BAFS2324 Food Chemistry II

Group lab practicum:

Experiment 4 – Evaluation of the foaming ability of duck egg and hen egg on sponge cake
quality

Student’s name (ID):

Chong Yee Chen (16WLR12124)

Lee Zhi Yee (16WLR12130)

Ong Hooi Leng (16WLR12165)

Programme: RFN 2301

Date of submission: 18/6/2018

Name of lecture: Dr Chong Cheong Yew

Introduction:

Foam is defined as a two-phase system in which gas (air) is the dispersed phase and a liquid
(water) makes up the continuous phase. The property of proteins to form stable foams is
important in the production of a variety of foods. Proteins in foams contribute to the uniform
distribution of the air cells in the structure of foods. Egg white is most widely used protein
foaming agent in food industry. Proteins vary significantly in their foaming properties. The
quality and stability of foams can be determined by measuring of forming, attributed of egg
white such as index of whipping, index of foam durability, foam density, overrun and air
phase (Zayas, 1997).

Three stages are involved in foam formation (Kinsella, 1981). First, the soluble globular
proteins diffuse to the air/water interface, concentrate and reduce surface tension. Second,
proteins unfold at the interface with orientation of polar moieties toward the water; as a result
of unfolding, there is orientation of hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups at the aqueous and
non-aqueous phases. Third, polypeptides interact to form the film with possible partial
denaturation and coagulation. Proteins rapidly adsorb at the interface and form a stabilizing
film around bubbles which promote foam formation. The proteins can denature mechanically
by whipping. During whipping, the amount of gas incorporated steadily increases until a
maximum volume is obtained. This maximum volume based on the whipping agent used, the
composition and the conditions of the system, and on the level of energy supplied (Gassmann,
Kroll and Cifuentes, 1987).

Sponge cake baking is a complex mix (batter) containing many ingredients such as wheat
flour, sugar, egg, fat, leavening agents, salt, milk solids and water (Ureta, Olivera and
Salvadori, 2016). Main role of eggs play in sponge cakes are foaming and coagulating. The
sponge qualities via physical measurements and visual examination can be depend on the
quality of egg and the preparation of the sponge cake such as making condition of the using
beater and hand folding.

The objective of this experiment is to determine the percentage of forming overrun of the
duck egg and hen egg. Besides, it also to evaluate the sponge qualities via physical
measurements and visual examination.
Apparatus:

Balance, beater, stainless steel bowl, bowls, 500ml measuring cylinder, timer, cake pan and
baking oven.

Materials:

Hen egg, duck egg, fine cane sugar, shortening, milk and low gluten wheat flour.

Procedure:

Part 1 – Determination the percentage of forming overrun of the duck egg and hen egg.

The egg white was separated from egg yolk to get 100ml of egg white for duck egg and hen egg
respectively.

The 100ml of duck egg white and hen egg white were weighed.

Then, both of them were whipped respectively until stiff peak and the time use for whipping
were recorded.

The volume of foam for both egg were measured and both 100ml duck foam and egg foam were
weighed.

After 45 minutes, the volume of liquid for duck egg and hen egg were measured and recorded.
Part 2 - Evaluation the sponge qualities via physical measurements and visual
examination

Four egg whites were whipped until foamy (transparent air cell).

Then, 1/3 teaspoon cream of tatar was added and whipped it until soft peak (whiter).

80g of sugar was added gradually into it and whipped until stiff peak.

Four egg yolks were added into stiff peak and folded it.

Then, 80g of sieved flour was added and foled it.

10g of shortening and 40g milk were added and folded it.

The mixtute was poured into cake pan with paper lines.

The cake pan was baked in baking oven at 150 ⁰C for 30 minutes.

The cake was removed from the oven and cooled it down.

For the cake's physical properties evaluation, the height, specific volume, index to volume and color
were measured and recorded used as results.

For the visual examination, te shape, crust color, cake appearance (external characteristics); and cell
uniformity, cell size, and cell wall thickness (internal characteristics). The photo on the cake sample
were taken.

Remark:

Step 1 – 3: Process it using a beater.

Step 4 – 8: Process it using hand folding (fold until just incorporated).

Results:
Table 1: Determination of the whipping time, volume and weight of egg white and foam of
both eggs.
Hen egg Duck egg
Foam volume, VF 650 mL 400 mL
Egg white volume, VEW 100 mL 100 mL
Volume of egg white after 45 50 mL 26 mL
min whipping, VLEW
Weight of 100mL foam (g), 17.62 g 25.36 g
m100F
Volume of 100mL foam 100 mL 100 mL
(mL), V100F
Whipping time (min) 7 mins 20 secs 16 minutes

𝑉𝐹
Index of whipping: IW= 𝑉𝐸𝑊× 100 [%]
𝑉𝐹−𝑉𝐿𝐸𝑊
Index of foam durability: ID= × 100 [%]
𝑉𝐸𝑊
𝑚100𝐹
Specify density: SD= [gml-1]
𝑉100𝐹
𝑉𝐹−𝑉𝐸𝑊
Overrun: × 100 [%]
𝑉𝐸𝑊
𝑂𝑅
Air phase: AP= 𝑂 [I]
𝑅 +100

Calculations:
Table 2: Calculation of index of whipping and foam durability, specific density, overrun and
air phase of hen and duck eggs.
Hen egg Duck egg
Index of whipping, IW (%) 650 400
× 100= 650% × 100= 400%
100 100
Index of foam durability, ID 650−50 400−26
× 100= 600% × 100= 374%
100 100
(%)
Specify density, SD (gml-1) 17.62 25.36
= 0.1762 gml-1 = 0.2536 gml-1
100 100
Overrun (%) 650−100 400−100
× 100= 550% × 100= 300%
100 100
Air phase, AP (I) 550 300
= 0.8462 = 0.7500
650 400
 Table 3: Volume index and uniformity of hen egg cake.
Hen egg cake
1 2 3 Mean± SD
Volume (5.5+6+5.7)cm= (5.0+5.1+5.2)cm (5.2+5.2+5.3)cm= 16.067±1.002
index 17.2cm =15.3cm 15.7cm
(B+C+D)
Uniformity (5.5-5.7)cm= (5.0-5.2)cm= (5.2-5.3)cm= -0.167±0.058
(B-D) -0.2cm -0.2cm -0.1cm

Table 4: Physical observation of 3 different baked hen egg cake under same baking
conditions.
Hen egg cake
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

Figure 1.1: Physical Figure 2.1: Physical Figure 3.1: Physical

appearance of sample 1 appearance of sample 2 appearance of sample 3
from top view. from top view. from top view.

Figure 2.2: Cross Figure 3.2: Cross

Figure 1.2: Cross sectional view of sectional view of
sectional view of sample 2. sample 3.
sample 1.

Physical Presence of big crack Presence of small crack Presence of small crack
appearance

Cell size & Small & not uniform Small & uniform Big & not uniform
uniformity

Crumb colour Light yellow Light yellow Light yellow

Crust colour Golden brown brown Golden yellow

Discussion:

Egg white is extensively utilized as a functional food material in many food products due to
the multiple properties of egg white proteins, such as foaming, gelling and emulsifying
properties (Bergquist, 2000; Alleoni, 2006). As a foaming agent, when egg white is whipped,
egg white proteins are able to rapidly adsorb on the air-water interface and form a cohesive
viscoelastic film around air bubbles through their intermolecular interactions (Lomakina &
Mikova, 2006). The foaming ability of egg white can be attributed to the chemical structure
and physical properties of egg white proteins. The egg white proteins that are responsible for
conferring the high foaming ability include ovalbumin, ovomucin and ovoglobulins
(Darmodaran et al., 1998). These proteins are globular proteins containing free sulfhydryl
(SH) groups and disulphide bonds as well as non-polar groups clustered and packed in the
interior of the protein molecules. They are readily undergo denaturation at the air-water
interface, called “interfacial denaturation” when mechanical shear forces are applied to egg
white. As a result, the proteins unfold their conformational structures and expose reactive
amino acids, causing protein aggregation at the interface that leads to form a rigid interfacial
film around bubbles which promotes foam stabilisation (Kinsella, 1981).

In this experiment, the whipping method uses mechanical forces to generate foams using
electric mix beaters. Two different types of egg white protein were used, hen egg white and
duck egg white. The result obtained shown that the index of whipping was higher in hen egg
white (650%) than the duck egg white (400%). Rhodes et al. (1960) reported lower foaming
ability in the duck egg in comparison with hen egg white. Nrwiarowrcz et al. (1989b) and
Kijowskj et al. (1989) demonstrated that the maximal foam volume of the duck eggs was
smaller than that of the hen eggs. To reach the maximally possible foam volume, the duck
egg white has to be whipped from 3 to 5 minutes longer than that of the hen egg. In the
practice, whipping time of duck egg (16 minutes) was much longer than hen egg (7 minutes
20 seconds).

Egg albumen is known to have excellent food foaming properties. Such properties are
determined by the ability to rapidly adsorb on the air-liquid interface during whipping or
bubbling, and by its ability to form a cohesive viscoelastic film by way of intermolecular
interactions (Mine 1995). Protein molecules act as hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups. The
hydrophilic groups are arranged towards the water phase and the hydrophobic groups towards
the air phase. During the whipping process air comes into the solution to form bubbles, the
hydrophobic regions facilitate the adsorption at the interface, a process that is followed by
partial unfolding. This change in the molecular configuration results in the loss of solubility
or precipitation of some proteins, which collect at the liquid-air interface. The attendant
reduction in surface tension facilitates the forming of new interfaces and more bubbles. These
partially unfolded molecules then associate to form a stabilising film around the bubbles,
which is essential for the stability of the foam (Lomakina and Míková, 2011).

The foaming ability of duck egg and hen egg were different due to the different of the
composition of the egg white proteins (Osuga and Feeney, 1977). Studies showed that duck
egg white has a lower content of ovoalbumin, conalbumin, lysozyme and ovoflavoproteid in
the duck egg compared to hen egg white. Globulins facilitate foam formation, while the
ovomucin-lysozyme complex confers stability to the foam (Cotterill & Winter, 1955).
Conalbumin, lysozyme, ovomucin, and ovomucoid alone have little or no foaming ability, but
the interaction between lysozyme and globulin is important to foam formation (Johnson &
Zabik, 1981). These proteins are globular proteins containing free sulfhydryl (SH) groups and
disulfide bonds as well as non-polar groups clustered and packed in the interior of the protein
molecules. They are readily undergo denaturation at the air-water interface, called “interfacial
denaturation”, when mechanical shear forces are applied to egg white. As a result, the
proteins unfold their conformational structures and expose reactive amino acids, causing
protein aggregation at the interface that leads to form a rigid interfacial film around bubbles
which promotes foam stabilisation (Kinsella, 1981). Hence, the index of whipping and foam
durability were lower in duck egg compared to hen egg.

Duck egg (0.2536 gml-1) has a higher specific density then hen egg (0.1762 gml-1) as the egg
content in duck egg was higher than the hen egg content. The egg white in the duck egg
contain around 1 percent protein more than those in the hen egg. For this reason the water
content in the duck egg is lower than that in the hen egg. Also, egg white in the duck egg
contains circa 3 percent more those amino acids than white of the hen egg. Duck egg white
contains by about 50 percent phenylalanine, by about 30 percent methionine and by about 24
percent threonine more than that of the hen egg (Huang and Lin, 2011).

During the whipping process, air is incorporated throughout the egg whites. Overrun is said
to be the percentage increase in foam volume from the original volume caused by the
inclusion of air. According to Foegeding et al., (2006), the overrun of an egg white foam
ranges from 500 to 800%. In this experiment, the overrun percentage was seen to be higher in
the hen egg white, which is 550%, while 300% in the duck egg white. Overrun can be linked
with the foaming ability, this is because the formation of foam requires the incorporation of
air where overrun refers to the volume increase of foam. The overrun in duck egg is lower
than hen egg. This is because duck egg white has a lower content of ovoalbumin, conalbumin,
lysozyme and ovoflavoproteid in the duck egg compared to hen egg white. Globulins
facilitate foam formation, while the ovomucin-lysozyme complex confers stability to the
foam (Cotterill & Winter, 1955). Conalbumin, lysozyme, ovomucin, and ovomucoid alone
have little or no foaming ability, but the interaction between lysozyme and globulin is
important to foam formation (Johnson & Zabik, 1981).

Air phase is said as the volume fraction of air in foam. The air phase in hen egg is 0.7500I,
while duck egg is 0.8462I. The foam is two phase system in which air forms the dispersed
phase and surface phase is formed by thin layer of denaturated proteins (Ternes et al., 1994).
The proteins denature mechanically by whipping. Protein molecules include hydrophilic and
hydrophobic groups. Hydrophilic groups are arranged in direction into liquid phase and
hydrophobic groups into air phase. The volume fraction is seen to be higher in hen egg, this is
because the overrun is higher which means more air is incorporated to the foam resulting to a
higher volume of foam of then hen egg. While the air phase of duck egg white is low because
of the overrun of the duck egg white is low as well.

As for the baking of cake using hen egg, even though the cake are baked under the same
condition, however the appearance, cell size and uniformity, crust colour, and the height of
the 3 cakes differs from one another. It is seen that the physical appearance from top view of
cake 1 was seen with a big crack, while cake 2 and 3 was seen with smaller cracks on the
surface of the cake. The cracking of cake might be due to the cake was placed in an oven with
a temperature that is too high, the outside of the cake cooks at a much faster rate than the
inside. Therefore, the crust forms early on, but as the inside of the cake continues to cook and
rise, therefore this causes the crust to crack. Besides that, the crack on the crust can be also
too much leavener was used in the cake. Cream of tartar was used during baking. It can helps
the cake to improve the foaming properties of albumen in the egg white. Therefore firmer
foam will be established in a shorter amount of time. Cream of tartar is an acidic salt which
adjusts the pH of egg whites so the proteins will be more soluble, as well as reducing protein
denaturation during whipping. The cream of tartar helps the cake to reach its maximum
achievable volume. Therefore, the cake 1 might be added with too much cream of tartar
which causes the cake to expand in volume more than cake 2 and 3 which then the crust of
cake cracks more than the other two samples. (The Complete Technology Book on Bakery
Products, 2007)

As for the cell size & uniformity, it was seen that sample 1 was observed to be small and not
uniform, sample 2 was small and uniform, and lastly sample 3 was big and not uniform.
During whipping, protein adsorption allows for rapid foam formation. The denatured proteins
move to the air/water interface to create the cell walls of the air bubbles. Cell wall formation
occurs when the denatured proteins aggregate, forming an extremely thin network or film
(Figoni, 2011). Wheat flour plays an important role in the texture, structure and elasticity of
the cake. This is because a gluten matrix is formed when the proteins glutenin and gliadin are
mixed in the presence of water. When the batter is agitated, these two proteins form cross-
links, disulfide bonds, ionic bonds, and hydrogen bonds. The matrix that forms is strong and
very flexible. The gluten can reacts with the water found in egg whites. As the air has already
been entrapped in the foam, the flour proteins is able to coat the entrapped air. This helps to
strengthen the cell walls and batter during baking or any other handling. Therefore it ensures
the stability of the cake formed. (The Complete Technology Book on Bakery Products, 2007)

The formation of cell size is due to a process known as folding. During folding, the flour
allows cell walls to form when it comes in contact with the egg protein foam and sugar
mixture. Minimal folding of the flour allows cell walls to form when it comes in contact with
the egg protein foam and sugar mixture. If the batter is over-mixed, the egg white proteins
may coagulate causing the bubbles to break during baking, or the cell walls may become too
rigid, lacking elasticity. This would reduce the volume and result in a coarse texture.
However, if the batter is under-mixed, a weak foam will form. The cell size was seen to be
desirable in both sample 1 and 2. Whereas in sample 3, the cake was seen to have large
bubbles formed. This is due to the preparation of the batter was carried out too slow as it
should be done as quickly as possible. When the foam sits, disproportionation will occur.
This is the result of water draining from the foam and collecting at the bottom. The bubbles at
the top of the foam will grow larger as the water leaves and the cell walls or film become too
weak and break, forming larger bubbles. (The Complete Technology Book on Bakery
Products, 2007)

Whereas for the uniformity of the cakes, it is seen that sample 2 is the cell distribution is
distributed uniformly, while sample 1 and 3 are not uniform. The addition of the cream of
tartar also helps to create very small and uniform air bubbles. Therefore, the cells were not
evenly distributed might also be the cream of tartar was not mixed well in the batter and
causing the cells to be scattered around. Besides that, the un-uniformity might be due to the
folding process was not carried out uniformly as the area should fold evenly in all directions.
Moreover, the un-uniformity of the cakes could be also due to the sugar was not added
gradually and evenly as the sugar will disturb protein foam formation in a positive or
negative manner. It is important that the sugar is added slowly, so that the crystals have a
chance to dissolve in the batter. The sugar should also be well homogenized in the batter.

The crust colour ranges from golden brown, brown and golden yellow. This condition is
known as Maillard browning reactions. It is a form of non-enzymatic browning reaction
which occurs between amino acids and reducing sugars that gives browned food its
distinctive flavor which typically proceeds rapidly from around 140 to 165 °C. The crust
colour of sample 1 was seen to be golden brown colour and sample 2 crust colour was seen to
be golden yellow. In sample 1, the cake was baked for too long, therefore the texture was
seen to be drier, rougher, and crack was present on the crust. Maillard browning is desirable
in bakery products as it can contribute to the distinctive aroma for the consumers. Whereas
the crumb colour of the 3 samples was seen to be light yellow, this is because the inner part
of the cake was not exposed during baking and therefore the crumb can retain a soft texture
with a light yellow colour.

The volume index refers to the size of the cake where it is seen that sample 1 has the highest
volume, followed by sample 3 and lastly sample 2. The volume of the cake is affected several
factors such as the whipping of the foam, as it can creates overrun where it increases the
volume caused by the inclusion of air. Besides that, cream of tartar is also used to increase
the maximum achievable volume of the cake. As the temperature increases during baking, the
volume of the air bubbles will expand resulting in an increase of volume of the cake. (Suas,
2009)

Uniformity of the cake refers to the process of even rising action of the cake during the
baking process. It is seen that the uniformity of sample 3 is the most uniform with a value of -
0.1 cm and then followed by sample 1 and 2 with a value of -0.2 cm. Therefore cake sample 3
was seen to have a flat surface, whereas sample 1 and 2 was seen to have a dome shaped
structure with a slight bump on the middle of the cake.
Conclusion:

In conclusion, the egg white components of hen and duck egg are different from one which it
contributes to the different characteristics such as the index of whipping, index of foam
durability, specific density, overrun and the air phase of both egg whites are different. The
baking process of cake requires many factors such as the whipping action, addition of
leavening agent, addition of flour and sugar will help in the interaction of the molecular and
structural composition of the cake. Therefore, it is known that hen egg is more suitable to be
used during baking. This is because the foaming ability of hen egg is higher than duck egg
and therefore it helps in the rising action of the cakes.

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