DR.

VIVEK SINGH

Unit-4

Nature of
Islamic state

Advent of
Islamic rule in
India

Impact of
Islamic rule in
political social
religious and
cultural life of

Indians

Interaction
between two
diversified
cultures

1) Was
Delhi
Sultanate an
Islamic
State?

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 DR.VIVEK SINGH

(Discuss the
nature of
Islamic state
in India)

Nature of
Islamic
state-

SHARA
SHARIAT

KURAN

HADIS

The Islamic state

was established by
the Messenger of
Allah as soon as he
set foot in Madinah.
The birth of the
Islamic state was the
result of a new
Aqeeda and a host of
new concepts
adopted by those
who believed in him.
These concepts
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 DR.VIVEK SINGH

generated in his
followers a new
viewpoint about life,
which in turn
changed their
viewpoint towards
relationships and
interests. The
Messenger of Allah
built the Islamic state
in Madinah on the
basis of this A qeeda.
She was therefore a
new state, built on a
new Aqeeda, and on
a host of new
thoughts and
concepts. The
Islamic state is
unique in her nature,
her structure, what
she stands for and
the basis on which
she is built. She is
completely different
from the nature and
the structure of all
the existing states in
the world.
She is a state
founded on the
Islamic Aqeeda, the
Aqeeda of "There is

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 DR.VIVEK SINGH

no god but Allah,

Muhammad is the
Messenger of
Allah", which is a
comprehensive
thought about life,
and according to
which and to the
concepts which
emanated from it, the
Muslims viewpoint
about life has been
determined this
viewpoint leads to
the belief that life is
created by a Creator,
and that it is
conducted by the
commands and
prohibitions of the
Creator. The
principles of
Muhammad’s ideal
state are to be found
in the Qur’an [which
he probably
contemplated, had he
lived longer, to
translate into a
reality].

The Qur’an often

refers to organized

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 DR.VIVEK SINGH

authority, divine and

unlimited, which
belongs to Allah. The
sovereignty of the
Islamic state resides,
therefore, with Allah.

The exercise of that

ultimate authority
or sovereignty was
delegated to the
Prophet
Muhammad, or
Allah’s vicegerent on
earth, who was
instructed to rule
with justice. Allah,
accordingly, was
regarded in Islam as
the [titular] head,
not the direct ruler or
king of the Islamic
state, while His
vicegerent on earth
was advised to rule
in accordance with
divine laws
communicated to
him in the form of
commands. The
citizens of the
Islamic state were
Allah’s subjects, and

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 DR.VIVEK SINGH

its laws were divine

laws, because they
emanated from
Allah, not enacted or
legislated by man.
Divine law, as such,
is infallible and man
can only obey,
because Allah knows
better than any other
authority what His
ignorant subjects
need.

Upon the death of

Muhammad
communication with
Allah became
impossible, because
there was no other
Prophet and
Muhammad was the
last seal of the
Prophets. It was
understood by the
Muslims, however,
that Allah had
delegated the
exercise of His
sovereignty, after the
death of Muhammad,
to the Muslim
community, which

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 DR.VIVEK SINGH

immediately elected
a successor to
Muhammad, not in
the capacity of a
prophet but as a
caliph, or

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successor, to Muhammad’s position as a vicegerent of Allah. In theory, therefore, sovereignty,
as the ultimate divine authority in Islam, remained in Allah’s hands, but its exercise was
delegated to the people of the Islamic state. In practice, however, the caliphate, which was
inherently an elective position, had become virtually hereditary, though consent of the people
was required for every new caliph. The characteristic of an Islamic State was equality, liberty,
justice. Organs of an Islamic State are Legislature, Executive and Judiciary Islam stresses
upon holding fast Conduct of all must conform to the words spoken and the words spoken
must be truthful and seeking Pleasure of God with all sincerity. God fearing attitude brings
security for dignity of mankind and respecting the rights of others.

The Formation of Islamic State Because Islam is composed of the Aqidah (doctrine) and a
collection of laws emanating from it, the Islamic State must derive its entire constitution from
the Islamic Aqidah. All of the systems, laws, and regulations must emanate solely from the
Islamic Aqidah and the sources of Shari at, and must be substantiated by evidence to verify
such a law or article as derived from Islam, for a state to be considered Islamic.

Any contradiction that exists between any law or article in the constitution and Islam will
exclude such a state from the circle of Islam. Islam is a complete way of life that necessitates
the existence of the State to implement the Shariah comprehensively, both at an individual
and societal level. Individuals can abide by some rules of Islam related to the prayer, fasting,
and Hajj.

Islam has to be the basis for the foreign policy between the Islamic State and other states.
Consequently, Islam outlines the objective of the foreign policy of the State. Islam cannot be
implemented by the State alone; Islam must be implemented by both the Ummah and the
State. The State implements Islam while the Ummah keeps a check and balance on the State.
In addition, even the process of check and balance has to be based on Islam.

The Islamic State is not a desire that one aims to satisfy, but an obligation that Allah has
decreed on Muslims and commanded them to execute; He warned of the punishment awaiting
those who neglect this duty. How are they to please their Lord if the Glory and Dignity are
not to Allah, nor to His Messenger, nor to the believers? How are they to be safe from His
punishment if they do not establish a state that would prepare the army for battle, defend the
territory, and implement Allah’s penal code and rule by what Allah has revealed? Therefore,
Muslims must establish the Islamic State, for Islam would not have an influential presence
without it, and their country would not become an Islamic homeland unless it is ruled by the
Islamic State.
The Concept of Islamic State in the Qur’an and Hadish

The Muslims split on the question—a section maintaining that the Prophet never appointed
any successor and another section maintaining that he did. As far as the Qur’an is concerned
there is, at best, a concept of a society rather than a state.

The Qur’an lays emphasis on ‘adl and ihsan, i.e. justice and benevolence. A Quran society
must be based on these values.
Also, the Qur’an strongly opposes zulm and ‘udwan, i.e. oppression and injustice. No
society thus based on zulm and ‘udwan can qualify as an Islamic society. The Quran values
are most fundamental. It is thus debatable whether a state, declaring it-self to be an Islamic
state, can be legitimately accepted as such without basing the civil society on these values.
Islam’s political system is not theocratic. Theocracy implies two things: one is that God alone
is the sovereign or ultimate power and the second part is the assumption that there is a certain
priestly class or clergy who claim to be the representatives of God on earth. The first element
in the meaning of theocracy is compatible with Islam because as the whole structure of Islam
is based on the acceptance of the supremacy of God and that His laws are ultimate and that
His wisdom is infinite. This is the only similarity with theocracy. The second element has
nothing to do with Islam. In Islam there is no Church, Clergy or priestly class. Islam doesn’t
accept for people to claim to be representatives of God on earth. All human races are regarded
as trustees of God on earth.

We find that Islam does not accept other systems of government which involve dictatorships
in one form or the other because free will and the choice of the people are not there. Nor does
Islam accept a system of monarchy where power is inherited within the same family through
children or relatives, which has no basis in Islamic political teachings. There are many
countries that call themselves republics but the power only circulates within a closely knit
class of elite.

 Advent of Islam in India-

Islam came to south Asia prior to Muslim invasions’ of India. Islamic influence first emerged
th
in the early 7 century with the advent of Arab traders who used to visit the Malabar region.
The first ship having muslin travelers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630 AD. It was
with the advent of Islam that the Arabs became a prominent cultural force in the world.

In Malabar the mappilas may have been the first community to convert to Islam for the
reason that they were more intimately linked with the Arabs than others were Intensive
missionary activities were carried out along the coast and a number of natives embraced
Islam.

th
In the first half of the 10 century, Mahmud of Ghaznavid added the Punjab to the Ghaznavid
th
Empire and conducted several raids. A more successful invasion came at the end of the 12
century by Muhammad of Ghor. This eventually led to the formation of Delhi Sultanate.
Mahmud led as many as seventeen expeditions against India. The sixteenth and the most
important of Mahmud’s expedition was directed against Somnath in the years 1025-26 A.D.
Somnath was the most celebrated temples of the Hindus and stood in the extreme south of
Kathiawar. The temple was known for its fabulous wealth and exceptional beauty and
grandeur. The temple chains with which the bells were hung weighed more than 200 mounds
of gold. The Rajput princes defended the temple with stubborn courage and repelled with
irresistible force. But in the end Mahmud carried the day and put about 5000 Hindus to death.
Entered the temple broke the idol to pieces. A large booty of diamonds, rubies, pearls and
gold. The Caliph showered great honours on Sultan Mahmud for this achievement and the
Muslim world hailed him as the great apostle of Islam.

The main aim of Mahmud was to amass the wealth of India and when this was achieved he
cared little about India and its politics. Mahmud did not aim at the permanent conquest of
India but his annexation of Punjab provided a foothold to the later Muslim invaders to
conquer India. It has been well remarked that ‘’The Gaznavid occupation of the Punjab
served as the key to unlock the gates of the Indian interior.”

As a result of Mahmud’s invasions the economic prosperity of India was greatly shaken. Like
Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali Mahmud proved a great enemy of Indian Art and
literature. Wherever he went he burned, killed, plundered captured and did all acts of ruin and
destruction. A great many Indians embraced Islam when they were asked to choose either of
the two---death or Islam. Moreover in the ruin of Muslim warriors and warlords came Muslim
saints and servants who permeated the Indian society propagated Islam in India and won a
number of converts.

Real founder of Muslim empire in India was Muhammad Ghori and not Mahmud Ghazni

He was more political and a better statement than his predecessor. He perceived the rotten
condition of India and thought of founding a permanent empire in this land. He fully knew
that India was politically weak as the Indian Kings were constantly waging war with each
other.

His main aim was the conquest of India and he was quite successful in achieving it. His
conquest of India was real and permanent. The territories that he conquered were seldom lost
to Islam as was the case with the predecessor, Mahmud Ghaznavi. The work of consolidation
went side by side in case of Muhammad Ghori. Even when he left India in 1195 AD after
defeating Jaichand Rathore of Ajmer he left the administration of India in the hands of his
able viceroy Qutub-ud-din Aibek who was responsible for the further extension of the
dominions of Islam in India.
 2) Impact of Islamic rule in political social religious and cultural
life of Indians-

The sultanate of Delhi was an Islamic state. The nobles and the administrative machinery all
followed the Muslim faith .It was natural that the sultans were expected to enforce the Islamic
law in the country, The Islamic Theory of state never permitted the existence of any religion.
The followers of no other religion other than the Islam were considered the rightful citizens of
an Islamic state

Imposition of Jazia- Jazia, a kind of tax was levied upon Non -Muslims as a sign of
humiliation and compensation for life and property in a Muslim state. The members of
society that paid Jazia were called Jimmis.

Sultans exercised discriminatory policies in the matter of recruitment and preferred Muslim
in high offices. Alauddin Khalji liberalized the policy and threw open the public services to
commoners.

The local customs and behavior influenced the people a lot- The Indian pan (betel leaf) had
become popular among the Muslims. The use of spices for seasoning food became common.
Sports like polo, horse riding and racing became the chief outdoor amusements. There were
bakeries instead of individual kitchen and hammams (Turkish bath) in the larger towns. The
established Axiom of Islamic law was that Muslim was governed by Shariat and non
Muslims were subject to their own law of the land. Hindu villages remained small
autonomous units as they were in ancient times. In the matters of commerce and Industry the
Hindu guilds were supreme.

Political and economic impact- The establishment of Sultanate marked the beginning of a
new phase in the history of medieval India .Politically it led to the unification of Northern
India and parts of a Deccan for almost a century. Its rulers almost from the time of the
establishment of the sultanate succeeded in separating it from the country from which they
had originally come. There were important changes in economic life also. Trade and craft
received a stimulus and many new towns arose as centers of administration, trade and craft.
New elements of technology were also introduced during this period. Hindus occupied an
important role in foreign and domestic trade although foreign Muslim merchants known as
Khurasani also had a large share of it. The rulers of the coastal kingdoms of Deccan
accorded to foreign merchants certain extra territorial rights and special concessions.

The imports- It consisted of certain luxury items for the upper classes and a general supply of
all kinds of horses and mules in which India was deficient. Hindus had never attached any
importance to cavalry but seeing the success of the Muslim horsemen they started to
substitute horses for elephants.

The exports- It included large quantities of food grains and clothes .Among the agricultural
products were wheat, millet, rice, pulses, oilseeds, scents medical herb and sugar. Cotton
cloth and other textiles were important items of export particularly to south east Asia and East
Africa although some reached Europe. They were carried by the Arabs to the red sea from
there to Damascus and from where they were distributed to the Mediterranean countries and
beyond. Trade and commerce remained in Hindu control.
 Influence of Islam on Indian culture-

It permanently influenced the development of all areas of human Endeavour-language, dress,

cuisine, all the art forms architecture and urban designs, social customs and values

Emergence of Urdu-The language of the Muslim Invaders was modified by contact with
local languages to Urdu which uses the Arabic Script.

Urbanization of the country-Saw the rise of many cities and their culture. The biggest impact
was upon trade extending from Morocco to Indonesia.

Widening of social inequalities-Islamic rulers taxed the peasantry at significantly higher

rates. If the rate of taxation during the pre-Islamic period varied between 10 percent to a
maximum of 20 percent, it had increased to 33 percent or even more under the Mughals.
Many of the Islamic rulers insisted upon Jazia.

Urban revolts-Urban revolts had become common. Ibn-Batuta mentions how such rebellions
were suppressed with great cruelty. Punishment for those who rebelled could
mean loss of adults, particularly young women and children to slavery, massacres or forced
evacuations of entire village and small towns.

Slavery-Slavery played a dominant role. During the Islamic period in sub-saharan Africa
slaves labored in the salt mines and copper mines and served as a vital link in the trans-
Saharan trade routes acting as porters where camels and donkeys could not go.

Jauhar and sati-This practice arouse in response to periods of threat during the Muslim
conquest to prevent kidnapping or capturing of Hindu women to be married to Muslim
rulers ,nobles or high officials which was then considered a holy act of Jihad and occurred in
significant numbers.

Local alliances-Alliances were forged through marriage or simply from political

convenience. Military alliances with Hindu rulers were crucial in maintaining the power of
many Islamic rulers.

Untouchability-

The untouchability and caste discrimination were notable in states like UP and Bihar where
Islamic rule held sway for five centuries

Clothes-In the Indian tradition moral codes concerning dress were more in keeping with the
natural environment. Clothes were light and simple consistent with the general hot climate.

Religion-Local versions of the epic such as Ramayana and Krishna Leela were popularized.
Notions of Dharma played an important role in determining the boundaries for social conduct

Expansion of Trade-Trading communities benefitted from the installation of Islamic rulers

whose policies of lower taxes on trade and state support of local traders and financiers were
in their interest.
 Interaction between two diversified cultures–

Its localized religious practice and political organization and its universal and rigid social
stratification.

First, on the social front, it seems reasonable to argue that the diversity of practice and
localization of political organization of Hinduism in India made it relatively easy for outsiders
to establish a base both physically and socially. An external force had only to overcome a
local ruler to establish its presence. There was no all-India perception of an assault on
Hinduism that could lead all the local forces to unite against an external enemy.

Socially, the outsiders could have been viewed as just another caste or a variant of one, with
its own set of gods and rituals and could have been thus absorbed in the accommodating
embrace of Hinduism’s tolerance. While there were numerous battles in India at that time, we
hardly have any evidence of wars characterized as being between religions or of forced
conversions of Hindus by Muslims.

In the same vein, Hinduism’s openness to other views must have provided a fertile ground for
the Sufis who came along with the Muslim invaders. When their message appealed to Hindus,
it was adopted and hence there was the widespread emergence of Sufism in India.
The rigid social hierarchy in Hinduism must have provided a fertile base for conversions to
Islam to enable the lowest strata in society to escape the burdens of social exclusion. Thus,
over time, the majority of Muslims in India were actually comprised of lower caste Hindus
who had converted to Islam.

Further, since the Muslim traders and invaders that stayed in India must have been
predominantly males, they must have married local women and so second generation
Muslims must have been mostly of mixed parentage. As in the case of the early traders where
the majority of Mapillas on the Malabar Coast were the offspring of Arab sailors and local
women. It could only have been such a process of mixing, mutual accommodation and
osmosis that could have yielded the incredibly beautiful heritage of North Indian classical
music, the composite architecture of the Red Fort, the fine art of the Pahari miniature, the
sweet rhythms of the Hindustani language, the intricate thought patterns of Sabk-e Hindi
poetry, and the universal appeal of Bollywood.

When we are overwhelmed by beautiful music we know in our hearts that it is not Hindu
music or Muslim music – it is Indian music. And that music, if we are prepared to listen,
embodies a history and carries a message more powerful than any that can be found in
contemporary discussions or books of facts.

By the end of the fourteenth century Islam had permeated all parts of India, and the process
was fully under way which led to the conversion of a large section of the Indian population to
Islam, and resulted in far-reaching cultural and spiritual changes outside the Muslim society.
The developments in the cultural sphere—development of regional languages, the rise of
Hindustani, and the evolution of Indo-Muslim music and architecture—have been evident.

The most obvious result of the religious impact of Islam on Hinduism is, of course, the
existence of a large Muslim population in India. The view that Islam propagated itself in India
through the sword cannot be maintained; aside from other evidence, the very distribution of
the Muslim population does not support it. If the spread of Islam had been due to the might of
the Muslim kings, one would expect the largest proportion of Muslims in those areas which
were the centers of Muslim political power. This, however, is not the case. The percentage of
Muslims is low around Delhi, Luckhnow, Ahmadabad, Ahmadnagar, and Bijapur, the
principal seats of Muslim political power. Even in the case of Mysore, where Sultan Tipu is
said to have forced conversion to Islam, the ineffectiveness of royal proselytism may be
measured by the fact that Muslims are scarcely 5 percent of the total population of the state.
On the other hand, Islam was never a political power in Malabar, yet today Muslims form
nearly 30 percent of its total population. In the two areas in which the concentration of
Muslims is heaviest—modern East and West Pakistan—there is fairly clear evidence that
conversion was the work of Sufis, mystics who migrated to India throughout the period of the
sultanate. In the western area the process was facilitated in the thirteenth century by the
thousands of Muslim theologians, saints, and missionaries who fled to India to escape the
Mongol terror.
One of the earliest of the religious leaders, and probably the most influential, was Kabir. His
dates are uncertain, some scholars giving his birth date as 1398, and some as late as 1440, but
it is generally agreed that he flourished in the middle of the fifteenth century. There has also
been much controversy concerning his religious origins, but it is quite certain that he was
born into a Muslim family. According to the popular Tazkirah-i-Auliya-i-Hind (Lives of
Muslim Saints), he was a disciple of the Muslim Sufi, Shaikh Taqi. A further indication of his
Muslim origin is that his grave at Maghar has always been in the keeping of Muslims. But
Kabir was above all a religious radical who denounced with equal zest the narrowness of
Islamic and Hindu sectarianism. According to one tradition he was a disciple of Ramananda,
the great mystic who is credited with the spread of bhakti doctrines in North India. That
Ramananda himself was influenced by Islam is not certain, but his willingness to admit men
of all castes, including Islam, as his disciples, suggests the possibility of this. The right
conclusion seems to be that Kabir was a Muslim Sufi who, having come under Ramananda's
influence, accepted some Hindu ideas and tried to reconcile Hinduism and Islam. However it
was the Hindus, and particularly those of the lower classes, to whom his message appealed.

He was a true seeker after God, and did his best to break the barriers that separated Hindus
from Muslims. What has appealed to the millions of his followers through the ages, however,
is his passionate conviction that he had found the pathway to God, a pathway accessible to the
lowest as well as the highest.

The second great religious leader whose work shows undoubted Islamic influence is Guru
Nanak (1469–1539). Nanak's own aim was to unite both Hindu and Muslim through an
appeal to what he considered the great central truths of both. He acknowledged Kabir as his
spiritual teacher, and their teachings are very similar. Accompanied by two companions, one a
Muslim and the other a Hindu, he wandered throughout North India and, according to some
accounts, to Arabia, preaching his simple gospel. The followers he gained became, in the
course of a century, a separate religious community, but the Sikh scriptures, of which Nanak's
sayings provide the core, are a reminder of the attempt to bridge the gap between Hinduism
and Islam.

Dadu (1544–1603) was the third of the religious leaders through whose teachings Islamic
ideas found wide currency among non-Muslims. Dadu is stated by his later followers to have
been the son of a Nagar Brahman, but recent researches have shown that he was born in a
family of Muslim cotton-carders.. The early Hindu followers of Dadu were not disturbed by
the knowledge that he was a Muslim by birth, but later ones were. The legend of his
Brahmanical origin made its first appearance in a commentary on the Bhaktamala, written as
late as 1800. It is said that until recent times documents existed at the monasteries of the
followers of Dadu which suggested that he had been a Muslim, but that these were destroyed
by the keepers who were unwilling to admit that his origins were not Hindu.