm A) forces cancel and can
just use gauge pressures for momentum balance.
Here:   
  P1g A1  P2 g A2  FH  m (u2  u1 )
F
J. H. Kent 79

5
 Example: Linear Momentum CCT 13

Example:
Force due to pipe contraction.
Determine force Fc to hold contraction in place.
Assume frictionless laminar flow.
450 mm  300 mm 

Oil sg = 0.86 P1 A2 P2
P1 = 200 kPa (gauge) V1
A1 V2
Q = 500 L/s

Fc Patm

J. H. Kent 80

CCT 13
Example: continued

 F Includes pressure forces in vector direction.
Here external PATM , so can use gauge pressures.
Fluid weight W is not in vector direction.

  Fc  P1g A1  P2 g A2  m (V2  V1 )  Q(V2  V1 )
F

 Fc  Q(V2  V1 )  P1g A1  P2 g A2

V1, V2 from continuity

P1 A2 P 2
 V1
A1  D  0.159m
2
1
2
A2  0.071m 2
A1 V2
4
Q
V1   3.14 m/s Patm
A1 Fc
Q
V2   7.07 m/s 81
A2 J. H.J.Kent
H. Kent 81

6
 CCT 13

P2 from Bernoulli
P1  12 V12  gz1  P2  12 V22  gz 2 P1 A2 P 2
V1 V2
A1
V 2  V22
P2  P1   1
2 Patm
Fc
P2  200 10  860(3.14 2  7.07 2 ) / 2
3

 182,746 Pa ( gauge)
Fc  Q(V2  V1 )  P1 A1  P2 A2
Fc  860  0.5(7.07  3.14)  200,000  0.159  182,746  0.071
 1,690  31,800  12,975
Fc  17.1 103 N  17.1kN to left.

82
J. H. Kent 82

Linear Momentum – Hydraulic Jump

J. H. Kent 83

7
 Linear Momentum – Hydraulic Jump

Linear Momentum

Y2
Y1
Hydraulic Jump V1 V2
 Energy dissipated
 Momentum conserved
∑   𝐹⃗ = 𝑚̇(𝑉 − 𝑉 )

 𝑃 𝐴 − 𝑃 𝐴 = 𝑚̇(𝑉 − 𝑉 ) and 𝑌 𝑉 = 𝑌 𝑉

 𝜌𝑔 𝑌 − 𝑌 = 𝑚̇ −1 𝑉

𝐶𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑌2 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑢𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠: 𝑌 = 𝑓( 𝑉 , 𝑌 , 𝑚̇ )

Head + + Y at 2 is lower than at 1.
Energy lost to turbulence. J. H. Kent 85

8
 Linear Momentum – Propulsive Efficiency

Propulsion w p (engine power )

• Jet engines

• Propellors
V1 V2
P P

Thrust Fp

Momentum : Fp  PA1  PA2  m (V2  V1 )

P V12 P V2
Energy :   wP   2
 2  2
1
Propulsion energy (J/kg) wP  (V22  V12 )
2
J. H. Kent 86

Linear Momentum – Propulsive Efficiency

useful power
Propulsive Efficiency P 
power input

FP V1 m (V2  V1 ) V1 V1
p   
m wP m 2 (V2  V1 )
1 2 2
(V2  V1 ) / 2

put V  (V2  V1 ) (added velocity )

1
then  P  and FP  m V
V
1
2V1

As V  0 p  100% but Fp  0
 use low V and high m for high p

J. H. Kent 87

9
 Linear Momentum

High p needs large propellers: bypass

• large diameter ship propellers
• helicopter
• high bypass jets 5:1 jet
• paddles, flippers, large hands & m bypass
5
large feet good for swimming. m jet

But need high jet velocity for

supersonic flight FP
• low bypass jets η
• afterburners
• rockets

ΔV/V
J. H. Kent 88

Linear Momentum 4.5

J. H. Kent 89

10
 Linear Momentum

J. H. Kent 90

Linear Momentum – Wind Turbines

Vestas V164 (164m diam.) 9MW
wind turbine

J. H. Kent 91

11
 Linear Momentum -Wind turbines

1 2 3 4

m nominal At
V1 m actual At
Vt

V1 Wind turbine. Fdrag

V4
Turbine work wt  12 (V12  V42 ) J/kg ( P1  P4 )

m actual wt ( AtVt ) wt
Turbine efficiency t  
m nominal 12 V12
( AtV1 ) 12 V12
Power in nominal
air flow stream.
J. H. Kent 92

Linear Momentum

Want to eliminate unknown Vt

Momentum : Fdrag  m act (V1  V4 )  AtVt (V1  V4 )  At ( P2  P3 )
P2  P3
Vt  (1)
 (V1  V4 ) V2 = V3
P2  P3
Energy V2  V3  wt   12 (V12  V42 ) J/kg 2 3

Vt
P2  P3
  12 (V1  V4 )(V1  V4 ) (2)

Fdrag
(1) and (2)  Vt  (V1  V4 ) 1
2

( AtVt ) wt 1 (V1  V4 ) (V1  V4 )

2 2
t  
( AtV1 ) 12 V12 2 V13
J. H. Kent 93

12
 Linear Momentum

For given V1 allow V4 to

vary by blading design. V1 V4

Maximise t wrt V4 t
d t 0.6
0
dV4
V4  13 V1 Vt  23 V1
 t  59.3% Betz limit
blocked free
This is maximum efficiency of wind
turbine based on wind approach velocity 0 1/3 1
V4 /V1
and turbine area.
Commercial turbines power coefficient
(efficiency) claimed to be ~ 45% (less
gearbox, generator etc. losses). J. H. Kent 94

Turbomachinery

Example: Largest wind turbine has 164m diameter. It claims

9MW output. What wind velocity would be required?

J. H. Kent 95

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 Turbomachinery

Add energy to fluid - pumps, compressors

Extract energy - turbines
Classifications

Axial Flow
Propellors
Fans
Axial flow pumps
Multistage axial flow compressors
Axial flow turbines, Kaplan turbine
Characteristics:
High flow rate, low head
eg. Compressor stage rp  1.2
Kaplan turbine 10 – 70m head
J. H. Kent 96

Turbomachinery

Centrifugal - Radial Flow

Centrifugal pumps, compressors
Francis turbine
Characteristics:
Low flow rate, high head
eg. Compressor stage rp 6-8 per stage
Francis turbine 30-300 m head
P due to centrifugal action and high KE due to high
velocities.

Pelton wheel
High head >30m → 1000m, low flow rate.

J. H. Kent 97

14
 Turbomachinery
Francis turbine: most common usage.
Radial entry, axial exit.

J. H. Kent 98

Francis turbine wheel.Turbomachinery

J. H. Kent 99

15
Three Gorges
Francis turbine
dam. 32Turbomachinery
wheel: × Francis
Most common
turbines: 700MW ea, 80m head, 950m3/s,
usage
75rpm,  = 94%. Total 22,500MW

J. H. Kent 100

Pelton wheel: Turbomachinery

High head, low flow

J. H. Kent 101

16
 Turbomachinery

J. H. Kent 102

Turbomachinery

Kaplan turbine:
Low Head, high flow.
Adjustable blade angle.

J. H. Kent 103

17
 Turbomachinery

Turbomachinery Equation
Relates power and head to pump, turbine design.

Vr2
Centrifugal pump V2
V1
Vr1 Vt2
Vt1

Rotor

V is fluid velocity.
Tangential & radial components shown.
Also can have axial components.
J. H. Kent 104

Turbomachinery

CV around rotor, ideally V

    
Moment  M  m ( r  
V ) out  ( r  V ) in   |V|sin
r
Torque on rotor (Nm) T  m r2Vt 2  r1Vt1 
Shaft power (W) W  T ( rad/s of rotor )
W  m r2Vt 2  r1Vt1 
Vr2
Rotor tangential velocity u = r V2
Vr1 V1 Vt2
Euler turbomachinery equation
Vt1
r2
 W  m u 2 Vt 2  u1 Vt1 
r1
and W  gHQ Rotor
C.V.
J. H. Kent 105

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Example: Turbomachinery

Example Vr2
Vt2
Centrifugal water pump, flow rate 25 /s,
u2
impeller 200 mm diameter, 1200 rpm
slip factor 0.8, inlet flow is radial.
Calculate shaft torque, power required
and pump head.

J. H. Kent 106

Fluids Methodology
1. Draw diagram marking inlet and outlet locations and show pumps turbines etc.
2. Draw a Control Volume boundary enclosing all items of interest, placing
boundaries at well-defined conditions and show what crosses the boundaries:
• fluid flows, P, V, Q in and out
• turbine work out or pump work in
• head losses out (energy loss)
3. List which quantities are known and which are still needed e.g. P, V, Q etc.
4. Use Continuity to relate velocities by pipe, nozzle areas A1V1 = A2V2
5. Use Energy equation to relate pressures and velocities.
6. Use Momentum equation to obtain forces.

hpump
CV

H1 H2

hlosses hturbine J. H. Kent 107

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