Project Proposal Writing Handbook 2010

Project Proposal Writing
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 3
WHY SOME PROPOSALS FAIL ................................................................................................... 4
ON PROBLEM SOLVING ............................................................................................................ 9
GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED .................................................................................................. 13
2: THE LOGICAL FRAMEWORK APPROACH: ANALYSIS ................................................ 17
WHAT IS THE LOGICAL FRAMEWORK APPROACH (LFA)?.......................................................... 17
WHAT'S A LOGFRAME? .......................................................................................................... 19
OVERVIEW OF THE STEPS ...................................................................................................... 30
ANALYSING THE SITUATION: THE PROBLEM TREE .................................................................... 31
CASE STUDY: INDONESIA – RELIEF FOR INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS .............................. 33
STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS ....................................................................................................... 38
SETTING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................ 42
DESIGNING A STRATEGY ........................................................................................................ 46
SWOT ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................. 57
SELECTING THE STRATEGY .................................................................................................... 59
DEVELOPING A STRATEGY TABLE ........................................................................................... 60
3: THE LOGICAL FRAMEWORK APPROACH: PLANNING ................................................ 64
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 64
THE PROJECT GOAL .............................................................................................................. 65
THE PROJECT OUTCOME ....................................................................................................... 69
PROJECT OPERATIONS – OUTPUTS, ACTIVITIES & INPUTS ....................................................... 74
THE PROJECT CONTEXT: PRECONDITIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS................................................. 79
RISK ANALYSIS AND RISK MANAGEMENT................................................................................. 84
PROJECT MONITORING AND EVALUATION ................................................................................ 87
FINAL LOGFRAME: INDONESIA CASE STUDY .......................................................................... 100
4: PLANNING THE PROPOSAL .......................................................................................... 102
MIND MAPPING .................................................................................................................... 102
MAPPING THE PROPOSAL ..................................................................................................... 105
5: WRITING SKILLS: PRINCIPLES ..................................................................................... 123
WHAT IS PROFESSIONAL WRITING? ...................................................................................... 123
THE WRITING PROCESS ....................................................................................................... 136
6: WRITING SKILLS: CLARITY ........................................................................................... 139
MEASURING CLARITY: THE FOG INDEX ................................................................................. 140
IMPROVING CLARITY ............................................................................................................ 146
HOW TO REDUCE SENTENCE LENGTH................................................................................... 148
7: WRITING SKILLS: ORGANISING YOUR IDEAS ............................................................ 167
INDUCTIVE VS. DEDUCTIVE REASONING ................................................................................ 167
THE PYRAMID ...................................................................................................................... 170
PRESENTING YOUR IDEAS LOGICALLY................................................................................... 176
WHAT MAKES A PARAGRAPH EFFECTIVE? ............................................................................ 180
8: PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER ......................................................................................... 195
DRAFTING THE PROPOSAL ................................................................................................... 195
FINAL FIRST DRAFT ............................................................................................................. 214
9: WRITING STYLE & EDITING SKILLS ............................................................................. 221
STYLE AND LANGUAGE ......................................................................................................... 222
THE EDITING PROCESS ........................................................................................................ 228
DESIGN AND LAYOUT ........................................................................................................... 233
INDONESIA CASE STUDY: FINAL EDIT PLUS LAYOUT............................................................... 243
ELD TOOLKITS .................................................................................................................... 249
© ELD Training 2010

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1: Introduction
Welcome to the programme.
Since 1997, I’ve been working with development professionals from all
fields training and coaching in project planning and proposal writing. After
all this time, I can say that developing a great proposal is both an art and
a science. It requires imagination and flexibility, as well as the careful
application of some key tools.
In some ways, a proposal is an idea waiting to be born. It starts as a

concept – a problem to be solved, a ‘what if?’ feeling – and, over time,
starts to take shape until before us we have a complete document that
can excite our reader as much as it excites us. At some point along the
way there is also the ‘Aha!’ moment – a new idea, an obstacle overcome,
the ‘Ingredient X’ that turns a 'good idea' into an original, powerful plan.
So how hard is it? A lot of people seem to make it more difficult than it is.
I’m going to put the logic into Logical Framework and take the mystery out
of writing for you and you will see developing an effective project proposal
for what it really is – a creative and simple process.
All the ideas in this toolkit have been field-tested with organisations
ranging from UN agencies, through international NGOs right down to the
smallest grassroots community-based organisations; through coaching
and training, in Nepal, Turkey, Laos and Thailand, with participants from
all sectors and nationalities; with scientists, foresters, child rights activists
and lawyers; with experts and those who ‘didn’t have a clue’. The results
were the same – anyone with an idea and who is willing to follow the
process laid out here can develop an effective proposal.
Although we don’t have the advantage of working face-to-face – though

who knows? Perhaps some day we will – rest assured this toolkit is as
complete as it gets: in fact, it goes into greater depth on each point
covered in our training courses. It’s not a book ‘about’ proposal writing.
It’s full of clear explanations PLUS tasks to apply what you learn
immediately both to an extended case study as well as to your own on-
going proposal.
Wishing you the very best of success!
Neil Kendrick
Director of ELD Training
July 2010

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Why Some Proposals Fail
The problem being faced / need for the project has not
been explained properly
No project can be supported if the donor cannot understand why it’s
necessary. Sometimes this may be because the problem actually isn’t
very relevant to the donor, or they don’t see it as serious (see next point),
but often it’s because it’s poorly communicated.
Your explanation may be flawed because the chain of cause and effect
hasn’t been adequately explained, and the reader can’t follow the logic: or
it might be because it takes forever to get to the main point.
It’s important to explain the Core Problem first. We will discuss this in
more depth in the sections on Analysing the Situation and drafting the
Situation Analysis.
The issue does not strike the reader as significant

This doesn't mean that the issue itself is not significant – just that the
donor can't see it.
This could be due to the last point, where the problem is not explained
properly. However, poor explanation is usually because we have failed to
go 'one step further' when describing the consequences of the problem.
As development practitioners and community mobilisers we can see
clearly how important the issues we are facing are; but often conveying
this importance to those who make decisions is difficult. We may have
satisfied ourselves that the issue is significant, but haven't taken that
extra step to explain to our reader why this issue needs to be addressed.
End users (communities) have not been involved in the

planning
Few proposals will be successful if the relevant communities and end-
users haven't been consulted and listened to. Whether the project is a
large-scale irrigation project that needs to take into account existing
irrigation practices, social dynamics and local peoples' ownership and
capacity for maintenance, or whether it's a village-level campaign against
child marriage, all projects need to involve stakeholders in identifying
problems and agreeing on solutions.

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The proposal is poorly written and hard to understand

During this programme we will address some of the core problems
caused by poor writing. First, let me say it's not about a lack of vocabulary
or poor grammar. If anything, it's the opposite: you don’t need an
incredible command of English to draft a good proposal, and, often,
writers who have a lot of language ‘skill’ merely end up confusing their
readers.
Poorly written can mean:
• Lack of clear objectives – it takes forever to get to the point or the

main message is hard to find, leaving the reader to work through
lots of unnecessary information to extract the objective of the
writing.
• Poor organisation of ideas – key points are buried in paragraphs,
or absent.
• Unclear writing – too many abstract nouns and unnecessary
words, phrases and emphasising words can cause the reader
mental strain, as can sentences and paragraphs that run on
longer than necessary.
The proposal’s outcomes do not reflect the donor's area

of concern
Don't give up hope here. Obviously, if the donor isn't interested in your
particular project, or if their mandate doesn't cover your proposed idea, it
seems like a dead end. So why did you submit that exact proposal to that
donor in the first place?
This problem can be avoided by first investigating your target donors’

current and upcoming priorities. No, they're not secret. Most can be found
online from the donors' web sites, along with proposal submission
guidelines. After all, they want to receive the right proposals, too, and
they are always looking to say 'yes'. What good is their money without
your skills to create positive change? And if the information isn't easy to
find, just ask.
If it's clear that your project has absolutely nothing to do with the donor's
field of interest, let it go. But, before you do, analyse the problem through
your donor's eyes. For example, let's say that you intend to provide water
and sanitation (WATSAN) facilities to local communities. It's not just a
WATSAN project, though, is it?
What are the benefits of improved access to safe water? To name just a
few, we have improved health / improved livelihoods, reduced migration,
reduction of women's labour leading to greater involvement in community
decision making ... so, while our project’s outcomes might not appear to
fall within the donor’s area of interest, the project goal can still match their
requirements.

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The Problem Tree tool (which you will see later) has many different kinds
of ‘fruit’ (positive impacts) beyond the immediate change (core issue).
You can develop your analysis and draft a slightly different proposal for
each donor, in each case, where needed, focusing on the outcomes and
impacts that do fall within the donor's objectives.
I will give one interesting true example here to illustrate this. One bilateral
aid agency in a conflict-ridden developing country was instructed from its
headquarters to stop all activities except for those related to conflict
reduction / mitigation.
Not one single project was dropped. The only change was in the way
each project was described. A rooftop garden project concluded that
'improved access to food reduces conflict in communities' where
previously it had been focused on improved nutrition. A small adjustment
in the logic, and the project continued to be supported.
The proposal asks for more funding than the donor can
provide
In this case, you should definitely have done your homework and known
in advance.
However, consider, if you are asking a small donor for the whole grant,
whether you could take a different approach. With smaller donors,
requesting a percentage of the grant is acceptable. As many projects will
be funded by several partners, it's also often easier to get these smaller
grantmakers on board first. As your supporters increase in number, you
will find other organisations willing to step in and fill the major funding
gap.
This isn't quite as simple as it seems, though. As mentioned earlier,

different donors will have different objectives. When you are making a
budget for your project, break down the project costs by outcome, so that
the donors know exactly what they are supporting. For example, one
outcome may commit 20% of your resources, another 30%. This way,
donors can see the tangible results of their support.

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The project has not been coordinated with other

organisations
This does NOT mean your organisation can't 'go it alone'. Partnership can
be full of difficulty, and it's sometimes the 'lone wolf' NGO that can
achieve its objective better than several NGOs together, especially for
small, targeted and specialised interventions.
However, for maximum results and to avoid overlap, you have to

coordinate your project and align your strategy with the current reality.
Show how your work complements the work of others; fills a gap or meets
an unaddressed need; and also identify potential overlaps and conflicts of
interest. Find out as much as you can about what's going on through
research, observation, talking and, most of all, listening to communities
and other organisations. Demonstrate that you fully grasp how your
proposed project fits in with current reality.
Other organisations can be:
• Local government bodies

• Civil Society Organisations
• Grassroots bodies community-based organisations and
community groups
• Other NGOs working in the same sector or same geographical
location
The donor is not assured of the organisation's

capabilities
This isn't the end of the world either. We ourselves failed to win one
project because we didn't have the human resources / technical skills at
the time of submission. Make sure you research the availability of such
resources and convince the donor you can bring on board the right
people once the funding is there.
If your organisation lacks the relevant experience, then consider

partnering with an NGO that has. They may support you with advisors,
offer to monitor progress and steer strategy, or coordinate activities.
Just because you haven't done it before, doesn't mean you can't. After all,
for everything that was done there was always a first time. Look at that
title again: the donor hasn't been assured. Assure them.

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The project is too ambitious

The donor’s concern may not just be related to human resources / skills.
Perhaps the Outcomes appear too ambitious. Maybe you are taking on
something far bigger than you can handle.
To make projects more manageable (and, ultimately, appear more

achievable and therefore more likely to be funded) consider reducing:
• Number / Range of Outcomes – take the most important part and

focus on those.
• Geographical Coverage – you may want to scale down the total
area your project aims to cover, at least in its first phase. After all,
if it's successful, then it can be replicated on a larger scale.
• Target Group – are you trying to cover too much of the
population? Can a smaller initial target group be proposed? It can
always be extended to other end-users at a later time.
Look at your Outcomes again. Are they too vague or wide-reaching –

ending world hunger rather than improving the nutritional status of
children aged 0-5 in XYZ province? Outcomes must be SMART (Specific-
Measurable-Appropriate-Realistic-Timebound).
The last thing you can do in this case is look at partnership with other
organisations. Can their capacity help you to meet your objectives and
thus convince your donor that it can be done?
The writer did not follow the guidelines

If you're guilty of this, there's not much I can say. Guidelines are there for
a purpose, and the purpose is NOT to prevent you from telling all the
great and wonderful things your project will achieve.
They exist so that:
• You can stay focused on what's important.

• Donors can cross-compare different submissions when allocating
limited funds.
Guidelines are not optional. Find out what they are and follow them every
time you draft your proposal. However at the planning stage, only look
briefly at the guidelines. We should try to avoid fitting our ideas and the
current reality into the donor’s framework for now. Just get an idea of
what they want and then follow the process of project planning. ALWAYS
develop your proposal based around the current reality: and fine-tune
your plan / proposal according to the guidelines later. The guidelines are
guidelines for submission – not guidelines to thinking.

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The evaluation procedure is inadequate

There are no excuses here, either. Accountability is everything, so make
sure your plan includes a Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) system. At
each level of achievement (Outputs, Outcome and Goal) you need
Indicators (often called Objectively Verifiable Indicators, or OVI) which
can be measured transparently and reliably. Your Indicators will need to
be specific about the amount of change, quality of change, time frame,
target group and location.
Explain how frequently M&E will be carried out; who will conduct it; and
the methods that will be used. Also, include how you will communicate
the results – to whom, how and how often.
On Problem Solving
Successful proposals are focused on solving problems.
Unfortunately, many organisations seem to be focused on activities rather

than positive change. It's natural. ‘What we do’ takes up a lot of our
energy, and sometimes, as a result, we lose sight of the destination.
Many times people have asked me to examine their potential project

ideas – and, so often, these are all Activities, or just one action. For
example, ‘We plan to set up a home for street children’ or ‘We will raise
awareness about contraceptive use among Commercial Sex Workers’.
Now, there's nothing wrong with Activities – of course not. But none of
these defines a problem to be solved or describes a positive situation as
the end result. Thinking only in terms of Activities, however 'good' and
'right' they may be, can have a negative effect on the success of any
project plan or proposal. Problems include:
You are unable to justify the proposal to the donor. Working backwards
from Activities to explaining the problem can be hard work; and the logic
is often difficult to justify. (And, sometimes the logic just isn't there.) It's
much easier to start with the problem and select the Activity – if it is
appropriate – at the proper stage of project planning.
It demonstrates poor strategic thinking. The development of a proposal

that is based around Activities – even if we can successfully backtrack to
identifying a problem – will never be as convincing as one developed
around the problem itself without bias to one particular solution. A
proposal developed from a problem-solving approach is convincing. One
that has been developed to justify an Activity will always ‘ring false’.
The Activity may not be the most effective one to create the change.
From habit, we may be continuing to use methods that bring about only
partial or temporary success.
You may be omitting other methods that can get better results or could
supplement your core Activities to ensure success. Starting from a
predetermined Activity prevents us from seeing other, more effective or
more creative ways to address the problem.

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As we will discuss in the analysis stage, effective proposals and effective

project plans are all about solving problems. They're about looking at the
existing situation with an open mind, without bias towards one solution or
another.
Even if, at the end of the process, your solution is the Activity you had in
mind all along, by following the stages of project planning and proposal
development as we recommend, you will:
• Be better able to justify your proposed solution.

• Understand better how what you will do will bring about the
positive change you promise to deliver.
Finally, let me add a note to 'realists'. A lot of people dismiss certain

solutions before they even start. ‘We can't do it’ – ‘We don't have the
skills’ – ‘It will cost too much’ ... the concept of limited capacity to deliver
stunts their thinking before they even begin. There is no such thing as
'cannot be done' – if the problem is worth solving, and if the proposed
solution makes sense, it can always be done. There will always be donors
who will support sound ideas.
Definition of a Problem
This isn't a glossary of terminology – though you will find one of those (the
terms we use in this toolkit) at the end of this introduction.
Before we undertake our Problem Analysis, let's actually define those two
words – 'problem' and 'analysis' – so we know (i) what we are expecting
to identify (the problem) and (ii) what we are going to do to make sense of
it (the analysis).
We are going to offer a two-part definition of a ‘problem’. Here’s the first

part:
A problem is ‘an existing negative situation’
Is this an oversimplification? Perhaps it is. But bearing this in mind will

help us to avoid mistakes such as describing problems in terms like
these:
‘There is no health post in the village’
‘There is no road linking the community to nearby markets’
Both the examples above are not, in themselves, problems. Let's expand
our definition of a problem a little. The second part of our definition is that:
A problem is ‘not the absence of a solution’
Both the examples suggest that there is a single, predefined 'solution' – a

health post, a road – before the situation has been analysed. There are
two dangers with expressing our ideas like this.

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Firstly, by expressing the problem in terms of a solution, we close off our

thinking to other possible solutions. It's like we are merely reacting to the
situation by recommending a knee-jerk response. True, it may be a
solution that is commonly accepted, or may have given good results in
other places / times. But each proposed solution must respond to the
unique situation we are addressing.
Secondly, donors will, at some level, assume that you have not really
thought all the possibilities through; and that you are pushing your
organisation's agenda. Remember, proposal writers are problem solvers
first and implementers second: we 'sell' the problem first, then the
solution, and finally our ability to carry that out. By focusing only on the
existing negative situation, we show ourselves to be neutral.
Looking specifically at what is wrong with the two examples:
‘There is no health post in the village’
This suggests that we have already decided there should be a health

post, no matter what. However it raises questions such as what is the
current health status of the residents? Does the situation justify a health
post? What current health practices exist? What are the other options that
could be considered?
A neutral way to express this could be:
‘Children of community X are vulnerable to preventable diseases’ or

‘Infant morbidity is a serious problem in community X’
Looking at the second example – ‘There is no road linking the community

to nearby markets’ – again, here we have a statement that assumes that
there must be a road. Mentally, we (and the donor) could backtrack to
work out that the problem is related to the economic status of the
community but, again, it's unsatisfactory. The whole problem is described
through the eyes of the implementer (the NGO or consortium that plans to
build the road) rather than through the eyes of the end-user (the
community that is facing the problem).
A neutral way to express this could be:
‘People of community X have limited access to …’ – how it finishes will

depend on the problem which the ‘road’ (if that’s our solution) will address
– access to markets / economic opportunity, health care, etc.
So, remember: a problem is ‘an existing negative situation and NOT the
absence of a solution’.

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Definition of Analysis
Analysis is ‘the process of breaking a complex topic into smaller parts to

gain a better understanding of it’.
There are various tools we can use. What is important is that each we
use is acceptable (valid for decision makers), effective (gets the best
results) and efficient (relatively easy to use, fast and easy to understand).
The key problem analysis tool for proposal writers is the Problem Tree –
which is a key stage in the Logical Framework Approach (LFA). It's easy
to develop, widely accepted, and the results can be easily transposed
when building the Logframe. (Note that when we discuss LFA we are
talking about the approach – the process of developing the project plan –
and when we say Logframe we mean the end result of the planning, the
presentation of the plan in a four-by-four table.)

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Glossary of Terms Used

The exact language used in development varies from decade to decade,
organisation to organisation and person to person. Some terms are
commonly understood, others mean different things to different people.
Below are some of the terms we use in this toolkit with brief explanations.
The basic work done to make a project

Activity
happen
A tool for strategy selection where we

Alternatives compare the relative strengths and
Analysis weaknesses of various approaches in order
to find the best combination
Approach One way of addressing a problem
Something that must be true for the project

Assumption
effects to move to the next level
In problem analysis, the central issue to

Core which all other aspects of the problem are
Problem related; may be different for different groups
at different times
In this toolkit, ‘effect’ is used in its generic

Effect
meaning
Any individual or group that will be, through

design, positively affected by project
End-user
implementation; sometimes referred to as
‘target group’ or ‘beneficiary’
The systematic measuring of whether a

Evaluation
project has been successful
The highest level change to which the

project will contribute; not usually
Goal guaranteed by the project as many external
factors beyond the project’s scope are also
present
Used by many organisations as a synonym

Impact
for Goal

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A precise way of measuring project

Indicator
achievements
What we need to implement activities –

Inputs
money, time, equipment, people, resources
Logical Framework Approach – a systematic

LFA
method of designing projects
The end result of the Logical Framework

Logframe Approach; a matrix that summarises the
project
Monitoring and Evaluation – the systematic

gathering and analysis of data to ensure
M&E
efficient delivery of project Inputs and
measure project success
The systematic gathering and analysis of

Monitoring data to ensure efficient delivery of project
Inputs
Means of Verification – the sources of data

MOV
for M&E activities
Narrative The first column of the Logframe which

Summary describes the events / changes at each level
When capitalised, refers to the Objective of

the project, i.e. what the project promises to
deliver at its end; synonymous with Outcome
Objective
When in lower case, is used in its general
sense, synonymous with ‘purpose’ – e.g. ‘the
objective of the writing’, ‘the organisation’s
objectives’, etc.
A stage of the LFA where problems are

Objectives
restated as positive results and tested for
Analysis
logic

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Used here with the same meaning as

Outcome Objective, i.e. what the project will deliver by
its end
Sometimes referred to as Results, these are

Outputs
the end results of Activities
Objectively Verifiable Indicators – a precise

OVI
way of measuring project achievements
Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation –

where end-users themselves set Indicators
PM&E
and participate in monitoring and evaluating
projects themselves
A situation which must exist before the

Precondition
project can begin
When capitalised, synonymous with Output

Result
When in lower case, is used in its general
sense
Similar to Assumption; a Risk is something

that may happen to hinder moving to the
Risk
next level of results which is outside the
project’s direct control
Situation
The problem analysis stage of LFA
Analysis
Stakeholder Anyone affected by the project
Stakeholder Analysis of all parties affected by the project

analysis and their relative influence and interest
The combination of approaches which are

Strategy
the foundation of project design
Target Group Synonymous with ‘end-user’

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2: The Logical Framework Approach: Analysis

In this stage of project development we will walk through the steps from
situation analysis to defining a strategy.
What is the Logical Framework Approach (LFA)?

The LFA was developed in the late 1960s for USAID by consultant Leon
J. Rosenberg of Practical Concepts Incorporated. Its use was quickly
extended to around 35 countries. The reason the LFA was so widely
accepted was that until that time many projects were poorly planned and
took little notice of the needs of end-users. Projects had a habit of 'going
astray' as they were unable to meet unexpected changes in the external
environment. Many projects overspent, and many failed to have much
positive impact.
The LFA is now widely used by bilateral and multilateral donor

organizations such as GTZ, SIDA, NORAD, UNDP, DFID and the EU.
Globally, many NGOs also use the approach. Throughout the 1990s, the
LFA was so commonly used by development organisations that it seemed
obligatory. More recently, the LFA seems to be more 'optional'.
I'm often asked ‘Do we have to include a Logframe?’ and the simple
answer is ‘if required’. However, I do believe it's important to be able to
create a Logframe for your project, as it's a sure way to test whether the
plan actually 'fits' together.
Let’s again distinguish between the terms Logical Framework Approach

(LFA) and Logical Framework (or Logframe). It can be easy to get them
mixed up. The Logical Framework Approach is a project design method –
it's the stages you take in identifying problems, setting objectives and
designing the project. The Logframe, however, is a document – a matrix,
usually a four-by-four table – which is the end result of the method.
The LFA is more than just a tool for analysis and design – it’s also a way
to present your concept (through the Logframe) and manage your project.
Using LFA helps you to:
• Analyse the existing situation (problem to be addressed by the

project).
• Develop a logical hierarchy to reach your objectives (i.e. a
relationship between Activities and intermediate Outputs that bring
your objective into reality).
• Identify the potential Risks in the external environment – things
that need to be taken into account over which you have little
influence.
• Plan how Outputs and Outcomes can be best monitored and
evaluated.
• Summarise your project in a widely accepted format.
• Monitor and review the project as it is implemented.

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However, it's not a perfect ‘answer’ to all our project planning and
implementation needs – it’s just a tool. Different groups can use the same
approach and get different results – it’s still subjective. And, though the
result looks neat, it’s a messy world. Things can be quite different in
implementation in comparison to how they looked at the planning stage,
and things can change. So, however ‘rigid’ the end result may seem, it’s
still a process that requires flexibility.
Developing the Logframe is definitely not a case of 'filling in the boxes’.

The Logical Framework Approach requires patience, imagination and
flexibility. It's not a mechanical process – it needs participation,
consideration and care.
Though it’s a linear process with various stages, we might find we have to
throw everything away and start again as suddenly we see things in a
new light. So, it’s important to be as thorough as we can – not rushing
‘into action’. We should consult others; reflect frequently; and test our
logic whenever we can.
Some stages may be easier than others – it varies from issue to issue.
Sometimes the Problem Analysis is straightforward, while at others it can
take a lot of trial-and-error and mental agility to pinpoint and organise the
issues. Sometimes it’s identifying the Outcome that is the hardest part –
we find we are aiming too high, or too low, or looking in entirely the wrong
direction.
And the end result – the Logframe – is itself just a 'snapshot'. Like any
photo, it can only tell us what is 'inside the frame'. It cannot include
everything from the external environment. This makes it, to some extent,
unnatural – we develop, as a starting point, a Problem Tree – but the tree
is part of a whole ecosystem! And, also, while the Logframe can give us
an overview of the project and its logic as a whole, there are limits to how
much detail can be included.

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What's a Logframe?
The Logical Framework (Logframe) is usually a 4 x 4 project table.
Narrative Objectively Means of Assumptions

Summary Verifiable Verification
Indicators
Goal
Outcomes
Outputs
Inputs Preconditions
Activities

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Vertical Logic
The four rows describe four different levels of events that take place as a
project is implemented: these are Activities, Outputs (or Results),
Outcomes (or Purpose / Objectives) and Impact (or Goal). Throughout
this toolkit we will use Activities > Outputs > Outcomes > Goal / Impact.
The exact terminology can vary from organisation to organisation, but

whether you use 'Outputs' or 'Results', the principle is the same. So don't
worry too much about what you name each level. It's more important that
you have your own clear understanding of the relationship between each
level rather than get the terminology 'right' at this stage. (See the earlier
Glossary.)

Indicators
Goal
Outcomes
Outputs
Activities

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Activities
Directly within our control, these are the things we do using the resources
we have – time, people, money, equipment. Depending on the overall
scale of the project, Activities may be very specific (e.g. ‘3 x 3-day training
for media’) or quite broad (e.g. ‘Leafleting campaign’).
Outputs
Again, at the operational level, these are the end results of our Activities.
So, if one Activity was ‘3 x 3-day training for media’, its Output might be
‘60 journalists able to report responsibly on PLWHA’.
Outcomes
This is what the project promises to deliver in terms of change by its end.
Dependent upon external factors (see ‘Assumptions’ later), it is the sum
of all the Outputs, the ‘existing negative situation’ now as an ‘existing
positive situation’, for example ‘Ethical standards are followed by mass
media when reporting on issues related to PLWHA’.
Goal
This is the ‘higher purpose’. Usually it’s not something that the project
alone can achieve, as it lies beyond the project’s control. However,
achieving the Outcome should directly contribute to the Goal.
Goals can branch off in different directions – we will see later when we
develop a Problem Tree that the central problem can have a range of
negative impacts. This is to our advantage, as we can adapt our
proposals to different donors at the Goal level. However, taking the
example we mentioned earlier, a Goal could be ‘Reduced stigma for
PLWHA’.

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The Logframe Columns

The Narrative Summary
The four columns give us different types of information about the events
in each row. The first column is gives a Narrative Summary (description)
of the event, i.e. it describes the event in words.

Indicators
Goal
Outcomes
Outputs
Activities

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OVIs
The second column lists one or more Objectively Verifiable Indicators

(OVIs) of the events – specific measures to verify achievement in terms of
quality, quantity, time, target group and location. In fact, you could say it
takes the Narrative Summary and gives it in very specific detail.

Indicators
Goal
Outcomes
Outputs
Activities

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MOV
The third column describes the Means of Verification (MOV) for the OVIs.
Means of Verification simply means how the information will be gathered.
What data sources to verify achievement? These could be surveys,
interviews, observation, reports … we will discuss how to gather these
when we discuss Monitoring and Evaluation.

Indicators
Goal
Outcomes
Outputs
Activities

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Assumptions
The fourth (far-right) column (Assumptions) describes the external factors

that could affect progress from one level to the next. Assumptions are
external factors that might positively or negatively influence the events
described in the narrative summary.

Indicators
Goal
Outcomes
Outputs
Activities
Assumptions include any factors that could impact on the success of the
project, but cannot be directly controlled by the project or its managers.
This means that an Assumption is something that must hold true if we are
to progress to the next level. A good project design should be able to
identify its Assumptions, especially those with a high potential for
negative impact.
Sometimes these are called Assumptions (i.e. things that need to be true
for us to move forwards); sometimes they are described as Risks (i.e.
things that might happen that will cause us to go backwards). Essentially,
Assumptions and Risks are the same things expressed in different ways.
For example, a capacity building project may have the Assumption that
‘trained staff will continue to work with the organisation’ or the Risk that
‘trained staff may seek jobs elsewhere’ – the difference is the same as
that between ‘half full’ and ‘half empty’ – one of how you look at it.

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Preconditions and Inputs
There are two other parts of the standard Logframe at the activities level
that deserve a brief explanation – the Preconditions and Inputs. These
both precede the Activities, and the logic here is:
If Preconditions are met, and Inputs are available, Activities can be

carried out.
Preconditions are, like Assumptions, based in the external environment.

However, unlike Assumptions, which can affect project progress /
achievement, Preconditions are things that must be true before Activities
can start. A Precondition is not about budget (that’s an Input) – and not
every project will have Preconditions. But if getting started depends on
any external factor, this is where it goes. External factors here could be
political (getting a ‘green light’ to operate in a particularly sensitive
district); related to the skills availability (you may be dependent on the
availability of some specialised technical expertise); legal; or even
seasonal (for example, harvests / monsoon flooding). However, as
mentioned, not every project will have these, so if you can’t recognise
any, there’s no need to struggle to come up with something.

Indicators
Goal
Outcomes
Outputs
Activities

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Inputs are what we need to get the job done – money, time, equipment
and people. Remember, however, that the Logframe is a summary /
snapshot of the project plan, so there’s no need for lots of detail here – all
these things are fully detailed in the proposal sections on budget and
staffing. The level of detail needed here may include overall budget,
possibly broken down into sources (if project funding is split between
several donors) and into types of cost (equipment / staffing, etc.); number
of project staff / support staff (possibly expressed in working days); and
any infrastructure / equipment needed (project office, vehicles,
computers).

Indicators
Goal
Outcomes
Outputs
Activities

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Diagonal Logic
The logic of the Logframe can be tested diagonally, as in the image
below. The logic holds that:
• Activities will lead to Outputs – there are no Assumptions here, as

all activities are directly within the project’s control
• The Assumptions at the Outputs level must hold true for the
Outputs to lead to achieving the Outcomes
• The Assumptions at the Outcomes level must hold true for the
Outcomes to lead to achieving the Goal

Indicators
Goal
… then Outcomes will lead to the Goal
If our Assumptions are correct …
Outcomes
…then Outputs will lead to Outcomes
Outputs
If our Assumptions are correct …
Activities lead directly

to Outputs Inputs Preconditions
Activities
If the necessary Preconditions
exist
and we have the Inputs,
then we can carry out Activities

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The Four Core Areas of the Logframe

Now that we have seen what each part of the Logframe is for, and how
the logic works, it will be useful to take an overview of the main areas.
There are four main areas of the Logframe – Project Effects, Project
Operations, Project Context, and Project Monitoring and Evaluation.
The top two rows are related to Project Effects. Here we have our
Outcomes and our Goal narrative.

Indicators
PROJECT
Goal EFFECTS
The direct
(Outcome) and PROJECT PROJECT
indirect (Goal) MONITORING AND CONTEXT
effects of what the EVALUATION
project produces or The environment
provides How you will measure which may
Outcomes progress and influence project
achievement operations or
effects
Outputs
PROJECT
OPERATIONS
What the project

does (Activities) or Inputs Preconditions
provides (Outputs)
Activities
The bottom two rows are related to Project Operations. Here we have our
Inputs (resources), our Activities (under direct control) and our Outputs
(the end results of Activities).
Everything in the right-hand column is the Project Context – our

Preconditions and our Assumptions.
Alongside the Outputs, Outcomes and Goal we have our Indicators and
MOV. Together, these make up the part of the Logframe on Monitoring
and Evaluation.

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Overview of the Steps

Developing the Logframe is a series of steps, all of which we will walk
through in this programme. Each one will be explained simply, and
examples will be given. To get the most out of this toolkit, you (either
alone or with a team) should work through your own case.
Ideally, you should select a problem that you wish to solve, and not just
some hypothetical issue. I definitely do NOT suggest you use a project
you are already implementing – there will be too much bias towards
justifying what you are already doing. So, be prepared to select
something current, fresh and real – something you intend to address.
The steps of Logframe development fall into two main stages. The first is
the Analysis stage – that’s a lot of thinking, experimenting with ideas and
lots of consultation (wherever possible). The second is the Planning
stage. Here you take the results of the thinking and develop into a
coherent, achievable project plan.
Expect the Analysis to take quite some time. Some steps will be easier
than others (depending on the issue you have selected), and it can often
be trial-and-error until you feel you have got a particular step ‘right’ and
can move onto the next. Unless you are very thorough, you will find
yourself backtracking and changing earlier ideas. As each step builds on
the previous one, you cannot just go back and make a change – you go
back, make the change and resume from the earlier point.
The steps of Analysis are as follows:
Analysis Stage
• Analyse the situation / problem

• Analyse the stakeholders – identify their stakes in the problem and
modify the problem analysis if needed
• Create a problem hierarchy (Problem Tree)
• Create an objectives hierarchy (Objectives Tree)
• Analyse the strategy alternatives and select an approach or
combination of approaches
Planning Stage
The Planning stage is where we build the Logframe, and will usually go
as follows:
• Describe the project effects (Narrative Summary – Outcome and

Goal)
• Describe the project operations (Narrative Summary – Outputs,
Activities and Inputs)
• Describe the project context (Assumptions and Preconditions)
• Establish Indicators and define Means of Verification (Project
Monitoring and Evaluation)
At the end of these steps, test the logic and you will have a Logframe.

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Analysing the Situation: The Problem Tree

Tree diagrams are versatile, visual tools identifying and prioritising
problems, objectives or decisions. The main issue is represented by the
tree's trunk, and the relevant factors, influences and outcomes appear as
systems of roots and branches.
Tree diagrams can be used to guide project design and evaluation

systems. As a community participation exercise, tree diagrams can help
people to uncover and analyse the underlying causes of a particular
problem.
Tree diagrams are often

part of participatory
planning methods, for
example in stakeholder
workshops, Logical
Framework Analysis, and in
participatory inquiry such
as Participatory Rural
Appraisal.
This tree helps us to

analyse an existing
situation by identifying the
major problems and their
main causal relationships.
The end result is a visual
arrangement of problems
separated into to 'causes'
and 'effects,' joined by a
core, central problem.
The Problem Tree helps us understand the context and interrelationship

of problems. Using cards – one problem per card – makes the tool useful
for group participation in workshops, representing the collective thinking
of the participants. The technique is an integral part of LFA and the
starting point for all the analysis and planning which follows.
The Problem Tree is not an absolute. It is never static. It’s a flexible tool,
and different groups of stakeholders will come up with different Problem
Trees. You will even come up with a different Problem Tree at different
times based on the same issue, so it’s important to remember to be
flexible – and do this stage as thoroughly as you can until you are
satisfied you have a complete and logical analysis of the situation that
reflects all stakeholders’ points of view.
Consider the Problem Tree not to be an exact picture of the problem /

situation. It’s more of a device to broaden our thinking. For example, in
the task below, the Core Problem may also be seen as a cause or effect
depending on the situation and whose point of view we consider.

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How to Develop a Problem Tree

There are four main steps to developing a Problem Tree. These are:
1. List all the problems that come to mind.
The problems need to be carefully identified: they should be existing

problems, not possible, imagined or future ones. Remember that the
problem is an existing negative situation; it is not the absence of a
solution – so try to avoid describing problems in terms of their solutions.
Make sure that you express the problems as negative statements and
NOT just titles or key words. For example, ‘Children have to walk two
hours to reach the nearest school’ is OK; ‘Distance to school’ is not.
2. Identify a Core Problem.
This is the central problem to which everything else, either directly or

indirectly, is connected. Such a problem can take considerable time to
establish. Also, different groups will see the Core Problem differently.
Those affected by the problem will see it in a different light to those trying
to solve it.
3. Decide which problems are causes and which are effects.
4. Arrange the causes and effects in a hierarchy.
Look at how the causes relate to each other. Which leads to the other?

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Case Study: Indonesia – Relief for Internally Displaced

Persons
We will be using a case study throughout this programme to illustrate and
practice the ideas presented. This comes from an international
development agency working in Indonesia. Its Disaster Preparedness
Team has been presented with the following situation:
On 17 July, at 3PM local time, a big flood hit the coast of Kampung, killing
over 60 people and injuring more than 100. The most severely affected
communities were those of poorer families living on the coast.
Over 5,000 people were displaced and took shelter in temporary camps.
Although the majority of IDPs (Internally Displaced People) had not lost
homes, most were severely traumatised and not willing to return home
due to fear of further flood. Of these, over 2,000 people lost their homes.
The displaced were initially accommodated in 20 temporary camps and in

local schools. These were typically overcrowded and lacked sufficient
basic services. In particular, there were concerns that the unsanitary
conditions and insufficient water supply would lead to significant public
health risks. The government response has so far not been well managed
and may not be adequate.

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Problem Tree Task

Below are the details gathered by the team.
Task
Based on the information above, do Step Two (identify the Core Problem)
and Step Three (separate the causes from the effects). Our solution
follows.

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Possible Solution: The Core Problem
The team selected the Core Problem as ‘Poor condition of IDPs in camp’.
The effects and causes have been separated, but are still not organised.
Do Step Four – arrange the causes and effects in a hierarchy. Our
solution follows.

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Possible Solution: Hierarchy of Cause and Effect

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Creating a Participatory Problem Tree

If you wish to involve target groups in planning (and not just ‘consult’),
then you will want to involve them in the problem analysis. To expand the
four steps above for use with end-users / communities, you can use the
following process:
• Brainstorming: each group member contributes one or more

problems drawn from personal experience. These can be
collected on cards.
• Cluster the problems identified during the brainstorming.
• Identify the cause of each problem.
• Identify the consequences if the problem is not solved.
• Review the major problem orally.
• Draw a tree trunk is drawn and a word or a symbol that represents
the core problem in the trunk.
• Draw branches and leaves in several directions.
• Participants suggest different effects of the problem, and each
branch is used to represent a separate effect.
• A root system, symbolising the causes of the problem, is drawn
under the trunk.
• The group suggests possible causes of the problem. Each root is
marked with a picture or a phrase that represents a cause.
• Once the tree is completed, participants discuss the causes,
deciding how much each one affects the major problem.

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Stakeholder Analysis
Now that we have looked at the problem, we need to look at who is
involved and affected. Here we don’t just mean who is affected by the
problem – but who will be affected by the solution. A key stakeholder is
any person or organisation that can be positively or negatively affected
by, or have an impact on, the project’s success. Stakeholder Analysis
identifies the key stakeholders in the project and evaluates their interest
in and expectations from the project. It looks at how their interest may
affect a project and identifies what the project needs from them.
Any intervention we undertake will have indirect effects upon – and

require cooperation from – other stakeholders. For example, a rural
microcredit programme for women will involve more than just the women
themselves – families (particularly husbands) may have a strong
influence on success, as will other existing institutions. So, we analyse
the stakeholders – identify their stakes in the problem – and modify the
problem analysis if needed.
As well as the people who are directly affected by the problem, we must
look at who benefits and who loses out in the current situation, and whose
interests might be threatened by change. Understanding our
stakeholders’ interests and concerns helps us identify which individuals or
organisations we should include in project design and implementation;
and what roles each should play and when. It helps us better understand
what the stakeholders need from the project, and what we need from
them (participation, permission, support). Identifying stakeholders whose
concerns need to be addressed can help us better design interventions
that minimise threats from others – we know who we need to develop
relationships with. Stakeholder Analysis also helps us know who to inform
and consult about the project.
As a result, we can involve the most powerful stakeholders early on in

designing the project – in identifying problems, outcomes and
approaches. As well as gaining stakeholders’ cooperation and support,
their input will greatly improve the quality of the project. Stakeholder
Analysis can also help us develop our communication strategy so that the
right stakeholders receive the right kind of information at the right time.
Involving stakeholders as early as possible is, then, crucial to project
success.
Several stakeholder mapping processes exist. Representing data

collected about stakeholders as maps – using tables, diagrams or
pictures – is common practice. The mapping process helps us to present
our analysis with a degree of objectivity and transparency and helps
others understand the social dynamics of the situation.
Even so, all of the mapping techniques use a qualitative perception of a

stakeholder’s ‘importance’ and do not represent a fully objective value for
that person’s ‘importance’.

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Most presentation styles use a matrix to show two dimensions – Interest

and Power / Influence. ‘Interest’ represents their stake in the problem and
the solution; while ‘Power’ / ‘Influence’ represents the ability of the
stakeholders to positively or negatively influence the project.
How to Conduct Stakeholder Analysis
There are four main steps to analysing stakeholders’ influence and
interest:
1. Identify the Stakeholders

2. Prioritise the Stakeholders
3. Determine the Needs of the Stakeholders
4. Document the Results in a Stakeholder Analysis Plan
1. Identify the Stakeholders
• Who stands to win or lose from the project?

• Who could potentially affect project success?
2. Prioritise the Stakeholders

Place each stakeholder at the appropriate point in the Influence / Interest
grid. Knowing someone’s position on the grid helps us understand how to
interact with them.
HIGH
Group A: High Influence Group B: High Influence
BUT Low Interest AND High Interest
INFLUENCE
MEDIUM
Group D: Low Influence

Group C: Low Influence AND
BUT High Interest
Low Interest
LOW
INTEREST
LOW MEDIUM HIGH

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Each part of the grid represents a different type of stakeholder. Their

relative positions within the grid also illustrate differences between them.
The four parts are:
Group A: High Influence BUT Low Interest
These are stakeholders whose actions can affect the project’s ability to
meet it objectives. However they will neither gain nor lose much from the
project. They may, for example, be local government bodies with no great
involvement in the issue, but their cooperation is still necessary. We
should still keep these stakeholders informed and engaged enough so
that they do not hinder the project. It is also good to develop relationships
with the most influential from this group, for example through regular
executive reports, invitations to project-related events and participation on
committees.
Group B: High Influence AND High Interest
These are stakeholders who stand to lose or gain significantly. They may
have a powerful interest in change or an equally strong interest in
maintaining the current situation. All the stakeholders in this group also
have the ability to obstruct or support the project’s ability to meet its
objectives. Within this group we may find powerful supporters such as
donors or potential threats from employers, landowners, local politicians
and even families. These are our most important stakeholders and thus
need to be managed closely. We have to engage them fully, address their
concerns and work hardest to satisfy them.
Group C: Low Influence AND Low Interest
Stakeholders in this group will neither benefit nor suffer much whether the
project goes ahead or not. Furthermore, they have limited power to
impact the project. Their inputs will have little effect on our planning, and
they usually will only need the minimum of communication.
Group D: Low Influence BUT High Interest
These are stakeholders who are likely to win or lose as a result of the
project but they have little power to affect the project. We still need to
communicate enough to keep these stakeholders satisfied because they
have specific project interests.

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3. Determine the Needs of the Stakeholders

Next we need to explore each stakeholder’s needs in more depth.
Depending on the group / individuals involved, this consultation may be
through interview, survey or focus group discussion. Consider the
following questions to help you better understand the stakeholders’
individual needs and motivations, and to decide the best way to involve
the stakeholders in the project.
• What kind of interest do they have in the project outcome? Is it

financial gain / loss? Is it emotional interest (e.g. attachment to
tradition)? Is it positive or negative? What motivates them?
• What support do you need from them? What role will they play in
the project?
• What do they need from you? What expectations do they have?
What kind of information will they need?
• If the stakeholder’s attitude to the project is negative, what is their
underlying fear? What actions can you take to address their fears
or gain their support?
• If they are going to oppose the project, how will you deal with their
opposition?
• Will dissatisfied stakeholders / opponents be able to influence or
mobilise others? Do we also need to address these others as
stakeholders before they join the opposition?
4. Document the Results in a Stakeholder Analysis Plan

The Stakeholder Analysis Plan is a table that describes how you will
engage the identified stakeholders in the project. Sometimes you may
wish to include this plan in your proposal, especially when dealing with
issues where there are strong opponents to the project.
Stakeholder Level of What What is the What are the What is our How will we
interest / support stakeholder’s stakeholder’s strategy to communicate
level of do we role interests and gain support with this
influence need from concerns or minimise group?
them? opposition?
At this point, return to the original Problem Tree. Add to – or, if necessary,
redesign – the tree to reflect all points of view from groups which have
either high influence or interest. Don’t forget that during project monitoring
it is common to review and update the Stakeholder Analysis frequently,
as things do change.

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Setting Objectives
The Objectives Analysis is the stage where the problems expressed in
the Problem Tree are converted into objectives. The result is an
Objectives Tree, which is analysed and fine-tuned to give us a basis for
selecting project strategy.
There are three steps:
• Restate the negatives from the Problem Tree as positives

• Review your objectives
• Test the Objectives Tree
1. Restate the negatives from the Problem Tree as

positives
This seems very straightforward and simple, and many people try to rush
this important stage. After all, isn’t project implementation about action?
However, it is extremely important to be ‘problem-driven’ and not ‘activity-
led’, so be patient. By doing this stage thoroughly, you better understand
the situation, and ensure that you are doing what you should, and not just
what you think you can.
To make an Objectives Tree, we simply rephrase the statements in the

problem tree as positives. So, if your Problem Tree includes the
statement ‘There is insufficient access to clean water’ then your
Objectives Tree will state ‘There is sufficient access to clean water’.
Perhaps you may be thinking, who needs to write this down? However, by
transforming every statement to a positive, we are not excluding any
courses of action because we think they are impossible, whether because
of political, financial or any other imagined constraints.
In a way, then, this is an ‘imagining’ stage in the process, where we try to

visualise an ideal world. This is also reflected in the language used in
Objectives Trees. We do not say ‘will’ as that is only a wish or prediction –
use the present simple tense. What we are looking at is the future as the
present.
Note that if a particular problem cannot easily be converted into a positive

statement it could mean that the original statement of the problem was
unclear. In this case, you should look at the problem again and see if it
needs to be redrafted.

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2. Review your objectives

Are they both desired and realistic? Are they achievable? Those which
are not should be modified or removed. (Some of those removed may
emerge later as Assumptions). Are the objectives expressed clearly? If
needed, rewrite them to make them less ambiguous.
Are any of the objectives already covered by other organisations or

institutions? These should also be omitted from your Objectives Tree.
3. Test the Objectives Tree

You will now have, instead of a cause-and-effect relationship, a visual
means-ends relationship. You now need to examine this closely. Working
upwards from the bottom of the Objectives Tree, are the positive actions
enough at each level to bring us to the next one? Is there any gap in the
logic? Are there any ideas missing? If necessary, add further objectives to
make the logic more consistent.
Task
Take the Problem Tree on IDPs in Indonesia and restate the negatives as
positives.

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Possible Solution

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By starting at the bottom the Objectives Tree and working upwards, we

can see that the achievement of the lower level objectives will lead to the
achievement of the objective at the next highest level.
Each objective seems to be realistic and attainable within the project

context so we can conclude that the objectives are viable and can give
direction to the projects.
Some general points to consider:
• The Core Problem, when restated, will, in most cases, become

our main objective or project Outcome.
• The positive impacts of the change can be used to focus a project
towards different sectors. Often, an Outcome will have a range of
positive impacts.
• Not all negatives can be turned into positives. These will usually
turn up later as Assumptions.
Now that there is a clear, logical Objectives Tree we can move onto
developing a project strategy.

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Designing a Strategy
Before we can move into the Planning phase of development, we have
one more analysis stage –Alternatives Analysis. This is where we scope
the project – select a strategy to achieve the desired outcome, usually
combining one or more approaches.
Although it is still too soon to start planning project activities, we will,

naturally, at this point, start thinking ahead to how each of the approaches
might be realised. Unless we know what might be involved, it will be hard
to analyse and compare the possible courses of action.
The next stage, then, is to consider which general approaches we can

take to solve the problems identified. This is not a time to consider either
your perceived constraints or your preferred course of action. Certainly, it
is very likely that the course of action you originally identified as the
appropriate way to address the problem may turn out to be the most
effective at this current time.
The Problem Tree will have shown us that there are several root causes
of the Core Problem. When we turned this into an Objectives Tree, we
saw those roots transformed into positive changes. Now we need to look
at those changes and see what possible approaches they suggest.
It is essential at this point not to think about what you can / can't do, but to
consider each approach on its own merits. Otherwise, we are likely to be
more influenced by what we think is within our capacity than the problem
itself.
We will do the Alternatives Analysis in four steps:
1. Firstly, we will identify the different approaches we can take

2. Next, we will draw up a range of criteria
3. Analyse each approach against your criteria
4. Compare the approaches
This will help us to identify the potential strengths and weaknesses of

each approach separately, and influence how we might combine these. It
is also useful to end this analysis by doing a SWOT (Strengths-
Weaknesses-Opportunities-Threats) summary of each approach.
At this stage it is a good idea to consider others' inputs (particularly other

stakeholders and impartial colleagues). Alternatives Analysis is best done
as a participatory exercise, especially as you may be so close to the
project / problem that it is hard to be impartial.

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1: Identify the Approaches

Look again at the Indonesia Case Study. Examine the problems it
addresses and consider what possible approaches you could use to
improve the living conditions of the IDPs.
Here’s an example of the Objectives Tree with the possible approaches

highlighted.
Notice that we have four possible approaches –improving hygiene

practices, better access to Water and Sanitation, reduced overcrowding
and improved responsiveness of NGOs / local government. We need to
evaluate each of these approaches in order to select which are the most
viable and how they can best be combined into a strategy.

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2: Select the Criteria

To evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each approach we should
select a range of criteria. The exact criteria will vary, although the
following will certainly be present:
• Likelihood of achieving the project outcome – this is the most

important criterion
• Short-term results / medium-term results – will the approach under
consideration bring about change in the short term? Early victories
are important for retaining the support of end-users.
• Sustainability – how likely is the change to be sustainable after
project inputs and activities have ended?
• Cooperation from key stakeholders – here you may wish to break
down this into several sub-criteria, one for each high influence
stakeholder group. Is their attitude likely to be positive, neutral or
negative?
• Cost – in terms of results delivered, does the option under
consideration represent value for money?
• Risk – how risky is the approach? Does it depend upon too many
external assumptions we cannot influence?
• Other factors you may add to this will vary from case to case, but
may include some of the following if appropriate:
• Involvement of end-users in decision making, implementation,
monitoring and evaluation – participation of end-users is always a
desirable design factor.
• Involvement of marginalised groups / positive discrimination
• Technical feasibility
• Environmental impact
• Social impact
• Political environment – to what extent is the proposed course of
action in line with government policy? Are there other political
factors (such as instability) to consider?
• Relationship between organisations involved
Note that you do not need all the criteria above and you may select others
relevant to the issue you are addressing. Also, not all the criteria are
equally important. What matters is that you cover the most important
points and that there are enough criteria – between 7 and 10 is usually
fine – that you are considering a range of aspects for each approach.

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3: Analyse the Approaches

Next, put the criteria into a table like the one you can see below.
Approach 1 Approach 2 Approach 3
Likelihood of achieving project Outcome
Short-term results
Medium-term results
Sustainability
Cooperation from key stakeholders
Cost
Risk
Etc.
Now, it’s time to go through the approaches. We suggest:
• Work vertically down each column, ignoring the others. It’s

important to deal with each approach on its own merits, doing one
approach at a time. This will stop you from subconsciously cross-
comparing. If you fill in the fields from left to right you might be
weighting the analysis to your preferred course of action.
• Work in a team with various points of view. Be prepared to discuss
each point until you reach consensus.
• Use a simple ‘scoring system’ to keep track of your thoughts. For
example, each criterion can be given ‘marks out of 10’ at then end
of each discussion. However, be consistent – all high scores
should be positive and low scores negative. However, how you fill
the fields is up to you.
Note any key points about each criterion.
It is also a good idea to take a break between analysing each approach,

so that you are not subconsciously showing bias to your preferred action.
Once the discussion is finished and all the relevant boxes are filled, you
will have a raw score at the bottom of each column. This gives you a
rough idea of which solutions are most likely to succeed. You might find
the initial results surprising. It’s not uncommon for alternatives we initially
thought undesirable to actually score relatively highly.

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Task
Go through the table and highlight where each approach scored either
very high or very low. Now that each column has been completed, it's
time to start reading the table from left to right. If you are doing this with a
group, expect it to take some time as you discuss the comparative
advantages and disadvantages of each approach.

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Possible Solution: WATSAN Approach
Improved access to WATSAN
Likelihood of
improving camp 10/10: Definitely
conditions
Short / medium-term
10: Yes!
results
6: Some of the inputs could be reused / recycled in

Sustainability future programmes … but if IDP numbers increase,
things will not improve much in the longer term
Cooperation from
No objections expected
stakeholders
– End users 10
– Local government 10
– Health workers &

10
NGOs
9: A good (high) rating – 5000 people at a cost of

Cost 10,000 GBP = 2 GBP per head
Risk 10: Fully within our control
5: It may take some time to get the Inputs to the

Schedule uncertainty camps – we will need fast local government
(probability of efficient support and prioritising of government resources
delivery of services) for addressing the emergency
Involvement of end
users 3: This is totally top-down, though we will aim to
in decision-making, involve IDPs in M&E
implementation, monitoring
and evaluation
Technical feasibility 10: Straightforward
Relationship 10: We have a strong partnership with NGOs active

between organisations in the camps, relations with local government are
involved stable
Rough Score 110

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Possible Solution: Reduced Overcrowding Approach
Reduced Overcrowding Approach
Likelihood of
improving camp 9
conditions
Short / medium-term 8: Will make an immediate difference to living

results conditions
8: Tents can be stored for future crises – it’s not

Sustainability throwing money away
Cooperation from
No objections expected
stakeholders
– End users 10
– Local government 10

10
NGOs
9: 100 tents (capacity 5 persons) = 5000 GBP = 1

Cost GBP per person
Risk 10: Fully within our control
Schedule uncertainty
(probability of efficient 10: We can get these within 48 hours
delivery of services)
Involvement of end
users
in decision-making, 0: This is totally top-down
and evaluation
Technical feasibility 10
Relationship 10: We have a strong partnership with NGOs active

between organisations in the camps, relations with local government are
involved stable
Rough Score 104

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Possible Solution: Improved Hygiene Approach
Improved Hygiene Approach
Likelihood of
6/10: Improving hygiene alone won’t immediately
improving camp avert any health crisis
conditions
Short / medium-term 5: No great results immediately, but presents an

results opportunity for promoting good practice
9: Awareness matters in the long-term – will have

Sustainability positive impacts in non-crisis situations in the future
Cooperation from
Little resistance anticipated
stakeholders
7: IDPs are more conscious of overcrowding and

– End users poor sanitation as urgent needs
– Local government 10: No objections anticipated
– Health workers & 10: Falls within the mandate of many NGOs active
NGOs in the area
Cost 9: Time, expertise, IEC budget
Risk 7: Doesn’t come with a guarantee
Schedule uncertainty 10: We have available resources to implement this

(probability of efficient at any time
Involvement of end
users
in decision-making, 8: Strong role for community to participate
and evaluation
Relationship
between organisations 10: Strong partnerships with NGOs in the camp
involved
Rough Score 101

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Possible Solution: Improved Responsiveness Approach
Improved Responsiveness Approach
Likelihood of
0/10: Will help in future emergencies, but not this
improving camp one
conditions
Short / medium-term
0: None
results
9: Any improved preparedness of government and

Sustainability NGOs will have long-term impact
Cooperation from
Mixed responses expected depending on group
stakeholders
8: We expect most communities to be responsive

– End users to this
5: Local government has resource constraints, can

– Local government be slow to change practices and may resist outside
agencies’ attempts to ‘improve’ their services

10: They will welcome any capacity strengthening
NGOs
Cost 10: Basically costs us time and expertise
7: Resistance to change from local government

Risk needs to be overcome
Schedule uncertainty
(probability of efficient 5: Will take time coordinate stakeholders
Involvement of end
users 8: Community participation in disaster
in decision-making, preparedness is a high priority
and evaluation
Relationship 8: Relationships are good when we act as a donor,

between organisations but when advocating change we can meet more
involved resistance from some stakeholder groups
Rough Score 80

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4: Compare the Results

In the table below, we can see the overall ‘rough scores’ for each
approach. Three of them all rate similarly highly, though this is no reason
to disregard the fourth option. We have highlighted, also, the areas where
scores are low (in green). These represent weaknesses, where the
‘score’ is 5 or lower. The areas shaded yellow are positive aspects, with a
rating of 8-10. Before we make any final decision on which approaches to
use in our strategy, it’s useful to dig a little deeper with a SWOT analysis.
Reduced Improved Improved

Improved access
Overcrowding Hygiene Responsiveness
to WATSAN
Approach Approach Approach
6/10: Improving
Likelihood of hygiene alone
0/10: Will help in
improving won’t
10/10: Definitely 9/10 future emergencies,
camp immediately
but not this one
conditions avert any health
crisis
5: No great
results
8: Will make an
immediately, but
Short / medium- immediate
10: Yes! presents an 0: None
term results difference to
opportunity for
living conditions
promoting good
practice
6: Some of the
inputs could be 9: Awareness
reused / recycled in 8: Tents can be matters in the 9: Any improved
future programmes stored for future long-term – will preparedness of
Sustainability … but if IDP crises – it’s not have positive government and
numbers increase, throwing money impacts in non- NGOs will have long-
things will not away crisis situations term impact
improve much in in the future
the longer term
Cooperation Mixed responses
No objections No objections Little resistance
from expected depending
expected expected anticipated
stakeholders on group
7: IDPs are more
conscious of
8: We expect most
overcrowding
– End users 10 10 communities to be
and poor
responsive to this
sanitation as
urgent needs
5: Local government
has resource
constraints, can be
10: No slow to change
– Local
10 10 objections practices and may
government
anticipated resist outside
agencies’ attempts to
‘improve’ their
services
10: Falls within 10: They will
– Health
the mandate of welcome any
workers & 10 10
many NGOs capacity
NGOs
active in the area strengthening

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9: A good (high) 9: 100 tents

rating – 5000 (capacity 5 9: Time,
10: Basically costs us
Cost people at a cost of persons) = 5000 expertise, IEC
time and expertise
10,000 GBP = 2 GBP = 1 GBP budget
GBP per head per person
7: Resistance to
10: Fully within our 10: Fully within 7: Doesn’t come change from local
Risk
control our control with a guarantee government needs to
be overcome
5: It may take some
time to get the
Inputs to the camps
Schedule
– we will need fast 10: We have
uncertainty
local government 10: We can get available 5: Will take time
(probability of
support and these within 48 resources to coordinate
efficient
prioritising of hours implement this at stakeholders
delivery of
government any time
services)
resources for
addressing the
emergency
Involvement of
end users 3: This is totally 8: Community
in decision- top-down, though 8: Strong role for participation in
0: This is totally
making, we will aim to community to disaster
top-down
implementation, involve IDPs in participate preparedness is a
monitoring and M&E high priority
evaluation
Technical
10: Straightforward 10 10 10
feasibility
10: We have a
10: We have a strong 8: Relationships are
strong partnership partnership with good when we act as
Relationship 10: Strong
with NGOs active NGOs active in a donor, but when
between partnerships with
in the camps, the camps, advocating change
organisations NGOs in the
relations with local relations with we can meet more
involved camp
government are local resistance from some
stable government are stakeholder groups
stable
Rough Score 110 104 101 80

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SWOT Analysis
At this point it’s good to go into more depth using a SWOT analysis for
each approach.
SWOT Analysis is a strategic planning method used to evaluate the

Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats involved in a course
of action. It helps us to identify the internal and external factors that are
favourable and unfavourable to achieving any outcome.
You have already highlighted the cells in the table and highlight where
each approach scored either very high or very low. The higher scores
represent either Strengths or Opportunities the approach presents; the
lower scores are Weaknesses or Threats / Risks.
For each approach, note down its particular Strengths, Weaknesses,

Opportunities and Threats in the box below.
Repeatedly ask yourself how you can:
• Use the strengths?

• Address the weaknesses?
• Exploit the opportunities?
• Defend against the threats?

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Converting Weaknesses and Threats

Once we have completed a SWOT for each approach, let’s not stop
there. The weaknesses and threats need to be further investigated and
converted into strengths and opportunities. (Those that cannot will, if we
take the approach forward, remain as Assumptions.)
Most weaknesses will be internal, i.e. within our control. This gives us an
opportunity to address these. For example:
• If the weakness is related to technical skills, we can factor into our

own capacity building into the project
• If the weakness is related to sustainability, we need to consider
how we can design the project to remove this
• If the approach is weak because we cannot deliver early victories,
we need to examine how we can retain end-users’ commitment
• Looking at the threats that exist, ask yourself what you can do to
minimise or remove them. Some will be beyond your ability to
influence (and will emerge later as Assumptions), while others –
particularly those from stakeholders in opposition to the project –
could be mitigated through a good communications strategy or
greater involvement of project opponents.

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Selecting the Strategy

While we have been analysing each alternative approach separately, it is
clear that, except in very unusual cases, a single approach is not enough.
We need a strategy which combines several approaches if we are to:
• Be sure of achieving the project outcome

• Ensure long-term, positive change while giving early results to
stakeholders
• Keep the majority of key stakeholders satisfied and involved
However, some of our approaches may be disregarded. This could be

due to:
• High cost
• High risk
• High level of opposition
• Schedule uncertainty
The remaining approaches, however, clearly are not equal, and will need
to be combined in order for us to have an effective project strategy.
Final questions to consider when defining the strategy include:
• Which approaches are going to give us the greatest contribution to

achieving the outcome?
• Which represent the best value?
• Which present the least (political, economic, social, technical,
legal or environmental) risk?
• Which are most likely to be popular with key stakeholders?
• Which approaches can be added / incorporated with little effort
and for little extra cost?
Some less desirable alternatives could be incorporated as secondary

approaches – for example, in the case from Indonesia, we can see that
the core intervention is related to WATSAN, but during the process it
would cost very little to address hygiene practices; and, while conducting
advocacy for greater preparedness may not have any relevance to the
immediate crisis, adding this will be an economic way to mitigate the
negative impact of future, similar events.

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Developing a Strategy Table

List the approaches in order of importance, i.e. the first one will be the
one which will contribute most to achieving the outcome and be given
priority by the project in terms of attention and resources.
OUTCOME
Narrative
STRATEGY Summary
Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats Comments
Approach 1
Approach 1
Approach 1
Approach 1
Task
Do a SWOT for the four approaches for the Indonesia Case Study. Our
suggestions follow.

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Possible Solution
OUTCOME
Narrative
STRATEGY Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats Comments
Summary
Of all the
Gives us an
approaches,
opportunity There may
Providing this is going
to move our be some
water supply to have the This
community delay with
(tanks, maximum component
Doesn’t health construction
Improved boreholes, results as will
involve end agenda
access to buckets) and unsafe contribute
users so forward and IDPs should
WATSAN clean water and most to
much involve end feel
latrines lack of reducing
users in responsible
sanitation health risks
construction for
are the most
and maintenance
pressing
maintenance
concerns
If we work
closely with
Will reduce
partner
Providing health risks This
NGOs we
extra tents to from component
can build
reduce airborne No real will be
Reduced their
average disease and involvement positively
overcrowding response
occupancy give IDPs of end users received by
capacity and
more all
ensure tents
privacy / stakeholders
are available
dignity
in future
emergencies
Will involve
Ensuring end users A worthwhile
end users while component
Allows us to
are aware of reducing that involves
target key There are
disease disease end users
May not agents in never
Improved transmission transmission and has
have family health guarantees
hygiene routes and risks potential
immediate to contribute that what is
practices follow basic long-term
benefits towards our learned is
preventive Has benefits
long-term practiced
practices potential for beyond the
health goals
longer-term current
impacts on scenario
communities
Developing
the capacity Will help to
of partners respond to
(NGOs, crises in the
health future Will Chance to Local
workers, through contribute develop government We need
local more little to the better can be this
Improved government) efficient and current relations and sensitive to component
responsiveness to respond appropriate situation – a shared criticism and to develop
efficiently responses this is more vision with slow to better future
and and can be forward- counterparts adopt new responses
appropriately while looking and partners practices
to future conducting
emergencies project
Activities.

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Endnote
By doing the analysis in as unbiased a way as possible, you will be doing
yourself and your proposal justice. Doing this stage thoroughly will help
you to justify your course of action to donors. You will be able to answer
the question ‘What about trying this approach?’ with a sound and
reasoned justification of why you selected to address some causes and
not others, or why you 'weighted' your inputs towards some aspects more
than others.
On previous workshops, as a result of this process, most participants felt

more confident that they had selected the right course of action. In two
cases, however, results were different. One participant expanded the
scope of his proposed project beyond what his organisation had
traditionally considered ‘possible’: another came to the conclusion that he
couldn't actually justify the proposed action he had arrived at the
workshop with!
At this point, you will have selected / prioritised your approach and will be
able to move from the Analysis to Planning phase of the Logical
Framework Approach.

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3: The Logical Framework Approach: Planning

In this second stage of the LFA we take our analysis and develop it into a project
plan. We will set our Goal and Outcome, and define the Outputs, Activities and
Inputs needed. We will identify Preconditions and Risks, and outline our Monitoring
and Evaluation systems. At the end, we will have a completed LogFrame.
Introduction
If we have fully completed our analysis, developing the plan and
Logframe will be relatively straightforward. Certainly, there will be times
we may need to pause, consider and consult, and possibly reformulate
ideas so that our plan continues to reflect reality, but it’s still a systematic
process that you will have no problem in achieving.
The Planning stage will usually go as follows:
• Describe the Project Effects (Narrative Summary – Outcome and

Goal)
• Describe the Project Operations (Narrative Summary – Outputs.
Activities and Inputs)
• Describe the Project Context (Assumptions and Preconditions)
• Establish Indicators and define Means of Verification (Project
Monitoring and Evaluation)

Indicators
PROJECT
Goal EFFECTS
The direct
(Outcome) and PROJECT
indirect (Goal) MONITORING AND PROJECT
effects of what the EVALUATION CONTEXT
project produces or
provides How you will measure The
Outcomes progress and environment
achievement which may
influence
project
operations or
effects
Outputs
PROJECT
OPERATIONS
What the project

provides (Outputs)
Activities

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The Project Goal

What is a Project Goal?
The Goal (in some Logframes you may see this expressed as ‘Impact’)
refers to the higher level objectives.
The Goal is the ultimate objective the project will contribute to – a

general, long-term change – often or at national level or related to a
specific sector. For example, types of change at goal level may include
change in health behaviour, improved nutritional status or improved
livelihoods, changes in public policy or reduced crime.
The Goal, then, sets the greater context your project will contribute to. A
single project cannot usually achieve the Goal by itself. Projects are
limited by target population covered and resources available, and subject
to influence by external factors. Don’t think about being able to measure
your Goal during the lifespan of the project -your Outcome is a
measurable, timebound deliverable, but your Goal is not.
The Problem Tree often gives us a range of negative consequences of

the core problem that may fall into various sectors. When these are
transformed through the Objectives Tree into positive changes, we can
see that we often have a choice of Goal.
Try to select a Goal that is most consistent with:
• Government policy – it should reflect national aims and priorities

or, at least, not contradict them
• Donor policy
• Your own organisation’s mission and purpose
For example:
Increased access to safe water in community X may improve health

leading to:
• Reduced child mortality (Health Goal)

• Improved incomes as the population has more productive days
(Poverty Reduction Goal)
Increased access to safe water may also reduce women’s labour leading
to:
• A more supportive environment for female participation in decision

making (Inclusiveness Goal)

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Describing the Goal

Express the Goal as an end result, not a process.
Keep your language simple and try to avoid any terminology that may not
be well-understood by people outside your organisation. If you must use
terminology, explain the first time you use it.
The Goal should refer to the target group and be as specific / verifiable as
possible. In the Logframe, this is entered into the Narrative Summary
column and the exact details (quantity, quality, time, location and target
group) may be expanded later as an OVI.
For example, the following is NOT a good example of a clear goal:
To advise the Provincial Tourism Office and the local community on how
to realise the tourism potential of the Buddha Cave to maximise pro-poor
income opportunities while protecting the province and its surrounding
environment
What’s wrong with this?
This Goal doesn’t really work because it describes a process (to ‘advise’),
uses unnecessary complex terminology (‘pro-poor income opportunities’)
and does not give us any information about the target group.
A better version could be:
Improved livelihoods of Nakhang Xang villagers, Khammouane Province,

Lao PDR

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Task
Draft a Goal statement for the Indonesia Case Study and insert into the
Logframe below.

Indicators
Goal
Outcomes
Outputs
Activities

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Possible Solution

Indicators
Improved
health
status of
Goal Internally
Displaced
People at
Camp A
Outcomes
Outputs
Activities

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The Project Outcome

What is the Project Outcome?
The Outcome (sometimes referred to as ‘Purpose’ or ‘Objective’)
represents what your project will achieve by its end. Often the Outcome
represents a behaviour change in the target group or a measurable
change in circumstances affecting end-users.
The Outcome is different to the Goal in that it should be complete by the

end of the project. The Outcome is more specific than a Goal – it refers to
a definite location, target group and time period and should be achievable
and measurable within the lifespan of the project.
Remember, the entire project only contributes to the Goal. However, the
Outcome should contribute directly and significantly to achieving the Goal
you stated earlier.
Even so, the Outcome still lies outside of the immediate control of the
project management. (If it were within project control, it would be an
Output.) The Outcome, then, is what the sum of your activities expects to
achieve if the Assumptions are correct and the project were completely
successful.
We said earlier that types of change at Goal level may include change in
health behaviour, improved nutritional status, improved livelihoods, and
changes in public policy or reduced crime. At Outcomes level these might
translate to:
OUTCOME GOAL
Increased use of family Change in health

planning behaviour
Increased agricultural Improved

production nutritional status
Increased production of Improved

maize livelihoods
Increased employment Reduced crime
Greater public
involvement in local Changes in public
government decision- policy
making

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There should be only one main Outcome in a Logframe. It is the single,

intermediate step between your Outputs and your Goal. Often – but not
always – it corresponds to the Objective based on the original Core
Problem. If you are lucky – remember, the Logframe process is
sometimes intuitive and requires trial-and-error – but if your project is
straightforward, you may see a relationship between your Objectives Tree
and Logframe like this:

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However, you might find yourself with what you think is more than one
‘Outcome’. What can you do here? Some people try to squeeze two ideas
into the same Outcome – a miniature cause-and-effect such as
‘Increased agricultural production through application of improved farming
methods’. But that only occasionally works. Or they might be clear about
their overall project purpose but feel they have to break it down into a list
of ‘sub-objectives’ at this level. Again, we are stretching the Logframe
(and its principles) a bit here – there should be just one Outcome – the
major step towards the Goal achievable by the project if all Assumptions
are correct.
We didn’t say this was going to be so easy, and at this point it is quite OK
to be stretching mentally and pencilling in one idea only to erase it five
minutes later. I frequently tell training participants that, during practical
sessions, in my role as coach, I will often suggest one idea and contradict
it a little later as the Logframe starts to take shape. The LFA is part
science and part trial-and-error, and as we develop the Logframe through
this process we will often find ourselves making changes, as further parts
become clear or as we gain new perspectives.
If you are stuck at this point, don’t worry too much. Perhaps all the ‘extra
information’ you want to squeeze into your Outcome may play a better
role as Indicators – detailing the specifics of what, exactly, the
measurable change will be.
Some organisations have modified their Logframes, adding a level

between Outcomes and Outputs. This level of sub-objectives –
sometimes called Component Objectives or Intermediate Results – is
used when the project is large enough to have several, diverse major
components, each needing its own Objective Statement. However, they
still have to provide a logical link between the Outputs overall Outcome.
Alternatively, you may want to look again at your Goal – is it so distant

from your Outcome that it needs to be made less ‘lofty’? Or is it your
Outcome itself that, in reality, cannot be delivered by the project within its
lifespan? Perhaps adjusting your perspective is the key here?
Or perhaps, as you descend to the Outputs and Activities (Project

Operations), you should just offer less detail of the actual steps of
implementation. Remember the Logframe is a summary, a ‘snapshot’ of
the project – it’s in many ways restrictive, as we are limited to what is ‘in
the frame’. Perhaps we are trying to include too much detail.

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Describing the Outcome

When writing the Project Outcome, identify:
• Who and where is the target group?

• What change will be realised, and by when?
Remember your Outcome must be must be SMART (Specific-

Measurable-Appropriate-Realistic-Timebound) – although usually we will
see the ‘specific and measurable’ parts in our M&E columns.
Don’t forget, also, we are describing the end result, the change brought
about as a consequence of all our efforts throughout the entire project.
So, avoid using verbs of action like train, advise, establish, develop, etc. –
these are all Activities. In many Logframes we see writers use verbs of
change such as decrease, increase, improve, strengthen and enhance.
These are OK, but … you will express your ideas more confidently (and,
as a result, your proposal will be stronger and more persuasive) if you talk
about the end results – so prefer to say decreased, increased, improved,
strengthened and enhanced instead, e.g.:
Increased involvement of the poorest members of Nakhang Xang

villagers in sustainable tourism activities
Task
State the Outcome in the Narrative Summary column. (Other specifics will
be developed in the OVIs column later.)

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Possible Solution

Indicators
Improved
health status
of Internally
Goal
Displaced
People at
Camp A
Immediate
improvement
of living
conditions of
Outcomes 5000
Internally
Displaced
People in
Camp A
Outputs
Activities

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Project Operations – Outputs, Activities & Inputs

Outputs
Outputs are intermediate, intended changes – measurable, specific
results of the Activities conducted. Together, they must lead to the project
Outcome.
Outputs are within the organisation’s control. If the Preconditions are met
and the Inputs (resources: time, equipment, finance) available, Activities
will be conducted and Outputs achieved.
Often, they correspond to the immediate causes of the Core Problem in

our Problem Tree. Outputs would be things such as products (goods
created, and infrastructure or services provided), acquired knowledge /
learning, or systems established.
State your Outputs as end results, not processes, e.g.:
• IEC materials created

• Legal Advice Centre established
• 60 journalists trained in Human Rights reporting
• Local villagers understand the value of and have the skills to grow
organic produce
• Guidelines for citizenship process developed for ethnic minorities
Task
Develop the Logframe for the Indonesia Case Study further by adding
Outputs based on the strategy we developed earlier.

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Possible Solution

Indicators
Improved
health status
of Internally
Goal
Displaced
People at
Camp A
Immediate
improvement
of living
conditions of
Outcomes
5000 Internally
Displaced
People in
Camp A
1. Increased
availability and
accessibility of
safe water for
IDPs
2. Increased
availability and
accessibility of
safe latrines
Outputs 3. Occupancy
of temporary
shelters does
not exceed 10
people per
tent
4. IDPs aware
of how to
reduce risk of
disease
Activities

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Activities
Activities can be defined as actions / work done mobilising resources
available (such as time, money, people) to produce specific Outputs.
Each Output has a group of related Activities, a series of timebound steps

to be conducted by the project. Note that actions taken by others are NOT
project Activities – and if reaching the Outputs depends on others’
actions, those actions are project Assumptions – i.e. we are not in control
of these and dependent on their being successful.
The exact level of detail of your Activities to some extent depends on your
‘entry point’ – how ambitious your Outcome is – as well as on the scope
of the project (geographical size, target group, etc.). In some cases,
especially larger projects, your Activities may be quite broad, while in
other, more manageable projects they may be very detailed.
In both cases, keep the level of detail in your Activities section sufficient
that you have outlined the tasks enough that it is clear they will lead to the
desired Outputs. If you feel the need to go into further detail, you can
explore this in the Project Description of your proposal. Remember, the
Logframe is a summary of the project (covering 1-2 pages at most), so
you do not need to include everything here.
Don’t list Activities which are not related to any Output. For example,
there may be some actions necessary before commencing your Activities,
such as capacity building / orientation for your team, or acquiring
resources, etc. If they do not lead directly to any Outputs, do not include
these in the Logframe – describe them in the relevant part of the project
document.
Describe the Activities as actions.
Task
Develop the Logframe for the Indonesia Case Study further by adding
Activities designed to achieve the Outputs we developed. (At the
operational level, this may be unfamiliar for many of you, so just use your
creativity.)

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Possible Solution
Narrative Summary Objectively Means of Assumptions

Verifiable Verification
Indicators
Improved health
status of Internally
Goal
Displaced People at
Camp A
Immediate
improvement of living
Outcomes conditions of 5000
Internally Displaced
People in Camp A
1. Increased
availability and
accessibility of safe
water for IDPs
2. Increased
availability and
accessibility of safe
Outputs latrines
3. Occupancy of
temporary shelters
does not exceed 10
people per tent
4. IDPs aware of how
to reduce risk of
disease
1.1 Distributing Inputs Preconditions
500m3 water (water
truck)
1.2 Borehole water in
one point
1.3 Set up communal
water tanks
1.4 Distribute buckets
(capacity 20 lt.)
Activities 2.1 Constructing

temporary latrines
3.1 Distributing tents

3.2 Advocacy and
coordination with local
government
4.1 Conducting
hygiene programme
for IDPs

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Inputs
It is common practice to include a budget summary alongside the
Activities. There’s no need for OVI or MOV at the Activities level, as all
Activities are completely with the project’s direct control. Any Activity and
Input monitoring system can usually be best defined and established by
project management during implementation.
The Inputs section, then, is a summary of the project budget – what

personnel, materials, money and equipment are needed to carry out
project Activities. Just as with the section of the Logframe on Activities,
the level of detail will vary depending on the size of the project: a smaller
project may have quite a detailed and complete list, while a more
ambitious, broader project may just have the major components
mentioned. A small project may list items such as training hall,
accommodation, training materials, running costs, facilitator, etc., possibly
with the costs related to each specified or an overall budget. A larger
project may only have a very general summary such as ‘Media campaign
budget, Project office, equipment…’ Again, the total project budget would
be given, along with a breakdown by source (donors, host country, other
agencies).
Here’s the Inputs section of the Logframe based on the Indonesia Case
Study.

500m3 water (water
truck) Total Cost: GBP 18,650
1.2 Borehole water in
one point Direct Cost: 14,650
1.3 Set up communal
water tanks Water Trucking – 3600
1.4 Distribute buckets Borehole Water – 550
(capacity 20 lt.) Purchase / installing 5
water tanks – 200
2.1 Constructing Purchase / distribution
Activities temporary latrines 1000 water buckets
capacity 20L – 2,500
3.1 Distributing tents Constructing 20
3.2 Advocacy and temporary latrines – 2,500
coordination with local Conducting hygiene
government promotion – 300
Providing and distributing
4.1 Conducting 100 tents – 5000
hygiene programme
for IDPs Indirect Cost: GBP 4000
(Transport, staffing,
indirect operational costs)

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The Project Context: Preconditions and Assumptions

Projects which do not take the external environment into consideration
run the risk of failure to meet their objectives. External factors are the
Preconditions and Assumptions in our Logframe.
We start from the bottom of the Logframe, in the fourth column, and work
upwards. Staring from the bottom right, Preconditions are the things that
must be true before we can use Inputs to carry out Activities. What
conditions do we need before the project can actually begin? These may
be legal or political; they may be related to another event that must take
place before we can begin; they may be related to something as simple
as seasonal road conditions allowing us access to the project site. The
question to answer here is, what do we need for a ‘green light’ to start
activities?
Working upwards, Assumptions are those things which must be true for
the project to succeed – for Outputs to lead to Outcomes, and for
Outcomes to lead to Impact. Some parts of the Objectives Tree – things
that we could not affect – may be included here.
Task
Returning to the Indonesia Case Study:
• At the Preconditions level, what is needed before Activities can

begin?
• At the Outputs level, what must be true for Outputs to lead to the
Outcome (improvement of living conditions)?
• At the Outcome level, what must be true for the Outcome to
contribute towards the Goal (improved health status)?

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Possible Solution
Assumptions
No unanticipated
outbreaks /
epidemics
Local government
continues to provide
sufficient nutrition /
medical care
Number of IDPs
does not
significantly
increase
IDPs maintain
hygienic standards
of latrines
Preconditions
Local government
gives full access to
the camp

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Now we have completed the Preconditions and Assumptions we can test

the diagonal logic.
Narrative Summary Objectively Means of Assumptions

Verifiable Verification
Indicators
Improved health status of
Goal Internally Displaced People
at Camp A
Immediate improvement of No unanticipated
living conditions of 5000 outbreaks /
Internally Displaced People epidemics
in Camp A
Outcomes Local government
continues to
provide sufficient
nutrition / medical
care
1. Increased availability Number of IDPs
and accessibility of safe does not
water for IDPs significantly
2. Increased availability increase
and accessibility of safe
Outputs latrines IDPs maintain
3. Occupancy of temporary hygienic standards
shelters does not exceed of latrines
10 people per tent
4. IDPs aware of how to
reduce risk of disease
1.1 Distributing 500m3 Inputs Preconditions
water (water truck)
1.2 Borehole water in one Total Cost: GBP 18,650 Local government
point gives full access to
1.3 Set up communal water Direct Cost: 14,650 the camp
tanks
1.4 Distribute buckets Water Trucking – 3600
(capacity 20 lt.) Borehole Water – 550
Purchase / installing 5 water
2.1 Constructing temporary tanks – 200
latrines Purchase / distribution 1000
water buckets capacity 20L –
Activities
3.1 Distributing tents 2,500
3.2 Advocacy and Constructing 20 temporary
coordination with local latrines – 2,500
government Conducting hygiene promotion –
300
4.1 Conducting hygiene Providing and distributing 100
programme for IDPs tents – 5000
Indirect Cost: GBP 4000

(Transport, staffing, indirect
operational costs)

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The logic tells us that:
• If the local government does not object and gives us access to the
camps, and we have the budget, then we can conduct the
Activities. The Activities will lead directly to the Outputs – more
safe water / toilets, more tents and increased awareness.
• As long as there is no big increase in the number of camp
occupants, and if IDPs keep the sanitation facilities clean, living
conditions will improve.
• If there are no epidemics, and the local government continues to
meet its obligations to provide food and medical care, we will see
an improvement in the health status of the IDPs.
In some Logframes you may see this column described as

‘Risks’. Basically, Risks and Assumptions are the same thing. However,
Risks look at anticipated problems (‘what could go wrong’) while
Assumptions looks at conditions that need to be met (‘what should go
right’). So, the difference is just one of perspective.
Either way, identifying these helps us allows us to anticipate potential

risks and modify our plans so we address / mitigate these in project
design. Some Assumptions may lead us to significantly redesigning the
Outcome.
Once we have identified our Assumptions, we can use a Decision Tree to

analyse them and decide how to address them.
There are three things that can happen as a result of the analysis:
• The Assumption may not be included

• The Assumption may be included
• The project is redesigned to address the risk

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Th
ere is also the extreme case where we have a high-risk project where
external factors are almost certain to cause problems in achieving results
– sometimes called a ‘killer assumption’. This does not mean, as some
think, that the project has to be abandoned. When there is a killer
assumption, it implies that we must either redesign the project to mitigate
the risk, or manage it closely.

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Risk Analysis and Risk Management

Risk Analysis is an analysis of the Logframe’s Assumptions likely to affect
the successful achievement of the project’s objectives. A good
understanding of project Risks can increase the project’s likelihood of
success. The Logframe can provide a starting point for more in-depth risk
assessment which can lead to better planning and delivery of services.
Assumptions identify events and issues outside of the project’s control:
but a Risk Analysis can allow us to bring more things under project
influence.
External factors vary in significance. The risk of an assumption not being

true can be assessed according to its level of probability and impact. Low
probability and low impact risks can often be accepted and monitored;
while high probability and high impact risks may kill the project or require
close management attention. We need to identify significant risks that
must be managed, and screen the minor risks that can be accepted. The
table below is a simple way to prioritise risks. Plot each risk in the table as
follows:
Severity of Negligible Minor Moderate Major Extreme

Impact
Likelihood
Almost certain
High Risk
(8-100%)
Medium
Likely (60-80%) High Risk Extreme Risk
Risk
Possible (40- Medium
High Risk
60%) Risk
Unlikely (20- Medium High
Low Risk
40%) Risk Risk
Extremely Medium
High Risk
unlikely (0-20%) Risk
Each risk will be Low, Medium, High or Extreme – but be careful when
classifying a risk which is borderline.

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Lower level risks can usually be noted and accepted – ordinary

monitoring is enough. Higher-level risks should be addressed in a risk
management plan.
Risk Level Definition
Extreme risks are those most likely to happen

AND will prevent the project from achieving its
Extreme objective. Extreme risks will need close
attention and a risk management plan if the
project is to go ahead.
High risks are those which would cause severe

delay, or significantly affect performance or
High costs. High risks need a high level of
management attention and a risk management
plan.
Medium risks are those which are both likely

and will need to be controlled / monitored.
Medium
These risks will need to be reassessed at key
stages of implementation.
Low risks are acceptable but still require

Low
regular control and monitoring.

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Risk Management Options

Choosing the best way to deal with any risk is a trade-off between the
cost of addressing it and the potential benefits.
When selecting your response, consider carefully when to accept the risk
and, where the risk is not acceptable, which approach to use. Choices
available to us are:
Accept it
You can’t make any project 100% risk-free. If risks are low and not likely
to have much negative impact, sometimes the most cost-effective thing to
do is leave it. Maybe there are some stakeholders who might have the
potential to hinder activities, but they don’t have a lot of influence and it’s
uncertain whether they will oppose or not. In a case like this, it’s best to
monitor the risk.
Avoid it
If the risk is too large and you can’t do anything about it, think about
dropping the related Activity or Output. For example, one component may
have strong opposition from influential stakeholders and addressing this
is too much for you to handle. When transforming the Problem Tree into
an Objectives Tree, some of the objectives may not have been stated as
they were considered high risk; or when selecting the project strategy risk
may have been one reason why one approach was given less priority
than others. Be careful, though, when dropping any part of your project
strategy as it can reduce the achievement of project Outcomes.
Reduce the Likelihood of the Risk
Controlling the risk can require a lot of time and effort. You may have to
redevelop your strategy, change your methodology and monitor Activities
and stakeholder reactions more frequently. Look at what you can do to
reduce the risk without diverting too many project resources.
Reduce the Effects
Reducing the effects is also usually not cost-free. However, if the risk is
unacceptable and cannot be avoided, then addressing its source is often
necessary. Powerful stakeholders resisting the project are one case
where, although we may not be able to remove the risk, we may reduce
its effects through a good communication plan. High impact / low
likelihood risks (such as political instability) may also need to be
addressed for through emergency / contingency plans.
Transfer it
You may not have this opportunity, but in some cases it’s best to pass the
responsibility for addressing the risk to those who can manage it best.
However, ‘outsourcing’ risk management can be expensive, and raises
issues of accountability. Even if another party or agency is hired to deal
with the risk, close monitoring will be needed.

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Project Monitoring and Evaluation

The 2nd and 3rd columns of our Logframe summarise our Monitoring and
Evaluation (M&E) system.

Indicators
PROJECT
Goal EFFECTS
The direct
(Outcome) and PROJECT
indirect (Goal) MONITORING AND PROJECT
effects of what the EVALUATION CONTEXT
project produces or
provides How you will measure The
Outcomes progress and environment
achievement which may
influence
project
operations or
effects
Outputs
PROJECT
OPERATIONS
What the project

provides (Outputs)
Activities
Project Monitoring is the regular, systematic collection and analysis of

data on specific indicators to:
• Demonstrate to management and key stakeholders the extent of

progress
• Assist in timely decision-making
• Ensure accountability
• Provide the basis for evaluation and learning
Project Evaluation is the periodic, systematic assessment of an on-going

or completed project, its design, implementation and results. It aims to:
• Compare actual results with those planned / expected

• Determine the relevance and fulfilment of objectives
• Measure efficiency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability
Monitoring will usual be managed internally by the project itself, and

begins from project initiation, continuing throughout the project lifespan.
As major milestones are achieved and Activities become Outputs, we
also start to evaluate. Evaluation may be internal or external.

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Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVIs)

Indicators tell us how the achievement of activity objectives will be
measured and verified. They are the basis for monitoring delivery of
outputs and measuring progress towards outcomes.
Indicators answer the question: How do I know whether the activities are
leading to the desired change?
Taking an example where of a pro-poor tourism project training villagers

to produce handicrafts for sale, at each level, we establish answers to
questions such as:
• How do we know that more community members are involved in

handicraft production?
• What will tell us if this has had an impact on household incomes?
• How do we measure benefits of improved incomes at village
level?
• How can we know if these benefits are going to be sustainable?
Indicators should be specific in terms of the quantity, quality, time,

location and target group. Remember, though, that the Logframe is just a
summary and should not contain more detail than is necessary. OVI
should be simple and reliable, and easy to verify at a reasonable cost.
Features of Good Indicators: The Five Dimensions
There are no absolute rules about what makes a good indicator, but
where possible your Indicators should be include the following
dimensions:
• Time
• Target Group
• Location
• Quality of Change
• Quantity of Change

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Features of Good Indicators: SMART
Indicators should also aim to be SMART.
Specific
Indicators need to be specific and to relate to change the project aims to

bring about. Training delivered, for example, is not a specific indicator of
learning.
Measurable
Wherever possible, indicators should be quantitative. However, process

indicators can be hard to quantify, and qualitative indicators can also be
used. Even so, you should try to make these as objective and systematic
as possible.
Realistic
It must be possible to gather the information accurately, reliably and at

reasonable cost to the project.
Appropriate
You should specify indicators which are appropriate to what is being

measured. For example, a health Indicator might be ‘percentage of
children immunised’ (indicator of services provided). Your indicators must
also be appropriate to management needs.
Timebound
The information for the indicator must be collected and reported at the
right time to influence management thinking. Avoid choosing indicators
that can only tell you at the end of an activity whether you succeeded or
not. The lessons learned may be too late.

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Making the Indicator Specific: Examples
Basic Indicator Number of graduates increased
+ quantity Number of graduates increased from 5,000 to 14,000
Number of graduates with pass grade School Leaving Certificate

+ quality
increased from 5,000 to 14,000
Number of graduates with pass grade School Leaving Certificate

+ time frame
increased from 5,000 to 14,000 by end of three-year period
Number of graduates from lower income families with pass grade

+ target group School Leaving Certificate increased from 5,000 to 14,000 by end
of three-year period
Number of graduates from lower income families in Serengi

+ location District with pass grade School Leaving Certificate increased
from 5,000 to 14,000 by end of three-year period
Basic Indicator Rattan shoot production increased
+ quantity Rattan shoot production increased from 30 to 60 ha.
+ quality Production of saleable rattan shoots increased from 30 to 60 ha.
Production of saleable rattan shoots increased from 30 to 60 ha.

+ time frame
by end of two years
Production of saleable rattan shoots of smallholder farmers

+ target group
increased from 30 to 60 ha. by end of two years
Production of saleable rattan shoots of smallholder farmers in

+ location Ban Ko Lem village increased from 30 to 60 ha. by end of two
years

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Types of Indicator
The two main types of indicators are Process and Outcome Indicators.
Process Indicators
Process Indicators tell us whether the project is delivering as intended.

They tell us whether the project is moving in the right direction to achieve
its objectives. Process indicators tell us the extent to which we have
achieved our objectives. Information on activities – what and how many –
and should be collected throughout the project lifespan. Process
Indicators can also include a quality aspect – looking at how well activities
were carried out.
Outcome Indicators
Outcome Indicators look at the results – the extent to which the project is
meeting its goals or objectives. These Indicators tell us whether the
expected change occurred. This type of Indicator is often stated as a
percentage, ratio or proportion so we can see what was achieved in
relation to the total population.
These can be short-term, mid-term and long-term. For example, in a

health project:
• A short-term result (Output) could be a change in knowledge

about hygiene. For example, as a result of Activities, the target
group has more information / knowledge about the relationship
between hygiene and disease, and practices to improve hygiene
in food preparation. , e.g. By (DATE), 150 mothers of
(LOCATION) have learned (WHAT?).
• A mid-term result (Outcome) could be a change in behaviour:

hand-washing, sterilisation of surfaces, etc., e.g. By (DATE),
XYZ% of households of (LOCATION) practicing (WHAT?).
• A long-term result could be the Goal of the resulting improvement

in children’s health

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Indicators can also be Direct Indicators or Proxy Indicators.
Direct Indicators
Direct Indicators tell us firmly whether the results are being achieved.
They are a direct result of an intervention e.g. the levels of savings in a
savings and credit program. Typically, Direct Indicators are easier to
measure and verify.
Proxy Indicators
Proxy Indicators (sometimes called ‘soft’ or indirect Indicators) are

changes which we assume to be related to direct impacts. So, levels of
women's savings would be a Proxy Indicator of poverty reduction. Proxy
Indicators are often quantitative ways to measure qualitative results, for
example:
• The number of people trained can be a proxy for a change in

knowledge
• The number of hectares of paddy cultivated can be a proxy for
increased income
Task
Define indicators for the Indonesia Case Study. Ask yourself:
• How the Outputs, Outcome and Goal can be measured

• What indicators can be used to measure achievement?

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Possible Solution
Narrative Summary Objectively Verifiable Indicators

Improved health
status of Internally Number of cases of waterborne
Goal
Displaced People at diseases reduced by 50%
Camp A
Within 2 weeks, all IDPs have
Immediate
access to:
improvement of living
Outcomes conditions of 5000
– sufficient safe water
Internally Displaced
– hygienic latrines
People in Camp A
– safe accommodation
1. Increased 1.1 Each IDP has access to 3L of
availability and safe water per day within 7 days
accessibility of safe 1.2 5 x communal water tanks with
water for IDPs capacity 2000L are functional within
2. Increased 1st week
availability and
accessibility of safe 2.1 20 x functioning temporary
latrines latrines operational within 10 days
3. Occupancy of
Outputs
temporary shelters 3.1 100 x tents distributed to 100 hh
does not exceed 10 within first week
people per tent 3.2 maximum occupancy of 90% of
4. IDPs aware of how tents is 10 persons
to reduce risk of
disease 4.1 1000 IDPs aware of how to
reduce health risks from waterborne
diseases, sanitary practices and
overcrowding
Don’t worry if you are still confused about Indicators – it does take some
practice. If you do get stuck, just move onto Means of Verification.
Sometimes looking at what information is available to us can help define
what the indicator should be.
It is best to have several indicators for each level, as our objectives will
have different dimensions. However, the Logframe should be simple and
useful, and too many Indicators may create an unnecessary distraction as
too many resources are diverted to data collection and analysis.
Select a manageable number of indicators. If you come up with a long list

of possible indicators, try to reduce your list to the essential ones. Final
considerations should be that:
• Your indicators are relevant

• The information is easily available
• A baseline exists (if not, you may have to establish one)
• The indicators are easy to measure
• They can be easily understood
• You have the resources and skills to verify them
• They are valid from your donor’s perspective

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Means of Verification (MOV)

What information you will need and how you can gather it?
MOV are the cost-effective methods and sources to quantify or assess

your indicators. Once it is clear what information you need (the key
Indicators), next you need to decide how you will get it. When establishing
MOV, things to consider are:
• What information do we need to verify the indicators?

• How much can we get quickly, cheaply and simply (for example,
using a questionnaire)?
• How reliable will the information be?
• What extra methods should we use if we need more information?
• Will donors or management and other decisions-makers approve
the methods?
• Are the methods appropriate for the target group? (Can they
complete a questionnaire? Will we be allowed access to
documents?)
• Can we expect the audience to conform to the methods? (Will
they be able to fill out questionnaires correctly, engage in
interviews or focus groups? Are they literate? Will they just give
face-saving answers?)
• Who should gather the information? Do we have the skills to
conduct these methods?
• When and how often should we collect the information?
• How shall we store the data?
• Can we easily analyse the results?
Typically, a combination of methods works best. For example, a

questionnaire can quickly collect a great deal of information from a lot of
people, and then interviews can get more in-depth information from
certain respondents about their answers to the questionnaires.
When choosing your methods, bear in mind that you are trying to get the
most useful and relevant information in the most economical way. Strike a
balance between what is desirable (how complete and reliable the results
will be) with what is feasible in practice.
You don’t have to collect all data first-hand. While MOV requires
collecting primary data specific to the projects, also aim to use existing
sources where available. Don’t build parallel data gathering systems to
what already exists (i.e. other organisations’ reports).

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Selecting Methods
There are six broad ways for gathering information for your Indicators.
Whatever approach you use, the actual methods will fall into one of these
categories.
• Survey – questionnaires, checklists

• Interview – structured or unstructured, getting first-hand
responses from end-users
• Desk Study – reviewing existing documentation: reports,
publications, web sites
• Observation – visiting the project site and personally observing
what is happening
• Focus Group Discussion – facilitated meetings with groups of end-
users around a particular issue
• Case Study – an in-depth investigation over time into one
particular end-user’s experience and outcomes of the programme
Some methods are more quantitative and others more qualitative. Each
has both advantages and limitations.
Survey
The survey method is appropriate when we need to get a lot of

information quickly. Relatively easy to design and administer,
questionnaires / surveys have benefits of being:
• Non-threatening: there is no-one to judge responses, so end-

users do not have to ‘please’ the questioner
• Anonymous: end-users can freely respond knowing that their
identity will be kept private
• Relatively cost-free
• Easy to compare: makes analysis easier (if the questionnaire is
designed with the analysis in mind!)
Things to consider are:
• Respondents might not complete carefully

• Questions have to be designed carefully in order not to bias the
response from the end-user
• This method does not develop any kind of relationship with the
end-user
• Surveys never get the ‘full story’

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Interview
Interviews help us gain some more depth and insight – to really

understand how the project is affecting end-users or how they feel about
it. Here we get both range of information – we can cover a lot of issues –
as well as depth. We can respond immediately and investigate deeper
any responses, while developing a relationship with the respondent.
However, interviews take time. While the interview may be structured (i.e.
the same questions are asked to all respondents), their flexible nature
means that analysis and cross-comparison may be difficult: after all,
everyone has a different story. There is also the danger that the
questioner may bias the responses, or that the respondent may give face-
saving answers.
Desk Study
Reviewing secondary documentation is a good way to find out how a

project is doing without actually interrupting the process. This is from a
review of reports and other project documents.
In the best scenario, we have access to a huge amount of information

without having to interrupt the programme’s operations. However, it can
be time consuming; we need to know what we are looking for or can get
lost. Sometimes the information is incomplete or cannot be verified. It’s
also inflexible: you can only use what already exists.
Observation
Observation – for example, through visits to project sites – lets us get

verifiable, first-hand information about how things are actually done. It is
very useful for observing processes as they happen – for example,
observing a User Group Meeting.
Despite being time consuming, a big advantage is that we can respond

immediately. We can ask questions to gain further understanding of what
we see, and instead of asking ‘what if?’ can actually take action and see
‘what happens’.
However, understanding what we see isn’t always easy to interpret, and

categorising the information collected can be tricky. Another drawback of
observation is that our presence can influence others’ behaviour, and
what we see may not be typical of what happens when we are not
present.

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Focus Group Discussion
Originally developed as a quality tool in marketing, the Focus Group

Discussion (FGD) is useful for exploring group perceptions on a topic in
depth. These could be reactions and feelings of end-users or exploring
group concerns. FGDs an also help us to resolve emerging conflicts and
reach participatory decisions.
The FGD is efficient in that we can get both range and depth of
information in a short time. It also serves to communicate key information
about our programmes to end-users.
The limitations of this method include:
• Scheduling the discussion can be can be difficult

• Analysing the discussion afterwards may be complex
• We need to ensure that the FGD is conducted by a skilled
facilitator
• Participants may not give honest responses, and try to please the
facilitator or fit in with the group
• Relationships between the group members may mean that some
members do not express their ideas openly
• The culture of the group may not lend itself easily to the
divergence of opinion necessary to reach true consensus
Case Study
The Case Study focuses on depth, and aims to fully understand a

particular end-user’s experience of a programme. It gives a full picture of
the end-user’s experience of the project inputs, processes and results,
providing a powerful way to demonstrate the benefits of the programme to
outsiders – look at how many INGOs use case studies in their fundraising
with the general public.
The limitations are that:
• It is very time consuming to collect

• It has to be planned and conducted from the start of the
programme – not just added later. (That’s a ‘Success Story’)
• The Case Study gives depth of information, not breadth
• Analysis and, particularly, cross-comparison, can be difficult

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Task
Select the MOV for the Indonesia Case Study.
Possible Solution
Narrative Objectively Verifiable Means of

Summary Indicators Verification
Improved health Number of cases of Camp health
status of waterborne diseases post reports
Internally reduced by 50%
Goal
Displaced
People at Camp
A
Immediate Within 2 weeks, all IDPs Observation
improvement of have access to: report
living conditions
of 5000 – sufficient safe water Community
Outcomes
Internally – hygienic latrines meeting report
Displaced – safe accommodation
People in Camp
A
1. Increased 1.1 Each IDP has access to 1. Distribution
availability and 3L of safe water per day reports
accessibility of within 7 days
safe water for 1.2 5 x communal water 2. Observation
IDPs tanks with capacity 2000L
2. Increased are functional within 1st week 3. Observation
availability and / progress
accessibility of 2.1 20 x functioning reports
safe latrines temporary latrines
3. Occupancy of operational within 10 days 4. FGD /
Outputs temporary community
shelters does 3.1 100 x tents distributed to meeting
not exceed 10 100 hh within first week
people per tent 3.2 maximum occupancy of
4. IDPs aware of 90% of tents is 10 persons
how to reduce
risk of disease 4.1 1000 IDPs aware of how
to reduce health risks from
waterborne diseases,
sanitary practices and
overcrowding

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Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Methodologies
You will probably use both quantitative and qualitative methodologies in

collecting data to verify Indicators. While both types are important, donors
will expect some quantitative evidence that you achieved the project
Outcome. Using both qualitative and quantitative methodologies will
strengthen the evaluation.
The following table shows characteristics of quantitative and qualitative

methods, the purpose of each, and examples of data sources.
Quantitative Methodologies Qualitative Methodologies
• Does not need large sample

• Needs relatively large sizes
sample sizes • Cannot easily be used to
• Can be used to make generalise findings
Features generalisations about the • Does not require expertise
larger population in statistics (but should be
• Requires some systematic)
knowledge of statistics • May require other skills,
especially facilitation
• Measures actions,
performance and levels of • Gives us information about
knowledge. attitudes, perceptions and
• Can be used to answer motivations.
questions such as ‘How • Can be used to answer the
Purpose many? How much? How questions ‘Why?’
often?’ • Usually structured in an
• Typically closed-ended; open-ended way so that
we know what we are information arises
looking for before data spontaneously.
collection begins
• Project records
• Interviews
• Surveys of stakeholders
Sources • Observation
• Surveys at population
of Data • Focus Group Discussion
level (local, regional or
• Case study
national)

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Final Logframe: Indonesia Case Study
Narrative Objectively Verifiable Means of Assumptions

Summary Indicators Verification
Improved Camp health post
health status of reports
Number of cases of
Internally
Goal Displaced
waterborne diseases reduced
by 50%
People at
Camp A
Immediate Observation report No unanticipated
improvement of Within 2 weeks, all IDPs have outbreaks /
living access to: Community epidemics
conditions of meeting report
Outcomes 5000 Internally – sufficient safe water Local government
Displaced – hygienic latrines continues to provide
People in – safe accommodation sufficient nutrition /
Camp A medical care
1. Increased 1.1 Each IDP has access to 3L 1. Distribution Number of IDPs
availability and of safe water per day within 7 reports does not significantly
accessibility of days increase
safe water for 1.2 5 x communal water tanks 2. Observation
IDPs with capacity 2000L are IDPs maintain
2. Increased functional within 1st week 3. Observation / hygienic standards
availability and progress reports of latrines
accessibility of 2.1 20 x functioning temporary
safe latrines latrines operational within 10 4. FGD /
3. Occupancy days community
Outputs of temporary meeting
shelters does 3.1 100 x tents distributed to
not exceed 10 100 hh within first week
people per tent 3.2 maximum occupancy of
4. IDPs aware 90% of tents is 10 persons
of how to
reduce risk of 4.1 1000 IDPs aware of how to
disease reduce health risks from
waterborne diseases, sanitary
practices and overcrowding
500m3 water
(water truck) Total Cost: GBP 18,650 Local government
1.2 Borehole gives full access to
water in one Direct Cost: 14,650 the camp
point
1.3 Set up Water Trucking – 3600
communal Borehole Water – 550
water tanks Purchase / installing 5 water tanks – 200
1.4 Distribute Purchase / distribution 1000 water buckets capacity
buckets 20L – 2,500
(capacity 20 lt.) Constructing 20 temporary latrines – 2,500
Conducting hygiene promotion – 300
2.1 Providing and distributing 100 tents – 5000
Constructing
Activities temporary Indirect Cost: GBP 4000
latrines (Transport, staffing, indirect operational costs)
3.1 Distributing
tents
3.2 Advocacy
and
coordination
with local
government
4.1 Conducting
hygiene
programme for
IDPs

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4: Planning the Proposal

Now we’ve done all the thinking, we can move onto the next step,
planning the proposal. We have already developed a lot of the different
components of the plan – the Problem Tree, Logframe and other
sections. At this point we bring together all those separate parts into a
cohesive framework so that, when we draft, all we need to do is follow the
plan.
Before we develop our proposal plan, however, we are going to learn and
practice a simple tool that will help us collect and synthesise our ideas.
Mind Mapping
A Mind Map is a diagram used to represent words and concepts around a
central key word or idea. We can use Maps to:
• Brainstorm ideas
• Visualise concepts
• Structure our thinking
• Classify our ideas
This makes Mind Mapping a useful and versatile tool in problem analysis.
Your map has an image at the centre and branches lead off to the
different connections. Because Mind Maps are radial and non-linear, they
encourage a non-judgmental, brainstorming approach. While mapping
you do not need to worry about logic –simply get the ideas into a visual,
interconnected form.
Usually the map involves images, words, and lines. While mapping we try
not to ‘analyse’ in the traditional sense: we use our intuition to organise
the information.

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You can find an enormous number of examples on-line which illustrate

how Mind Maps are constructed as well as their enormous versatility and
idea-capturing power. Here are the basic rules:
1. Start in the centre with an image that captures the topic, using at least
three colours.
2. Use images, symbols, codes and dimensions throughout your Mind
Map.
3. Select key words and P-R-I-N-T using upper case letters.
4. Each key word/image must have its own line – do not use sentences.
5. The lines must be connected, starting from the central image. The
central lines are thicker, organic and flowing, becoming thinner as they
radiate out from the centre.
6. Make the lines the same length as the word/image.
7. Use colours throughout the Mind Map.
8. Relax and have fun.

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Task
Free mind mapping practice
Mind maps can be used for a range of tasks where we need to collect and
synthesise lots of information. Before we take on the task of mapping our
proposal, it will be useful to develop your skill by mapping another,
unrelated topic.
You can do this with a large paper and coloured pens, or with one of the
available programmes which can be downloaded as trial versions. (We
prefer MindManager at www.mindjet.com.)
Possible topics can be:
• A training event
• A community issue
• Your organisation’s history
Alternatively, choose a less ‘serious’ topic such as:
• Planning your next holiday

• Things to do next week
You can also look at the MindManager galleries and templates at

http://www.mindjet.com/resources/mapgallery/default.aspx for further
ideas.

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Mapping the Proposal

In this section we walk through the major sections of the proposal plan,
suggesting ideas and developing the map as we go along. At each stage,
further develop the Mind Map of your own proposal.
The Basic Map

The basic map above shows the major sections of a project proposal.
Naturally, different organisations will have different terminologies. Some
organisations will require extra sections – such as ‘Risk Assessment’ or
‘Sustainability’ – that do not appear here. Others may require the
technical and financial proposals to be separate.
However, you will find it very useful to develop your ideas using this
framework, as it can easily be adapted to different donors later. If already
have examined your potential donor’s format and requirements at this
point, and you are targeting a single donor, feel free to take their format
and break it into a Mind Map like the one above.
There is no reason to follow the Map clockwise while planning. Some

information may not be available for some sections without further
development or investigation. Or you might just not feel like doing one
particular section right now. During this process, feel free to develop
whichever section you wish in any order. Teams of writers can also
delegate different sections to different experts.

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As we progress through this module we will discuss each section and

demonstrate how the map can be developed. We will use the Indonesia
project as an example, after which you should develop the branches of
your own proposal map to apply the learning.
If we follow the proposal Mind Map clockwise, we start with the most
essential point: the situation to be addressed. The purpose of this section
is to convince the reader that there is a problem to be addressed which
falls within their area of interest. We will need to demonstrate a full
understanding of the situation, its causes and consequences.
The Situation
The Context branch is for background information that the reader may
need to know to fully grasp the Problem Analysis.

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Task
Use the following notes to develop the Context for the Indonesia Case
Study.
Kampung Flood
• The flood struck Kampung coast on 17 July at 15.19

• 100 people died
• 60 were injured
• Many people have been traumatised and are afraid to return home
• Over 2000 people have lost their homes
• Over 5000 people took shelter at temporary camps and local schools
• Poor people living in coastal communities are the worst affected
The camps:
• are overcrowded
• are unsanitary
• do not have enough basic services
• do not have sufficient clean water
• present a potential health risk
Government response:
• has been poorly managed

• may be insufficient

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Possible Solution
Task
Next, we will include the cause / effect hierarchy from our Problem Tree.
Notice that there are three more branches – core problem, effects and
causes. Develop the branches as far as necessary so that you have
included all the relevant information from your Problem Tree. (If you
developed your Problem Tree in MindManager, you can often just paste it
into this section.)

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Possible Solution

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The Project Description

Next comes the Project Description, and this follows the hierarchy of
ideas of our Project Planning Matrix / Logical Framework, from Goal right
down to Activities. You already have the information needed here in the
Logframe. Use this to develop the map further.
Task
Use the information from the Alternatives Analysis and your LogFrame to
complete the Project Description part of the map.

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Possible Solution

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Monitoring and Evaluation

Task
Develop the branch on M&E.

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Possible Solution

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Project Management
Task
In this section, detail the project management – positions, responsibilities

and communication. Use the following notes to help you.
Project Human Resources
1 x Project Manager
– to coordinate activities, liaise with government / NGOs, responsible for oversight

and reporting
estimated workload – 7 person days
7 days @ 80 GBP = 540 GBP
2 x Project Officers
– preparation, oversight / monitoring of implementation,

conducting health training for IDPs and community meetings,
reporting to PM.
Estimated working period = 15 x 2
30 days @ 60 GBP = 1800 GBP
1 x Support Officer
– general administration, transport management, dealing

with suppliers, etc.
Estimated working period = 15 person days
15 days @ 30 GBP = 450 GBP
Total cost 2790 GBP

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Possible Solution

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Project Budget
When organising the budget, it’s good to include the following:
• Total cost
• Cost vs. Outputs
• Indirect costs
In this section, also break down the sources of funding, particularly if

multiple donors are involved or if the project will generate any income.

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Task
Use the data provided to develop the budget section.
ITEM COST (GBP)
Water trucking 3,600
Borehole water 550
Providing and setting up 5 water

200
tanks
Providing and distributing 1000

2,500
buckets capacity 20L
Constructing temporary latrines 2,500
Providing and distributing tents 5,000
Conducting hygiene promotion 300
Staffing 2,790
Other indirect costs / overheads 1,210
Total Cost 18,650

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Possible Solution

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Organisation Background
Task
The final part of the part details your organisation’s ability to carry out the
project. Use the notes to complete this section for the Indonesia project.
Our Purpose
• To work with others to overcome poverty and suffering

• To work to overcome the economic inequality, social exclusion,
and vulnerability of the poor
Our Humanitarian Objective
To prevent loss of life and reduce suffering of people affected by natural

or human-made disasters
– HQ in United Kingdom
– Works in 70 countries
– In Indonesia since 1972
Development and humanitarian programmes:
– Education
– Gender equity
– Fair trade
– Emergency response
Since 2005:
– Integrated humanitarian programme

– Reducing risk for disaster-affected people
The Emergency Response Team Objective:
IDPs have access to basic needs through provision of shelter, public

health and food and advocacy activities.

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Possible Solution
Complete Mind Map

The complete Mind Map can be found as a separate file,
idp_mindmap.jpg provided together with this toolkit.

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Endnote
At this stage of the programme we have now completed the most
important steps of the Writing Process – Analysis and Planning.
The next two modules focus specifically on the tools of a professional

writer: Clarity and Organisation. You will learn how to ensure your writing
is clear, crisp and to the point; and how to organise your ideas
persuasively. We will return to this extended assignment later, and you
will learn how to apply the tools to your own ongoing proposal.
In Module Eight (‘Putting it all Together’) the practical work will increase
and we will turn the data into a draft proposal. And, in the final module,
we will look at finishing off the proposal, and cover issues such as
language and style, editing, proofreading, design and layout.
Keep up the good work. These first stages represent the most intensive
part of the Writing Process, and the Drafting stage is simply a case of
following the plan, organising our ideas effectively and communicating
these clearly. The upcoming tools on writing skills are, like everything in
this programme, straightforward. You already have more than enough
knowledge and skill to write well: we are just going to help you use that
knowledge and skill to best effect.
Best of luck with the rest of the programme!

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5: Writing Skills: Principles

This module covers the essential of Professional Writing. We will look first at a
definition of Professional Writing followed by some common problems with written
proposals. We will also define what makes writing effective, and explore a process
for writing that saves time and stress and leads to better results.
What is Professional Writing?

Professional Writing is about action. It’s about change, getting results:
making something happen.
Professional Writing is not about ‘informing’ or ‘sharing’. While sharing

information may lead to results, this only happens when the information is
relevant to the action we wish to make happen. Giving information may
be enough in academic writing – after all, in most traditional academic
writing we are trying to ‘show how much we know’ and are writing to
experts to demonstrate our knowledge.
In Professional Writing, however, you are the expert. You are the one
who has first-hand knowledge of the situation, who has conducted the
research, or who has links with the community / end-users. You know
more than the reader. You are the one who has gathered and analysed
the data, and your understanding of the situation matters.
Developing a proposal is a lot more than just presenting ‘facts and

figures’. The proposal writer is a problem-solver. As a writer, then, you
have more responsibilities than to just ‘inform’ your reader of the situation
and recommend a solution. Your job is to:
• Investigate the Situation – using a range of tools and points of

view
• Analyse – understand the causes of the problem to be addressed
• Describe & Explain – help your donor to see the situation the way
you see it
• Develop a Plan of Action – set objectives, devise a strategy,
schedule activities, developing a monitoring and evaluation
mechanism and management plan …
• Persuade your Reader that –
o The problem is worth solving

o It can be solved
o You can do it
So remember whenever you write that you are writing for action. How you
organise your writing, how clear your ideas are, the language you use,
your style, and the correctness of your writing all certainly do matter: but
only because they contribute to the results you want.

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Common Problems with Proposal Writing

Lack of Clear Objectives
Most important, of course, is whether the proposal has a clear objective.

The purpose in writing — and this applies not just to the proposal but also
to every single paragraph and section that you write — must be 100%
clear. If not, your reader cannot take action.
In badly written proposals, this problem often comes across in a general

way and includes many of the specific problems mentioned below. The
reader gets the impression that, although the writer is providing plenty of
information, there is no clear reason why he or she is reading it. Some
information seems irrelevant or unnecessary. Other parts seem to be
written on ‘auto-pilot’, or pasted from another document. There is no clear
progression of ideas and it is hard to tell the difference between major
and minor points. The writer comes across as being confused, with no
clear purpose in mind.
Poorly-Organised and Difficult to Follow
Well-organised writing starts with its conclusion or action to be taken.

Effective documents are usually arranged in Order of Importance.
Paragraphs should always start with their conclusion: the supporting data
/ explanations should come after the main point.
A major reason that readers often don’t understand the proposal writer’s
intention is that the writing is organised badly. Usually, the general order
of sections isn’t the problem —the writer has guidelines or a standard
format to follow. More often, it’s poor organisation of ideas within sections
of the proposal, and within individual paragraphs, which causes trouble.
When drafting a proposal, we have, at all times, to bear in mind that our
ideas must be given in order of importance. This means that conclusions
come BEFORE evidence; and lessons learned are more important than
methods used.
Paragraphs (and there’s much more on this in the module on Organising

Ideas) should always begin with the conclusion. A Topic Sentence
summarising the significance of the information in the paragraph is
essential. After that, the main points and supporting information can be
presented in decreasing order of importance. We are not storytellers: our
aim is not to ‘keep the reader in suspense’. It is to help the reader see the
situation the way we do.
So, at the planning stage you must always prioritise your ideas, and
follow that plan. Analysis comes before the data!

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Not Concise or Clear
• Lack of Conciseness
Writing should be concise. The amount of information should not be too

much, so we avoid unnecessary details and background wherever we
can.
However, many writers include either too much information, or a lot of

what they include is irrelevant. When the writing tries to include too much
information it becomes too long overall, takes a long time to say anything
and important ideas are lost.
How much background information does a reader need to understand the

situation? I have seen proposals where tens of pages give a long-winded
history before — somewhere in the middle of the document — it reaches
the current situation analysis. A kind-hearted reader will simply pass over
the unnecessary information; others may reject your proposal simply
because as a writer you can’t get to the point. Writing tells others ‘who we
are’ — if you can’t get to the point efficiently in writing, what guarantee
does your reader have that you will be any more efficient when it comes
to implementation? Anyway, irrelevant information also takes time to write
as well as to read. Stick to what’s relevant to the case in hand only.
Also, make sure that what you include in each section belongs there.
Don’t start you Situation Analysis section by describing your methods. If it
says ‘analysis’ then you should analyse! Your methodology can have its
own section if needed, though, like all ‘background’, it belongs at the
‘back’ — usually an annex is the best place for that. Too much info about
processes and not enough about results can kill a proposal.
And it’s not just including information that’s irrelevant which can cause
problems. Often, writers will add way too much ‘relevant’ information, too.
Again, it’s a timewaster (for readers and writers both) and definitely
causes the reader mental fatigue.
Writing like this shows no evidence of understanding the format. It

demonstrates a lack of conceptual clarity. It raises questions but doesn’t
answer them.
• Lack of Clarity
Sentences should be short (average 15 words) so as not to strain the

reader, and, typically, we should try to use shorter, more familiar words
wherever possible.
Lack of clarity of language can cause a lot of strain for readers. Long
words and long sentences can destroy your reader’s concentration. How
often have you read something and then had to go back to the beginning
of the sentence? Makes you feel stupid, right? Well, that’s the last thing
we want to do to our reader.

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When we write, we are NOT writing to ‘show off’ our vocabulary, or make
our reader run to the dictionary. We write to be understood — and that
means keeping sentences short and using, where we can, the shorter,
simpler word instead of the longer alternative.
When we are reading, it’s our short term memory which is active.
Meanwhile, our brains are (i) decoding the language (comprehension)
and (ii) interpreting the meaning (understanding). So, we try, as writers,
not to make our readers engage their brains too much on the language,
so they have more receptiveness to our message.
A lot of abstract nouns (they get a special mention later) can cause our
writing to be long-winded and hard to follow — words like
‘implementation’, ‘dissemination’, ‘discussion’, etc. — in fact, pretty much
all words ending in ‘-ion’ are to be avoided. (That doesn’t mean ‘never
use them’ – just don’t over-use them.)
Similarly, the passive voice — ‘x was done’ rather than ‘we did x’ — can
cause strain for readers. It’s not as frequent as we imagine, and should
be used only when we have good reason.
Too many linkers — ‘especially’, ‘together with’, etc. — make our

sentences less clear and reduce our reader’s ability to follow our
message. And just too many words in general — a lack of economy with
language — can cause readers problems.
Clarity gets an in depth discussion in its own module of this programme.

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Poor Use of Language
When writers are not careful about their language it causes problems.
Appropriate language means choosing words appropriate to your reader;
avoiding unnecessary acronyms and terminology; and using simple,
modern and brief words wherever possible.
It’s surprising how many proposals I see where there are an unnecessary
amount of acronyms. Of course, we will use a few, but some people go
overboard here, making acronyms of everything, e.g. ‘at our Annual
Meeting (AM) it was agreed with Sector Coordinators (SCs) that …’ The
big ones, of course — names of organisations, for example, which are
understood both within and outside your project — should stay. But if a
term is going to be used just once or a few times at most, keep it in its full
form. If it’s a term of convenience you have created, don’t turn it into an
acronym. They make reading hard work. (Also, when giving the full form,
get it right! It’s amazing how many organisations can’t get the name of
their partner ministry correct.)
Be consistent with terminology, too. A big headache with writing this

handbook was making sure that we stick with some consistent,
commonly-agreed terminology when describing projects.
Clearly, the same points apply to careless use of terminology.

Terminology is ‘shorthand’ — a way of expressing a complex idea in a
simple way. It’s not a way of excluding people who don’t know (that’s
‘jargon’), and it’s not a way of showing off your knowledge of the latest
trendy vocabulary (we call these ‘buzzwords’ and, sometimes, something
else beginning with a ‘b’). Make sure you use any terminology
correctly. Explain it when you use it for the first time if you think it may
not be fully understood. Then use it consistently.
As a basic rule, if you have a choice between a complex word and a

simple one, prefer to use the simple, short word. There are more than
enough complex words in proposals without adding to them
unnecessarily.

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Poor Style
Style is something personal. It’s ‘how’ you express your ideas rather than
what you say. Your style should aim to be persuasive and interesting.
Style is a wide-ranging issue and also one that’s hard to define. After all,
everyone’s style is unique. But a good writing style will keep readers alert
and interested.
Already discussed above, good organisation that gets quickly to and

sticks to the point; not overloading the reader with unnecessary
information; and using clear language are all good style.
However, there are other frequent style problems that can harm your
proposal. Too much tentative language — words like ‘could’, ‘might’,
‘believe’, etc. — can leave your reader thinking that you are just not that
confident. Don’t let your proposal down by failing to be persuasive.
Watch out for out-of-date vocabulary. If you have a Thesaurus, get rid of
it. Any word you look up for ‘variety’ is probably going to be either old-
fashioned or not an exact synonym. Anyway, if you have to look it up,
chances are your reader will, too.
The same goes with using idioms incorrectly. Unless you were raised
speaking one of the major English varieties as your first language, don’t
even try using idioms — they will sound out of place. If you ever decide to
use a translation of a local idiom (which can sometimes add an interesting
‘flavour’ to your proposal) make sure you explain it. I am reminded of a
recent document which had me scratching my head at the phrase ‘focus
on partnerships of strategic importance — be a hedgehog rather than a
fox’.
Another issue in writing style is the overuse of abstract ideas. Have you
ever had the feeling when reading some project document that you just
can’t ‘grasp’ what the reader is saying, or been at a presentation full of
‘buzzwords’ and completely lost track? Readers need ‘real things’ when
they are reading, and not just abstract ideas. ‘Nutrition’ and ‘maternal
health’ are just ideas, concepts: they are abstract.
Too many abstract ideas leave the reader with nothing to hold onto.
There’s nothing ‘real’, nothing we can visualise. There is a ‘ladder of
abstraction’ — at the top we have concepts like health, nutrition and
education — at the ‘bottom’ we have real things — malaria and aspirins;
noodles and rice; and books and teachers.
Don’t let your readers lose their way with too many abstract concepts and
generalisations: keep coming ‘back to earth’ with real things and
examples to make your ideas real.

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Poor Spelling, Grammar and Punctuation
And, of course, accuracy is important. However it is for good reason at

the bottom of our list. A proposal does not depend on our spelling,
grammar and punctuation; it depends on our ideas and ability to persuade
others. Even so, being accurate is important to give the right impression.
At the very least, you should catch any errors that could be fixed through
simple spellchecking or attentiveness. And keeping it simple, brief and
clear should help you avoid most common errors anyway.

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Writing Sends a Message

Of course, good writing is going to make action more likely, save time and
effort and be in many ways more useful and efficient. But there is one
more reason to write well:
Writing tells others ‘who we are’
Everything we write sends a message to our reader about who we are:

whether we are focused on action or process / bureaucracy: whether we
think and act in an organised way: whether we are efficient or inefficient,
traditional or modern, formal or informal, careful or careless.
Let’s look at those features of effective writing again. For each one we will
now look at what message each feature sends to others about ‘who we
are’.
Aspect of If it’s done right, this tells the If it’s done wrong, this
Writing reader that … tells the reader that …
We are results-focused
Objective We don’t lose sight of the ‘big We haven’t got a clue
picture’
We can organise our thinking
and our action effectively
We are disorganised
Organisation We prioritise tasks
thinkers and planners
We are confident in our point
of view
We waste time
We are efficient We like to show off
Conciseness
We get maximum results with our knowledge
and Clarity
minimum resources We are ‘all talk and no
action’
We are clear and direct in all
our dealings We keep up-to-date
We do not hide behind with all the buzzwords
Language
terminology and like to use them
We seek to be understood We have a dictionary
and transparent
We’re not sure about
We are confident ourselves
Style
We are approachable We’re academic and
old-fashioned
Spelling, We are careless and
We are thorough
Grammar and expect others to clean
We pay attention to detail
Punctuation up the mess
These six key features of effective writing are best illustrated by looking at
some examples. Although you have not yet covered the topics, we want
you to analyse the following writing samples according to the six criteria.
After you have done this we will discuss the results.

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Example One
Corruption in Cameroon
Cameroon was perceived as the most corrupt country in the world in the
years 1998 and 1999 (TI corruption index). Corruption in all levels has
been denounced by social, religious and political leaders as the primary
obstacle for development in Cameroon. The government of Cameroon
hence declared its commitment to the fight against corruption. Despite the
declared political will for the fight against corruption, little has changed in
any tangible manner. As an example, the report Global Corruption
Barometer released in December 2007 by Transparency International
highlights Cameroon as the country with the worst results with 79% of
Cameroonians admitting to have paid a bribe for services in the last year.
This project is based on the view that lack of knowledge is not the main
obstacle to the fight against corruption in Cameroon. Sensitisation of the
public that corruption exists and needs to be fought has little value if the
public is not empowered to take any action against it. The use of the
media in naming and shaming technique, as well, has limited value, as
limited, in fact, as the power of public opinion inside the country.
Corruption in Cameroon relies not much on the inability to know as on the
inability to act. The project is therefore trying to empower citizens to
actively fight against corruption, creating a tool for the victims of
corruption, to open court cases against corrupt officials and set
precedence creating deterrence. This is an enormous challenge as the
justice system itself is plagued with corruption. It requires innovation and
experience in getting law applied in a corrupt environment. The project is
based on a similar anti-corruption technique experimented and refined by
LAGA on active Wildlife Law Enforcement. LAGA’s fight against
corruption techniques shifted Cameroon from a decade-long baseline of
zero prosecutions under the wildlife law to a one per week rate. The
challenge it faced in this experiment can be portrayed in the cases
statistics: In the field, LAGA documented bribing attempts in 85% of the
operations. In the legal system documented bribing attempts in 80% of
the cases.
When precedence is achieved, it will change the power balance between

the victims of corruption and the corrupt official. The mere threat of a legal
action against a corrupt official will become a new tool in every citizen’s
hand to fight corruption.
The law in Cameroon allows the accusing party to be compensated by

the accused of all the costs incurred in order to win the court case within
the procedure of demand of damages. This fact allows some costs to be
recovered, increasing sustainability.
The project offers a multiplying effect, and is expected to encourage

beneficiaries to take action beyond its existence. After a good model for
successful legal action by citizens against officials is created, any citizen
can initiate an action on his own with relatively low costs (recoverable if
the lawsuit is won).

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Example Two
Farmers Trade Themselves out of Poverty
The Context / Challenge
Rural households in Lao PDR still largely depend on growing their own
food. Changing from production for personal consumption to production
for sale needs a whole set of new capacities, knowledge, skills and
contacts.
Poor households in particular lack the capacity, means and contacts to

grow and successfully sell crops to the market. Small farmers often
cannot get fair prices, making poor households reluctant to produce for
the market as they want to avoid risks.
There are two main challenges in realizing a smallholder cash-crop sector

in Lao PDR. Firstly, under what conditions will the rural poor benefit from
switching from subsistence farming to cash-crop production? And can
they position themselves well enough in the market to defend their own
interests?
The Method / Intervention
After analysis of different value chains, the maize value chain was
identified as most promising. Maize is grown on low as well as uplands
and is relatively accessible for smallholder farmers in terms of required
inputs and capacities.
Our support to smallholders to successfully engage in the maize value

chain is based upon three pillars:
• Helping stakeholders work together

• Reducing the risk to farmers by promoting contract farming
• Assuring that farmers get the support they need
Helping Stakeholders Work Together
Agricultural markets and chains are shaped and run by a range of

stakeholders. Farmers, buyers, middle-men, credit suppliers, extension
services and policy makers all determine together how markets function,
who is selling to whom and under what conditions.
To influence how decisions are made in the market place we have to

involve all stakeholders in the process. We look for and identify common
ground; identify situations or developments that will bring benefits to all
parties; and formulate those into a joint agenda for action.
Our Smallholder Cash Crop Team was guided by two major principles:
firstly, that the process should be based on real market opportunities,
which means assigning the private sector a leading role; and secondly,
that participation of smallholder farmers groups should be active and
meaningful.

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The team consulted with a leading firm in the maize sector in

Savannakhet, the local partner of the big Thai maize processing
enterprise Charoen Popkhand (CP). CP has plans to source large
volumes of maize from Savannakhet and is willing to invest in long term
relationships with farmers.
However, the local partner was struggling to manage supply, having

problems contacting and convincing farmers to grow and supply maize to
the company. The farmers were reluctant as maize production for
international markets was new, the offered arrangements were unheard
of, and the company was not yet well known to them.
The Smallholder Cash Crop Team acted as a neutral broker, bringing

parties together and creating an environment of mutual trust. At this
stage, government agencies, too, were involved, as their function in
creating an enabling policy environment and delivering services was
crucial to the future success of the collaboration.
Adopting a multi-stakeholder approach has improved information

exchange and increased mutual accountability amongst stakeholders. It
has brought greater transparency and effectiveness to the trade process.
It enables smallholders to better judge their market opportunities, be part
of the dialogue and co-shape market dynamics.
Contract Farming – Reducing Risk for Farmers
Contract farming means that farmers grow produce for a buyer according
to a pre-arranged agreement. The buyer delivers quality inputs to farmers
and guarantees a minimum price. Costs for inputs are deducted from the
final payment.
Contract farming improves accessibility for smallholders to engage in the

maize trade and has a positive influence on the transparency and
accountability of trade arrangements. It also reduces risk, as a minimum
price is guaranteed for farmers’ produce.
This model is jointly adopted and piloted by some maize growing

communities. It is a ‘safety net’ approach for smallholder farmers.
Together with involved government agencies, we guarantee that
arrangements are fair and followed, and that farmers understand their
rights and obligations. We can also mediate if conflicts arise.
Making Sure Farmers Get the Support they Need
Smallholder farmers often require specific support to engage in

production and marketing. This can range from supportive policies (for
example tax exemptions) to accessible financial services or agricultural
extension services.
With the assistance of the Smallholder Cash Crop Team, stakeholders

have defined crucial supporting mechanisms and have jointly planned for
establishing them. District level agricultural extension officers are paid by
the leading company to give services to smallholder farmers.
Development banks are invited to ally with the company to set up credit
facilities for smallholders.

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A farmer-to-farmer extension model was adopted. In raising the level of

awareness and knowledge of farmers, experienced colleague farmers
share best practices and act as trustworthy advisors.
Task
Just add your comments or reactions in the table below.
Farmers Trade
Corruption in
Aspect of Writing Themselves out of
Cameroon
Poverty
Clear Objective
Good Organisation
Clear, Brief and

Concise
Appropriate Language
Modern, Relaxed
Style
Correct Spelling,
Grammar and
Punctuation

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Possible Solution
Farmers Trade
Aspect of Writing Corruption in Cameroon Themselves out of
Poverty
It’s clear to the extent

that we know what it’s
The objectives of the
Clear Objective about, but it lacks enough
writing are achieved.
specific information to
present a clear purpose.
One major reason it fails
to get its message across
is due to organisation of
ideas. A lot of It is very well-organised. It
background information gets to the point very
is presented before it quickly, and ideas are
Good Organisation
starts to approach the presented in a way that is
main ideas – that easy to grasp and
empowering citizens with remember.
the ability to hold officials
to answer in court will
reduce corruption.
Although occasional
The readability is not so sentences may cause the
bad, but there are still a reader to slow down, they
lot of unnecessarily long are generally brief and
Clear, Brief and Concise sentences. There is also clear. The information
a lot of content which is presented is relevant and
not directly relevant to the number of ideas
the issue. appropriate to getting the
message across.
The language, too,
causes some problems.
Although in some places
The reader prefers to use
it tends to use a little too
longer words instead of
Appropriate Language much technical language,
shorter ones, and a non-
generally language is
native speaker of English
clear and efficient.
may face some difficulty
with the vocabulary used.
The style is reasonably
The style is direct and
good, though in places
professional. It ‘talks’ to
the writer seems to be
Modern, Relaxed Style the reader. The use of
showing off rather than
occasional questions gets
trying to be brief and
the reader’s interest.
direct.
Correct Spelling, There are no problems There are no problems
Grammar and with the spelling, with the spelling,
Punctuation grammar or punctuation. grammar or punctuation.

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The Writing Process

Let’s clarify something here. Writing a project proposal is a complex
process with many steps.
However, sitting at a screen typing is not ‘writing’ – that’s just one stage,
and it’s called drafting. Drafting is a mechanical activity. You don’t need to
think, you just follow your plan. You do have a plan, don’t you?
Perhaps we need to backtrack here. Before I learned how to write

professionally, I used to ‘write’ and ‘think’ at the same time. I was always
in a hurry to get my thoughts down before they escaped. What’s the
expression? Ready, Fire, Aim.
It certainly felt productive, but I also knew it wasn’t the most efficient way
to get my message across to the best of my ability. And while sitting at a
screen was OK for composing my thoughts in short letters and mails, I
definitely faced some difficulties – and stress – when trying to get my
proposals and reports to work.
Problems included frustration, false starts, wasted effort and time. A

typical session at the keyboard would be something like this:
• Sit down at the computer and open a new document or template

• Stare at the screen
• Type a few phrases
• Delete a few phrases
• Do nothing
• Wait for the first line to come
• Look out of the window
• Type a few sentences
• Read through what’s been written so far
• Make a few changes
• Continue writing
• Keep stopping every few lines to:
o Change words
o Correct spelling
o Insert sentences
o Delete sentences
• Take a break for coffee
As soon as we decide the purpose in writing, our thoughts start flowing

automatically. Ideas occur to us in no order at all, often unrelated to the
topic. However much we ‘know’ about our topic, this is uncontrollable. We
are writing, we are thinking about what to say, we are thinking about how
to say it, and we are editing our ideas all at the same time. It is like a
team trying to achieve its objectives with each member pulling in a
different direction. All this costs us time, effort and patience, creates
stress and leads to writing which does not represent the best that we can
do.

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The reader’s problems will be more important: they can waste time and
effort trying to extract the message and, in some cases, may miss the
point altogether.
In all professional writing we suggest that you approach writing as four

distinct tasks in the following order:
1. Analysis
2. Planning
3. Drafting
4. Editing
This programme covers all of the steps.
Analysis
This stage includes all of the work carried out in preparing the project /
Logframe. We analyse the problem / situation; the stakeholders and their
power / interest; and the alternative approaches we can combine to form
a project strategy. We develop a Logframe and test its logic. We also take
all the other information we need, such as M&E plan, management plan
and budget.
We combine all of these into a synthesised whole using Mind Mapping.
(This technique is discussed in detail in later modules.) After we have got
ALL our thinking done and all the information / analysis in front of us, we
can consider the next step.
Planning
This stage typically doesn’t take so long. Here we decide what to include,
what to leave out, and how to organise our ideas. This is the stage where
we consider more carefully our specific donor’s priorities and examine
their format more carefully.
Drafting
We can sum up the drafting stage in three words: Follow the plan. At this
stage you shouldn’t be getting any new insights, and your plan will be
pretty clear about what you want to say and how you want to organise it.
You don’t need to worry about spelling, language and grammar too much
– they can be refined at the final stage. Just follow the plan.
Editing
There’s a lot more to editing than just running a spell checker. In the final
module we discuss how to check for clear objectives, good organisation,
and for flow of ideas, appropriate language and style. Finally, you are
going to need to proofread your proposal – or get someone to proofread
for you.

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6: Writing Skills: Clarity

By the end of this module you will:
• Know the importance of clarity and how to measure it; and

• Be able to improve the conciseness of your writing so that you
write with greater impact.
There are various tools for measuring the clarity of your writing, but they
all look, more or less, at the same things. We are going to discuss why
we need to use these tools and how to use a tool called the Fog Index.
We will also give specific guidance on how to improve the clarity of your
writing. These are simple steps that will help you create a draft that is
easily understood and has impact. There are also some exercises to help
you apply the tools for writing clearly. As well as examples, each of these
tools is fully explained to help you fully understand not just ‘how’ but
‘why’: and we will also warn you where you may want to exercise caution
when applying them.
We will end this module by recapping the main points, as well as

reminding you that almost everything here is only suggested. It will
always be up to you and your unique knowledge of the situation that will
guide you in selecting the right ‘voice’ to write with.
Task
Please read the text one time only.
The irrigation of hill systems needs to have a foundation in sustainability and cost-
effective engineering. The criteria for selection of systems should be based on the
consideration of the prevention of influence of politicians. Investment should
concentrate on interventions to overcome key bottlenecks in existing systems.
Agreement with farmers with regard to the finances and manpower resources for
which there is a requirement for maintenance must be reached and is a necessity
at the planning stage to ensure that systems are within farmers’ maintenance
capacities. Alternatively, a specific budget should be allocated from the outset.
Moreover, construction work should be of a high quality that will both last and not
require significant quantities of material for maintenance.
Considering our earlier discussion on What Makes Writing Effective, how

would you evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the text you have
just read?

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Discussion
If that extract started to make you feel tired and stupid, it’s not surprising.
Although the writing is well organised, it fails to communicate clearly due
to:
• Unnecessary language
• Unnecessary long words where shorter ones would be easier to
follow
• Long sentences
• Too many abstract ideas
Decoding language is a left-brain task, while constructing meaning is a

job which involves the right hemisphere. As the language required lots of
work from the left brain, there is very little capacity left for the right brain
to actually understand or make sense of what is being written. It’s a bit
like a computer’s processing power – when your CPU is maxed out
running one programme, the other programme is going to perform slowly.
Measuring Clarity: The Fog Index

There are various ways you can measure the clarity of your writing, and in
this section you are going to learn how to evaluate how clear your own
writing is.
By analysing your writing, you are doing more than just making sure that
your writing is easy to understand. You are also developing a better
understanding of which aspects of your writing you need to be alert to.
Are you someone who doesn’t know where to find the full stop on your
keyboard, and thinks every sentence should be the equivalent of a mental
marathon? Or do you just love to show off your vocabulary, and
deliberately select the longest word you can find? Or perhaps you just
believe that every other sentence you write must be in the passive voice?
The Fox Index (FI) is tool for calculating readability. The resulting number
is the number of years’ formal education a reader needs to understand
you text easily first time. So, for example, if a text has an FI of 12, your
reader would need to have had 12 years’ of education.
Calculating the Index isn’t always so easy – in fact, the mathematical

calculation can be quite tricky for some people, and identifying the ‘hard’
words (explained shortly) isn’t always an exact science. But to use the
Fog Index you have to get right down there into your words and look at
each one. To do the job thoroughly, you need to count the words and the
full stops as well. (Of course, with the Readability Statistics trick, I think
you will be able to escape some of the labour by generating a word count
and average sentence length at one keystroke.)

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Another reason we prefer this tool is that the ‘score’ generated makes
more sense. The resulting number in the Fog Index indicates the number
of years’ formal education your reader needs to understand your text.
Many of us will be writing for audiences who have either not completed a
western curriculum or have an incomplete education. Those of you
wishing to reach younger audiences – for example, raising awareness on
sexual health or environmental issues through publications aimed at
teenagers – will need to consider how many years’ education your target
group has had.
Devised in the 1950’s by American businessman Robert Gunning the Fog

Index continues to be used by people who want their writing to be read
easily by many people. A low FI means you can reach more people. As
your FI increases, the number of people who can understand your writing
decreases. Some typical Fog Indexes of publications you may know are:
Time – 11
Newsweek – 10
Reader’s Digest – 9
Popular Novels – 8-10
Gossip magazines – 7-8
Comic Books – 6

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So What’s a Good FI for Project Proposals?

Typically, we encourage our training participants to aim for a Fog Index of
12 – 15 for all their professional writing. We are not encouraging you to
start writing like a six-year-old! An FI of 12 is sophisticated enough to
‘sound’ professional without over-simplifying our writing. 15 is definitely an
upper limit. Once your writing goes beyond this, even the most
specialised readers will start to have problems grasping your message.
Calculating the Fog Index

First make sure you have enough text. At least half a page is needed to
get both a reliable score as well as develop a good ‘feel’ for your areas to
watch out for. Don’t do this as a ‘one-off’, either. Regular checking of your
FI will help you maintain the clarity you are developing as a result of this
module.
You can calculate the Fog Index as follows:
FI = [ASL (average sentence length) + hard words as a percentage] x 0.4
To work this out:
Number of Number of hard

words words x 100
+ X 0.4
Number of
Number of words
sentences
'Hard' Words
‘Hard’ words – sometimes referred to as complex words – are simply
words that have three or more syllables or sounds. It does not matter
whether it is a common word such as ‘cauliflower’ (four syllables) or a
rarely-used word such as ‘exogenous’ (also four syllables).
Critics of the Fog Index cite this as an example of its weakness. While it is
true that concentration is more likely to be interrupted when an unfamiliar
word arises, Gunning’s original rules are still strong. When reading, the
eye takes in ‘chunks’ of words at a time, so it is natural to assume that
having more polysyllabic / ‘hard’ words will mean that each ‘chunk’
contains less information.
Bearing in mind that our short term memory has to do most of the work
while reading, this is a bit like constructing a jigsaw puzzle. It makes
sense, then, that if each piece contains longer words, each piece of the
puzzle contains less of the ‘big picture’ – the picture we are trying to
transmit to our readers.

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Exceptions to the rule of ‘hard’ words are commonly agreed as:
• Words that have three or more syllables which are compounds of

simple words (for example, ‘one-in-five' or ‘up-to-date’)
• Words where ‘-ed’ or ‘-es’ form the third syllable (for example,
‘sentences’ or ‘departed’)
• Names of countries, people, and common brand names (for
example, Venezuela, Jonathon, Microsoft)
You can also ignore common acronyms such as UNICEF, SDC or DFID
as long as you are completely sure your reader will know them.
Task
Now that’s clear, let’s practice the tool. We will use the example you saw
at the beginning of this module, but remember to apply this tool on your
own writing, too. You will find the results illuminating.
First, though, go through the body of the text and underline all the ‘hard’
words. Don’t rely on reading with your eyes only. Read the text aloud –
some short words can be ‘hard’, and some long words can be simple.
Irrigation of Hill Systems
The irrigation of hill systems needs to have a foundation in sustainability

and cost-effective engineering. The criteria for selection of systems
should be based on the consideration of the prevention of influence of
politicians. Investment should concentrate on interventions to overcome
key bottlenecks in existing systems. Agreement with farmers with regard
to the finances and manpower resources for which there is a requirement
for maintenance must be reached and is a necessity at the planning stage
to ensure that systems are within farmers’ maintenance capacities.
Alternatively, a specific budget should be allocated from the outset.
Moreover, construction work should be of a high quality that will both last
and not require significant quantities of material for maintenance.

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Solution: FI Analysis
The irrigation of hill systems needs to have a foundation in sustainability and cost-
effective engineering. The criteria for selection of systems should be based on the
consideration of the prevention of influence of politicians. Investment should
concentrate on interventions to overcome key bottlenecks in existing systems.
Agreement with farmers with regard to the finances and manpower resources for
which there is a requirement for maintenance must be reached and is a necessity at
the planning stage to ensure that systems are within farmers’ maintenance
capacities. Alternatively, a specific budget should be allocated from the outset.
Moreover, construction work should be of a high quality that will both last and not
require significant quantities of material for maintenance.
117 35 x 100
+ X 0.4
6 117
Average sentence length = 19.5

‘Hard’ words = 33%
(19.5 + 33) X 0.4 = 21
The final FI (21) is the number of years of formal education a person

needs to read and understand the text easily! I hope by now you are
starting to agree with the earlier point that if it’s hard to read, the fault lies
with the writer and not the reader.

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One Final Use of the Fog Index

Have you ever had to submit a proposal or report, or write to anyone
about anything, and not been sure how to get the right ‘tone’? You can
use the Fog Index on your reader, too. Check their web site and
publications, or look at proposals that have been successfully accepted.
Use the Fog Index to better understand the kind of language they prefer.
We do this regularly to make sure the writing we submit matches the

reader’s expectations. Human behaviour is reflective. People feel
naturally comfortable with people who ‘look like us’ and ‘talk like us’. By
analysing the FI of your reader you will be able to bring your style of
presenting ideas closer to theirs, making it more likely that your proposed
action will be more acceptable.
We are not suggesting that you imitate your reader’s style. But remember
that relationships are never static – you are either developing a closer
relationship, or moving away. Build on your relationships with your
readers by reflecting their style in your own writing.
Let me illustrate this briefly. Early in my training days a friend showed me

her proposal for, of all things, research into the health of bees in a remote
mountain district. It was, to say the least, a hard read. Her average
sentence length was around 35 words, and an incredible 90% of
sentences were passive. Long words and jargon leapt of every page.
I returned the document to her recommending a complete rewrite. With a

knowing look she smiled and said ‘I know these people. They like it like
this.’ Well, she was right and I was wrong, and her proposal was
accepted 48 hours later. (I think they weighed it rather than read it!)
It was a useful lesson, and we have applied it when we do our own

proposals, training reports, and project evaluation or close-out reports.
Find examples of your reader’s own documents, and make sure what you
write is close to their own style.
Doing this has saved us a lot of time and energy over the years. Firstly,
we don’t waste time unnecessarily writing long proposals for people who
are happy with a brief outline. And, secondly, we have only ever once
been asked to redraft a document to make it acceptable to the client.
And finally – if you really want to save time, just search on-line for ‘Fog
Index Calculator’ and paste in your text to get an analysis. It can be very
useful during editing to help you track down those unnecessary ‘hard’
words.

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Improving Clarity
Why is it a Good Idea to Use Short Sentences?
Before we look at specific tools for reducing sentence length and
improving clarity, let’s pause for a minute. After all, we all invested a lot of
time, energy, and possibly money in developing our language skills. Are
we really just going to stop using all those linkers and that wonderful
vocabulary just because some new training programme tells us to?
Remember that we are talking about an approach to our writing. We do

not say ‘you can never use this word’ or ‘long sentences are always bad’.
We are not interested in banning any words and phrases, or forcing
everyone to write in a monotonous, grey style. All of the later exercises
illustrate what you could do to reduce the length of your sentences. How
you apply this approach will depend on your own personal style, your
culture, your purpose in writing and your relationship with your reader.
Task
Note down all the benefits you can think of for keeping your sentences
short.

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Discussion
• Firstly, short sentences are easier and faster to write. They take
less time, and will usually be more accurate.
• They are also easier and faster to read. Long sentences will often
contain too many ideas and are confusing for the reader.
• Keeping your sentences short makes your message more
obvious. An idea can get lost in a long sentence. Use short
sentences to make your ideas stand out. Professional writers will
use short sentences when they have something important to say.
They don’t take chances on the reader missing the major points.
• Short sentences have more impact. They are more dynamic. They
get your reader’s attention. (And that’s what we want.)
• It’s easier to remember a short sentence. While we are reading,
our short-term memory is dominant. All the sentences in a
paragraph have to be stored in our memory temporarily as we
construct the overall meaning. This is why, when reading long
sentences, we often have to go back to beginning to read a
second time, because we forgot the first part.
• Writing shorter sentences helps to conserve the environment.
Less words means less paper, and less paper means more trees.
So try to keep your average sentence length to 15 – 20 words. When

faced with a 30-word sentence, your reader will have to slow down and
possibly read the sentence again.
Ask yourself whether you want the reader to be impressed by your

language, or by your ideas. And always try to begin with a short sentence.
Get – and keep – your reader’s attention.

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How to Reduce Sentence Length

These are the main tools you will need:
1. Reduce unnecessary words

2. Get rid of meaningless phrases
3. Cut out emphasising language
4. Reduce nominalisations
5. Reduce passive voice
We will explain and practice each one in this module. Many of the tasks
require you to apply the tools to edit sentences or paragraphs. But writing
short sentences is not just an editing task – we aim that by the end of this
module you will have acquired the habit of doing these things while
drafting, also.
The tasks that follow are not a set of rules to be followed. They illustrate
an approach to your writing which you should prefer to use, but adapt to
your specific circumstances and to your Subject, Purpose and Reader.
Tool 1: Reduce Unnecessary Words

Reducing unnecessary words is just one way we can reduce sentence
length. In the following examples you will see that in each sentence a
group of words is underlined. The sentence is followed with a possible
solution, where the number of words has been reduced without changing
the meaning.
Example 1
The meeting between community leaders and project staff afforded us an

opportunity to share perspectives on progress.
Edited Version
The meeting between community leaders and project staff allowed us to

share perspectives on progress.
Example 2
As a consequence of the awareness raising activities in the district, the

number of girls enrolled at primary level has almost doubled.
Edited Version
Because of (or, Due to) awareness raising activities in the district, the
number of girls enrolled at primary level has almost doubled.

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Task
For the following sentences, find a way to express the underlined idea in
a more concise way. Our solution follows.
1. It is compulsory to follow the application guidelines carefully.

2. Despite the fact that there was a delay in starting the project, all
activities were carried out on time.
3. Frequent disputes over land in conjunction with lack of any trained
mediators have contributed to social unrest.
4. On numerous occasions we have had to postpone visits to the project
site due to road conditions.
5. We will conduct the health camp from July 21 provided that there are
no objections from the local authorities.
6. Municipal elections will be held in the very near future.
7. During the course of my visit to Madras I met with the Assistant Project
Manager.
8. Can we meet on Monday for the purposes of reviewing the financial
plan?
9. The new Representative will arrive in the month of July.
10. The field staff carried out the Vaccination Programme in a satisfactory
manner.
11. It would be appreciated if you could make a presentation at Tuesday’s
meeting.
12. We are pleased to inform you that your application for the post of
National Programme Officer has been successful.

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Possible Solution
1. You must follow the application guidelines carefully.

2. Although there was a delay in starting the project, all activities were
carried out on time.
3. Frequent disputes over land and lack of any trained mediators have
contributed to social unrest.
4. Often we have had to postpone visits to the project site due to road
conditions.
5. We will conduct the health camp from July 21 if there are no objections
from the local authorities.
6. Municipal elections will be held very soon.
7. While I was in Madras I met the Assistant Project Manager
8. Can we meet on Monday to review the financial plan?
9. The new Representative will arrive in July.
10. The field staff carried out the Vaccination Programme well.
11. Please make a presentation at Tuesday’s meeting.
12. Congratulations! You’ve got the job!

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Tool 2: Get Rid of Meaningless Phrases

A lot of phrases used commonly in writing are often just plain
unnecessary wordiness and ‘hot air’.
For example:
I would like to take this opportunity to thank you for your contribution to
last month’s Rights Based Approach workshop.
Can be more clearly expressed as:
Thank you for your contribution to last month’s Rights Based Approach
workshop.
Why be so indirect? After all, we are saying something positive.
Task
Each of the sentences below is unnecessarily long. To make them

shorter, all you have to do is strike out the unneeded phrases.
1. As far as we are concerned there is no need for any major changes at

this point.
2. I am of the opinion that Forest User Groups have made an enormous
contribution to raising the living standards of the poorest members of the
community.
3. I would like to say that there is a strong need for more transparency at
community level on how decisions are reached centrally.
4. It should be understood that strong cultural bias in favour of male
children limits the opportunities of girl children in education.
5. I am writing to you to inform you that we will be meeting next Tuesday
to discuss the effect of the ongoing conflict on activities in the Far
Western Region.
6. We are aware of the fact that few people are prepared to speak openly
on sexual health issues.
7. Please be advised that extra security measures will be in force
throughout the election period.
8. It has been brought to our attention that rebels are threatening to
disrupt daily life in the run-up to local elections.
9. I would like to point out that all visitors have to be escorted to the gate.
10. As you are probably aware, one direct result of vocational training has
been reduced migration of adult males to neighbouring districts.

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Possible Solution
1. There is no need for any major changes at this point.

2. Forest User Groups have made an enormous contribution to raising the
living standards of the poorest members of the community.
3. There is a strong need for more transparency at community level on
how decisions are reached centrally.
4. Strong cultural bias in favour of male children limits the opportunities of
girl children in education.
5. We will be meeting next Tuesday to discuss the effect of the ongoing
conflict on activities in the Far Western Region.
6. Few people are prepared to speak openly on sexual health issues.
7. Extra security measures will be in force throughout the election period.
8. Rebels are threatening to disrupt daily life in the run-up to local
elections.
9. All visitors have to be escorted to the gate.
10. One direct result of vocational training has been reduced migration of
adult males to neighbouring districts.
While this is a straightforward task, do please be alert that you do not let
too many unnecessary phrases creep into your language. Being ‘indirect’
sometimes has a useful function, but there are more reasons for getting
to the main point than for delaying it.
One final word on the last example: ‘As you are probably aware’. This,
and its troublesome sister ‘As you know’, are definitely ones to avoid.
Certainly, they are useful when we do not want to make our reader feel
ignorant, however:
• Mentally, your reader may ‘switch off’. After all, if your reader
already knows what you are going to write, why bother to pay any
attention? Saying ‘As you are aware / As you know’ is the
equivalent of saying ‘Please don’t pay any attention to what I am
going to write now.’
• Your reader may even stop reading altogether.

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Tool 3: Easy on the Spices!

Here are a number of frequently used emphasising words that were all
taken from two or three concept papers we found on-line. Before we
discuss these, underline the ones you use in your own writing.
• Absolute / absolutely
• Actual / Actually
• Basic / Basically
• Clear / Clearly
• Considerable / considerably
• Critical
• Effective / effectively
• Efficient / efficiently
• Essential / essentially
• Extreme / extremely
• Fortunate / fortunately
• General / generally
• High / highly
• Imperative
• Important / (most) importantly
• Inappropriate / inappropriately
• Indeed
• Meaningful
• Obvious / obviously
• Quite
• Really
• Relatively
• Serious
• Significant / significantly
• Simply
• Somewhat
• Straightforward
• Substantially
• Suitable
• Typical / typically
• Undoubtedly
• Very
• Virtually

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Discussion
I am sure you already guessed what I am going to say: avoid these

words! Avoid doesn’t mean, however, that you should never use them.
Try avoiding the traffic one day – you will never reach your destination.
However, we should always stop and think before we use them.
These words are all ‘emphasising words’. That is, they are used to
strengthen certain points we are trying to make and draw our reader’s
attention. Their function is to add power to our writing, to add flavour to
our ideas – a bit like adding spices to our food.
So what’s your favourite spice? Is everything you recommend ‘essential’

and should everything you do be ‘effective’? Just like throwing hot chilli
peppers in every dish we cook, there are several main dangers to
overusing this type of word.
Firstly, everything will taste the same. Your writing will lose its impact
simply because you are using emphasising words. And just like people
who enjoy spicy food stop noticing the taste after a while, your
emphasising words will lose their flavour. Your reader will stop noticing
them. Just like the boy in the children’s tale who cried ‘Wolf!’ too many
times and was gobbled up because the villagers didn’t believe him, you
may use the word ‘important’ one time too many and fail to get your
reader’s attention.
Secondly, a lot of these words are ‘hard’ words. They are going to
increase your Fog Index and cause the reader strain if overused, so
here’s a good place to get rid of them (the unnecessary ones, at least) or
develop your ability to use a short word with similar meaning.
A third reason to be careful is that it can be easy to automatically use

these words to add power to our writing without carefully considering if
they are appropriate. When we say ‘significant’ is it really true? This
applies even more so with some of the expressions. For example, when
someone uses the word ‘basically’, there’s a very good chance that what
follows will be far from basic!
So, to conclude this exercise: whenever you find yourself about to use an
emphasising word like those in the list, ask yourself:
• Is this really necessary, or am I just trying to make my writing

sound more important?
• Is there a shorter alternative?
• Am I using it correctly?
• If I don’t use it, will I still be able to make my point?

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Tool 4: Avoid Nominalisations
I’m sure some of you are scratching your heads already. So what’s a
nominalisation? A nominalisation is an abstract noun / idea. (An abstract
noun is a word that isn’t the name of a physical object but a process,
method or feeling.) It’s foggy. It’s indirect. It presents no memorable visual
image to our reader. Nominalisations make our writing lose impact and
can actually make our reader fall asleep.
The language of international development can be full of unnecessary

nominalisations. Here are a few:
• Collaboration
• Consultation
• Discrimination
• Evaluation
• Facilitation
• Implementation
• Intervention
• Investigation
• Mediation
• Modification
• Participation
• Verification
These nominalisations are much weaker than the verbs they come from.
Remember verbs are about action. Abstract nouns are just ideas. If the
message our writing is trying to send is that we are action-focused rather
than academics just theorising, we should consider changing these to
verbs. For example:
• Collaborate is more powerful than Collaboration

• Consult is more powerful than Consultation
• Discriminate is more powerful than Discrimination
• Evaluate is more powerful than Evaluation
• Facilitate is more powerful than Facilitation
Let’s compare those in some short phrases:
More collaboration is needed ….

We need to collaborate more …
Consultation should be held with all stakeholders when developing M&E

systems.
All stakeholders should be consulted when …
Discrimination against low caste groups is very common ….

Low caste groups are commonly discriminated against …

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Shorter words, shorter sentences and more dynamic language:

convinced? Remember, you don’t have to change every nominalisation
into a verb – in fact, it’s probably impossible. But just be alert to where
you can make improvements.
Task
Rewrite the sentences, changing the nominalisations back into verbs

where you can. Our possible solution follows.
1. We are in agreement with your suggestion.

2. We are sending one of our field officers to the village to make an
assessment of the project’s progress.
3. We will make our decision by Friday.
4. I had a discussion about it with the team leader.
5. The performance of the team was very good.

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Possible Solution
1. We agree with what you suggested.

2. We are sending one of our field officers to the village to assess project
progress.
3. We will decide by Friday.
4. I discussed it with the team leader.
5. The team performed very well.
Task
Let’s raise the challenge here. The following text which you saw at the
beginning of this module has a Fog Index (FI) of 21. There are 18 words
per sentence, so some of the wordiness has to be reduced. Hard words
make up 35% of the total, so a lot of those will have to be removed or
simplified.
• Remove unnecessary words and phrases

• Get rid of emphasising language
• Change nouns to verbs where you can
Irrigation of Hill Systems
The irrigation of hill systems needs to have a foundation in sustainability

and cost-effective engineering. The criteria for selection of systems
should be based on the consideration of the prevention of influence of
politicians. Investment should concentrate on interventions to overcome
key bottlenecks in existing systems. Agreement with farmers with regard
to the finances and manpower resources for which there is a requirement
for maintenance must be reached and is a necessity at the planning stage
to ensure that systems are within farmers’ maintenance capacities.
Alternatively, a specific budget should be allocated from the outset.
Moreover, construction work should be of a high quality that will both last
and not require significant quantities of material for maintenance.

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Possible Solution
First Edit
Hill system irrigation needs to be based on sustainability and cost-

effective engineering. Criteria for selecting systems should be free of
political influence. Investment should concentrate on intervening to
overcome key blocks in current systems. We need to agree with farmers
about finances and necessary labour for maintaining systems at the
planning stage to ensure that systems can be maintained by farmers
themselves. Alternatively, we should allocate a specific budget from the
outset. Construction work should be of a high quality that will last and not
need a lot of material for maintenance.
FI = 14
15 words per sentence

21% hard words
We can still reduce the FI a little more. The average sentence length is
acceptable now, but there are still a lot of ‘hard’ words. It’s time to look for
any other vocabulary that can be changed from complex to simple.
Second Edit
Hill system irrigation needs to be based on sustainability and cost-

effective engineering. Criteria for selecting systems should be free of
political influence. Investment should concentrate on acting to remove
blocks in current systems. We need to agree with farmers about finances
and labour needed for maintaining systems at the planning stage to
ensure that they can be maintained by farmers themselves. Alternatively,
we should set a specific budget from the start. Construction work should
be of a high quality that will last and not need a lot of material for upkeep.
FI = 12
15 words per sentence

15.5% hard words

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Tool 5: Prefer Active Verbs

If writing tells others ‘who we are’, what message do we send when we
use the passive voice? Passive sentences can make our writing longer,
less direct, more complicated and, generally, dull for readers. Active
sentences are more dynamic, keep our readers’ attention and are more
precise.
Although we won’t go into detail here – any good grammar book will give
you a full explanation – let’s just clarify briefly what we mean by active
and passive voice.
Verbs in the English language have three features:
• Time (past, present, future)

• Aspect (simple, continuous, perfect)
• Voice (active or passive)
Most sentences in English are in the active voice. This is true of both
written and spoken English. You may have heard such statements as ‘we
use passive more when we are writing’. This is quite untrue, although
perhaps more true last century when more people followed the academic
‘rules’ of writing. We don’t use passive voice much more in writing than in
speaking. (The only important difference between writing and speaking is
that writing should be correct.) The only rule about using passives is you
can use them when you have a good reason.
In grammatical terms, the active voice means that the subject comes
before the verb, and acts on an object. Another way to say this is that we
put the actor before the action.
Two of our Senior

attended the micro-finance workshop.
Programme Officers
(subject or actor) (verb or action) (object)
The passive voice, however, starts with the object and then puts the
action before the actor:
The micro-finance by two of our Senior

was attended
workshop Programme Officers.
(object) (action) (actor)
In both sentences ‘to attend’ is the action, but in the active sentence the
actor comes first.

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Why Use the Active Voice?
As much as possible, you should try to avoid using passives. You should
use the active voice because that is how you speak. It will make your
writing more natural and easier to read. Active sentences are also more
dynamic. Passive sentences are longer. Active sentences make what we
write more concise, and therefore carry greater impact.
It is also possible in many cases to use the passive voice without referring
to the actor. For example, it is quite possible simply to say, ‘the District
Health Office was visited’. By using the passive we can often avoid saying
‘who did what’. However, in Professional Writing the reader will usually
want to know what was done and also who did it. Using active sentences,
therefore, means that we credit our sources of information and stand
behind our actions.
Another reason for avoiding the use of passive sentences is that your
reader may have difficulty in understanding them. Many readers of
English as a foreign language find them difficult to recognise, as the verb
has two parts. It is the form of ‘to be’ which indicates the tense, while the
past participle never changes. Very often readers mistake passives for
past tenses.
Finally, another important reason for not using passives is that, from our
many years of language training experience, we recognise that they are
very hard to form correctly and often used when they should not be.
When writers start to use passives they often demonstrate clearly their
inability to use English competently and confuse their readers.

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So When can you Use the Passive?
We sometimes do need to use the passive voice. This is true when:
We want to focus on the object (e.g. ‘The proposal has been submitted to
the Ministry’ – here the sentence focuses on the proposal. Who wrote it is
not important.)
We want to be more diplomatic – and, sometimes, to avoid responsibility!

For example, when we say ‘Farmers were not consulted when designing
the irrigation systems’ we avoid naming the responsible person who failed
to do this. (No, we are not suggesting you use the passive voice to ‘bury
your mistakes’ – just when it is diplomatic not to focus unnecessarily on
the person.) But the other side of the diplomatic use also leads us to
failing to credit people’s achievements. While the statement ‘The polio
vaccination campaign was carried out efficiently’ tells us all about the
achievement, what about the people who were responsible? How about
saying ‘The Delhi team carried out the polio vaccination campaign
efficiently’ instead?
Sometimes we just do not know who was responsible, or it is

unnecessary to say who did it because this does not provide us with any
more useful information. For example, ‘Our regional support office was
broken into, and $300 of medical supplies was stolen’. Here we do not
know who broke into the office, and to say ‘by thieves’ is somewhat
pointless.
You should try to use the passive voice rarely and with caution. At the risk
of repeating what we said earlier, the passive is not as common as you
think. Yes, it is more common in writing, but still should be used with
restraint. Overall, there has been a continual shift over the past century
from a form of English which is formal and rule-bound to a written
language that is more direct and natural. As a general approach, if you
would not say it, then you should not write it. If you want your writing to be
clear, brief and direct, try to use the active voice wherever you can.

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Task
Here’s a short exercise to practice getting rid of those unappealing

passives. Do this in four steps:
1. Underline all the passive verbs

2. Look again at the reasons for using passive voice
3. Change the ones which should be changed
Finally, apply all the other tools from this module – reducing unnecessary
words / phrases, emphasising words and nominalisations.
Although progress has been made during the 1980s and 1990s, severe
poverty is still suffered by a significant proportion of the population. Rural
areas are inhabited by the majority of the poor. Their lower standard of
living is caused by high underemployment, inadequate infrastructure, and
insufficient income generating assets. The economic position of low-
income groups may have been adversely affected by Malawi’s economic
problems of the 1990s and subsequent economic reform initiatives,
although the data is ambiguous and the real picture will only be seen from
the 2008 census.

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Possible Solution
First, the passive sentences have been underlined:
Although progress has been made during the 1980s and 1990s, severe
poverty is still suffered by a significant proportion of the population. Rural
areas are inhabited by the majority of the poor. Their lower standard of
living is caused by high underemployment, inadequate infrastructure, and
insufficient income generating assets. The economic position of low-
income groups may have been adversely affected by Malawi’s economic
problems of the 1990s and subsequent economic reform initiatives,
although the data is ambiguous and the real picture will only be seen from
the 2008 census.
Changing those where we thought it was appropriate, we came up with:
Despite progress during the 1980s and 1990s, a significant proportion of

the population still suffers severe poverty. The majority of the poor inhabit
rural areas. Their lower standard of living is caused by high
underemployment, inadequate infrastructure, and insufficient income
generating assets. Malawi’s economic problems of the 1990s and
subsequent economic reform initiatives may have adversely affected the
economic position of low-income groups, although the data is ambiguous
and we will only see the real picture from the next census.
Note that we only left one sentence in the passive voice. Changing it to
active leaves the sentence looking very unnatural, with a long list of
causes before we get to the main verb. We will deal with that sentence in
the next edit, where we apply all the tools from this module.

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Final Edit
Despite progress during the 1980s and 1990s, many people still live in severe
poverty. Most of the poor live in rural areas. Three causes of their lower standard of
living are high underemployment, limited infrastructure, and not enough income
generating assets. Malawi’s economic problems of the 1990s and later economic
reforms may have worsened the economic status of low-income groups, although
the data is unclear and we will only see the real picture from the next census.
Number of words Number of hard words

= 77 = 7 x 100
+ X 0.4
Number of
Number of words = 77
sentences = 4
FI = 11.32
19.2 words per sentence

9.1% hard words

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Endnote
We have reached the end of the module – one of just three which are
specifically about 'writing'. Of course, this entire programme is about
writing better proposals, but language skills are just a small part of the
whole process.
Perhaps you came to this programme thinking that you would learn to
'talk the talk' of development: the long words and sentences that impress
so much but tell very little. However, achieving our objectives depends on
communicating clearly and efficiently. Many writers fail to keep their
sentences short enough or language simple enough for most readers,
causing a lot of strain.
Writing clearly isn't about over-simplification. But we hope you've

recognised that it's possible to increase the impact of your writing and
reach more readers more easily using the tools presented.
The next module looks at the second cornerstone of Professional Writing
– Organising your Ideas.
Best of Luck!

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7: Writing Skills: Organising your Ideas

By the end of this module you will understand the principles of
professional organisation of writing and be able to:
• Select from a range of ways to organise your main points

• Write clear, concise and cohesive paragraphs
In this module we will look at an action-focused approach to organising

your writing that saves time and gets results. We will examine the various
ways to organise your main points. We will discuss the concepts of
paragraph writing, and you will learn how to organise your ideas into
cohesive and persuasive arguments.
There will be the usual reflection questions and practice exercises to help
you apply the tools for organising your ideas. On the way we will discuss
some of the implications of organising our writing professionally. Being
action-focused is a big aspect of writing style. As in the module on Clarity,
we will consider the implications of the approach we suggest.
We will end this module by recapping the main points, as well as

reminding you that almost everything here is only suggested. It will
always be up to you and your unique knowledge of the situation that will
guide you in selecting how you organise your ideas for your reader.
Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning

If you are presenting an argument there are two main ways that you can
present your ideas. We will refer to these as Inductive and Deductive
Reasoning. Both can be effective. When we present our ideas inductively,
we give specific examples, ideas and evidence and, based on these,
present our conclusions at the end. This can also be described as a
scientific argument – developing all our points before presenting our
conclusion.

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Inductive Reasoning
Here’s an example of Inductive Reasoning:
In 2002, the number of women in the district who could read was just 9%.
This is poor by national standards, then estimated to be 14%. Presently
that figure is 19%. This means that there have been significant advances
in female literacy, which has more than doubled since 2002.
Our research also indicates that child mortality stands at just 6.1%,
compared to 8.4% six years ago. This represents a decrease of more
than 25%. Child mortality in the district was once among the highest in
the nation, and is now below the national average of 7.4% (est. 2006).
Both paragraphs are certainly cohesive and complete, but look at where
the conclusions are. In each case, they come at the end of the paragraph.
Both paragraphs start by presenting facts, which alone may have no
significance to the reader. It is following the sequence ‘specific to
general’. This forces the reader to process all the information and can
make understanding the key point of each paragraph more challenging.
However, a busy reader will not usually read every word. They will usually
scan the document, especially if it is a long one, trying to get the main
ideas. They will certainly read the first sentence of each paragraph. If the
first sentence is just raw data with no explanation, this can lead to
frustration.
Always put yourself in the reader’s position. What questions does the
reader want the writing to answer? That is what you should deal with first.

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Deductive Reasoning
The same information could be presented a more professional way. With
Deductive Reasoning, you start out by stating your conclusion, expressed
in a Topic Sentence, and then present the main points. Finally, you give
the supporting details. Looking at the examples again, presented
deductively:
There have been significant advances in female literacy. This has more
than doubled since 2002. Presently, female literacy stands at 19%. In
2002, the number of women in the district who could read was just 9%.
This was poor by national standards, then estimated to be 14%.
Our research also indicates that child mortality in the district is now below
the national average. Child mortality has fallen by over 25% over the past
six years. Once among the highest in the nation – 8.4% compared to an
average of 7.4% (est. 2006) – it now stands at just 6.1%.
The first sentence of each paragraph is its Topic Sentence. It gives the
main idea of the paragraph. We are saying what is most important first, so
that the reader can more easily understand what is to follow. We are
saving the reader time – the time often wasted hunting for the main idea.
The reader can skim through the text and, by reading the first sentence of
each paragraph, should be able to build up a clear understanding of the
whole document. You are also saving your readers effort – the effort of
analysing the data themselves.
A further point is that when writing proposals, you will save yourself a lot
of effort when you come to draft a summary or write a shorter concept
paper. By taking the first – topic – sentence from each paragraph, you
should be able to build up a concise summary of the entire document. A
final advantage is that we can use well-expressed topic sentences to
support our main objective and persuade our readers.

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The Pyramid
The Deductive Approach is sometimes described as an Inverted Pyramid.
Traditionally, the Inductive approach follows an argument-building route

upwards through a pyramid of logic. Let's assume we have the following
data:
In Nepal:
Total number of schools – 23885

Ratio of schools to school-aged children –1:250
Enrolment at primary level (total) – 70% (m 79% /f 61%)
Children completing primary education – 53%
Visually, we can represent this information as follows:
Using the Inductive approach, we get something like this:
In Nepal, there are just 23,885 primary schools for around 2.5 million children. 60%
of these are in urban areas, while 93% of children live in rural areas. This means
that children’s access to education is very limited, especially in remote areas.
Despite this, 70% of all children are enrolled at primary level, which is encouraging.
However, while 79% of boys start primary level, this figure is just 61% for girls,
which means that girls are less likely to be educated than boys, a sign of gender
bias. In conclusion, we can see that the education status of children is poor.

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At the base of the pyramid we have our data – facts and figures from the
field. At the next level, we have the main points. Finally, the journey ends
(at last!) with the writer’s conclusion.
For the reasons mentioned earlier (and others we will discuss shortly),
this is not the most effective way to present your professional writing.

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The action-focused alternative would be something like:
Overall, the primary education situation of children in Nepal is poor. Access to

education is limited and, although enrolment is reasonable, there is widespread
gender bias against girls.
Limited access is shown through the number of schools and their location. The
number of schools is not enough, with a ratio of one primary school per 150 children
(23,885 schools for 3.5m primary-age children). Furthermore, most of the schools
are concentrated in urban areas, far from where most children live. Nearly 2/3 of
schools (60%) are in urban areas while the majority of children (93%) live in remote
areas.
Even so, enrolment is reasonably high. Despite limited access, 70% of children do
enrol at primary level. However, 1/3 of children still do not begin primary education.
However, we can see widespread gender bias against girls in education. Fewer girls
get an opportunity for schooling, with 79% of boys enrolled compared to just 61% of
girls.
Notice how the example you saw follows what, in journalism, is

sometimes called the Inverted Pyramid. Just as newspapers follow the
time-and-effort-saving approach of giving the most important points first,
professional writers also will regularly use this approach in their
documents.

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Using the Inverted Pyramid we travel in the opposite direction to the

scientific / inductive argument. We give our conclusions first; next we
describe the data; and, finally, we give supporting evidence, data and
examples.
We travel down the pyramid. The different levels of the pyramid are
sometimes called the Ladder of Abstraction. At the top we have the
general or abstract ideas, and at the bottom we have the specifics.
Let’s look at that paragraph visually before we move on.
Task
Before we close this introduction to approaches to organising writing, note

down:
1. The advantages of using the Inverted Pyramid to organise your ideas

in writing
2. Any situations where it would not be a good idea

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Discussion
There are several reasons to seriously consider adopting this approach.
It’s your responsibility. In professional writing, it’s the writer who is the
‘expert’ and knows more than the reader. It’s the writer who has gathered
the information and analysed it. Anyone can ‘present information’: but the
professional writer’s responsibility is more than this. It’s to:
• Investigate
• Understand
• Describe
• Explain
It helps the reader to decide on action. Your reader has to spend less
mental effort on processing the information and can, consequently, focus
on understanding the meaning and significance of what you are writing.
It’s more persuasive. Readers are more likely to agree with your
conclusion if it comes at the beginning rather than at the end. If we
present our conclusion first, the following data strengthens and supports
it. However, if we present the data first, our readers will automatically
draw their own conclusions. If your conclusion doesn’t confirm what your
reader thinks, then you haven’t succeeded in presenting your case.
Your reader might not read everything. Professional readers will certainly
read the first paragraph, and the first sentence of each paragraph. If they
are very patient, they will read more – perhaps enough of each paragraph
until they find the significant point. Usually when I have found the main
point, I will jump to the next paragraph. (This way of reading is sometimes
exploited by evaluators trying to ‘cover up’ project shortcomings. I’ve seen
several proposals where the important analysis has been hidden away
deep inside dense paragraphs. Don’t do it!)
It gets your reader’s attention. By starting with the main point, you have
already got the reader’s attention. If they continue onto the second
paragraph, they are more likely to read all of what you have written. This
technique of ‘hooking’ your reader is especially effective in project
proposal writing. If you can get your reader’s attention early, and they go
onto the second page, your proposal is in with a better chance of
consideration.
It helps the reader to follow your argument. By organising your writing in

this way, you will help the reader to follow the rest. If you give the main
message first, the reader will have a clear idea about where it is all
leading to.
It shows respect. If your conclusion comes last, you are forcing your
reader to read the whole thing.

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People from some cultures may feel unsure about this last point.
Especially where there is a high Power-Distance between reader and
writer, or where it is traditional to show respect by not getting to the point
so directly, some writers may feel uncomfortable about this. We are
showing respect towards the reader’s time and mental effort by getting to
our main point quickly. However, we do not insist that you apply any of
the tools blindly. That is why we say get to the main point as soon as you
can.
When to Use a More Traditional Approach
We asked you earlier to also list any situations where it would not be a
good idea to be so ‘direct’. Here are the two situations where we think the
‘direct’ approach may be risky.
Bad News
It helps not to be too direct or blunt when we are giving bad news. For
example, we may need to reject a proposal or job application. Usually, we
will give some background and explanation before we give the main point.
(For example, ‘Thank you for your proposal dated …. We discussed this
at ….. While there were many strengths ….. Unfortunately ….. etc.’) Even
so, let’s make sure that the message is still clear. If you are firing
someone, don’t give so much complimentary background that the person
thinks he is being promoted!
High Power-Distance
Sometimes our readers can get offended when we are too direct. This is
no poor reflection on you as a writer – just that some readers can be very
fussy, especially if they consider themselves ‘experts’ or hold a lot of
‘power’. We all know that some bureaucrats expect a lot of ‘respect’, and
directness can sometimes offend their sensibilities.
I recall a letter I wrote to one ministry. It was around two pages, and, in
my opinion, in the most formal English I knew. My friend, a local lawyer,
had other ideas. ‘Too direct’, he said, and proceeded to add entire
phrases containing words like ‘grateful’, ‘humble’ and ‘respectfully’.
Even so, we still need to make our point clearly and unambiguously. And
in both of these cases, you still need to:
• Get to the main message as soon as you possibly can

• Present your ideas logically

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Presenting Your Ideas Logically

Don’t worry, this isn’t particularly complicated – well, not too much. There
are just a few ways, and some are used for very specific writing types.
We will deal with those first, before coming back to the two most common
– Deductive and Inductive. (I know we repeat a lot of ideas in this module
– we really want to get this point across. Bear with us!)
Remember that these different ways will all depend on the type of
document, purpose in writing or specific information we have collected.
Chronology / Sequence
Ordering ideas in a time-based sequence can be used for a variety of
writing types. Entire documents or major parts of documents can be
ordered in this way. Examples are:
• Narrative sections of training reports (Day 1, Day 2, etc.),

programme evaluation and field visit reports
• Minutes of meetings
• Instructions, describing processes and training materials
• Case studies which describe an end-user’s experiences from start
of the programme to present situation
• Presenting a problem analysis, when we are describing a chain of
cause and effect
• Narrating a story

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Location
There are only few occasions when you will need to use this way to
organise your main points. Use this way when you are writing about
different geographical locations, organisational divisions, sections or
units. It can be useful for comparative analysis and some field reports
where several sites are visited for comparison.
Now we have covered Chronology and Location, let’s look at the most
common ways you will be using.
Order of Importance
This really is an underlying principle that should guide all our planning
and presentation of ideas. Don’t forget – it’s not what’s important to you
that matters, but what’s important for your reader. Your reader is going to
care about results and significance a lot more than method. So if you
spent six hours walking up a mountain to conduct a survey, it’s the
survey’s conclusions that matter and not its design or the journey.
One thing you definitely will organise using order of importance is your
recommendations. These will very often be presented as a list, either
bulleted or numbered. Some tips on making lists:
Even if you are using bullets, think about the hierarchy of ideas. While a
bulleted list indicates that ideas are of equal importance – numbers
indicate degree of importance of sequence – the brain doesn’t work like
that. A reader will always, at some level, assume that the top of the list is
more important than the bottom. So look at your list carefully and make
sure that your most important recommendation comes first.
Avoid long lists. Typically your list should be between three and seven
items. After seven, the short term memory has trouble grasping
everything. That’s why most telephone numbers – the variable part,
anyway – are seven digits and not eight.

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If you can’t find a clear order of importance, arrange your list from
General to Specific. Talk about ‘education’ before you talk about ‘schools’
and ‘teachers’, and ‘health’ before detailing ‘doctors’ and ‘hospitals’.
That’s the Ladder of Abstraction again. You can go both ways, and we
will look at that a bit further in the next section.
Before we do, let’s remember that we can organise entire documents

using order of importance. This is how we organise effective proposals,
and the map below is explored in more detail in the earlier module on
Planning the Proposal.
If we follow the proposal Mind Map clockwise, we start with the most
essential point: the problem to be addressed. (Within the Challenge /
Problem statement also, we follow the same principle of importance – the
core problem first, then the effects, and finally the causes.)
Next comes the Project Description, and this follows the hierarchy of
ideas of our Project Planning Matrix / Logical Framework, from Goal right
down to Activities.
The next sections – Monitoring and Evaluation, Management and Budget

– are less important than the problem and its solution, and the part where
you describe your organisation’s ability to deliver the promised results
comes last. After all, we should ‘sell’ the project need first, the solution
second and ourselves last. (You will have already convinced your reader
of your abilities by this point anyway – it’s your plan.)
Use Order of Importance also for:
• Letters
• Memos
• Invitations
• Press Releases

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General to Specific (Deductive) / Specific to General

(Inductive)
Now we are back where we started this module. As long as you have
given your conclusion first, you can either continue to work down the
Ladder of Abstraction, i.e. moving from the general / abstract towards the
more specific / concrete; or you can use the scientific approach and build
your argument upwards. As long as you have made your conclusion /
purpose clear at the very beginning, you are free to choose.
We prefer the Deductive approach for the reasons mentioned earlier – it’s
easier to understand, it saves time, etc. But we do not insist that you turn
your writing completely upside down just because we say so.
Writing Effective Paragraphs
So far we have looked at approaches to organising our ideas and

different ways to organise our main points after we have presented our
conclusion. We’ve also touched on the organisation of proposals, and
noted that often we may have to make our ideas conform to the structure
(template, format) of our reader. Even if a template or format exists, we
can always apply these principles when we are drafting our analysis.
While you should aim to use lists wherever appropriate, that usually
means paragraph writing. In this section we will look at:
• Principles of Effective Paragraphs

• Writing the Topic Sentence
• Linking the Ideas Together
You will find this section simple, clear and easy to apply immediately to
your own planning and writing with great effect.

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What Makes a Paragraph Effective?

A paragraph is not just a bunch of sentences related to a particular topic
thrown together without clear purpose or planning. A paragraph is a
miniature argument, a stand-alone piece of writing that should have just
one conclusion or controlling idea.
There should be just one message. If you have two important things to
say, write two paragraphs. As a reader I will usually, after I’ve found what
I think is the conclusion, skip to the next paragraph.
The same goes for the topic. Write about just one topic in your paragraph.
Don’t worry that your paragraph is too short – a paragraph can never be
too short. Even two sentences – one to state your conclusion and one to
present the supporting data – can be enough. (And never, ever make
your paragraph deeper than your page width!)
Make your reader’s life (and your life) easier. Use the Inverted Pyramid.
Make sure the first sentence of each paragraph sums up or concludes
from the data. (That means no numbers, statistics or any data.) Then
follow decreasing order of importance or go from general to specific.
That first sentence – it’s called the Topic Sentence. We will do some work
on that in a moment.
And make sure your argument flows. That means use the most common
linkers so the reader can follow your evidence effortlessly.
The Topic Sentence

Try to start every paragraph with one of these. The topic sentence guides
the reader and lets them know what it’s all about. So no details,
percentages or anything specific here, please. The only numbers we will
ever see in a Topic Sentence will be visual: by a visual number we mean
1 – 10, rounded percentages (25%, 50%) or fractions like half, 2/3 or 3/4
– like slices of a pie.
Topic sentences perform two major functions. We will call these structural
and interpretive. Structural describes the shape of the argument;
interpretive offers a conclusion, reaction or feeling.

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Structural Topic Sentences
Structural Topic Sentences can look like this:
• There are three main reasons for the high rate of out-migration
from in the district.
• The IEC materials had several benefits.
• Mediation has led to three important results.
• There are various causes for underemployment in urban areas.
• The non-formal education programme has had the following
results.
This next example demonstrates how the Topic Sentence guides the
reader to how the paragraph will continue.
There are three main reasons why many children fail to complete primary
education. Firstly, parents often depend on their children to support them
financially. For example, … another reason is …
Using Topic Sentences like these will help your reader to follow your
argument easily – as long as you signal / link your ideas together. We will
look at some ways to link our ideas together later in this module.
Interpretive Topic Sentences
However, while structural topic sentences do help the reader to follow the
rest, they don’t tell us a lot. More valuable is the interpretive Topic
Sentence, which allows the writer free range to express his / her
interpretation of the data, and convince the reader at the same time. And,
yes – that does mean you can be ‘subjective’ if the data supports your
conclusions.
This means that you will be using adjectives to explain the meaning of the
data. The actual ‘information’ comes later in the paragraph.
There are so many things you can do with your first sentence we can only
suggest a few here. This is because your conclusions / interpretation will
be based on not just the data, but on everything you know about the
situation. As discussed already, in Professional Writing the writer is the
expert, not the reader, so it’s your responsibility to present your opinion
and interpretation.
Coming back to the language of interpretive Topic Sentences:
You can be descriptive: e.g. high, low, widespread, limited, half, etc.
You can interpret / conclude using words such as suitable, beneficial,
unsuccessful, serious, etc.
You can even give your opinion, e.g. shocking or disturbing, if you want
your reader to also be shocked / disturbed by what you present.

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Some examples:
• The health education programme was beneficial to the whole

community. Specific benefits included …
• In education, girl children have less opportunity to study than
boys. Girls’ enrolment is just 61%, compared to…
• Half of all children fail to complete primary level education. In a
recent study in 11 districts of Nepal, it was found that…
• Access to basic services is extremely limited. It was found that …
Practical: Writing the Topic Sentence
You will need some time to work through the following exercises. They
are not as easy as they look – and the purpose of the exercises is not
about getting the ‘right’ answer. It’s about understanding better how Topic
Sentences function, and how they get our message across.
All of the exercises look similar. You will be presented with a paragraph
minus its Topic Sentence. You will need to read and analyse the
information, and draw a conclusion. You then should write this conclusion
as a full sentence (not just a title) in the space provided. After that, feel
free to read the discussion of the task which follows.
Task A
_________________________________________________________.
Zhemgang district can be reached by driving 14 hours in a four-wheel
drive vehicle from the capital city of Thimphu. The winding road passes
through dense forests and is prone to landslides. Many parts of the
district can only be reached on foot. Daily life in Zhemgang is a challenge
for the people, most of whom are farmers. Access to education and social
services is lower in Zhemgang than in other parts of Bhutan.

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Possible Solution
Although this task was pretty straightforward, it will help us if we map the
information.
From the map we can see there are two main parts to the paragraph.
(What did we say about having only one main message? Oh, well.) One
part deals with location, which we can conclude is remote; and the other
describes the status of social services.
A possible solution, then, is:
Zhemgang is one the most remote and underserved parts of Bhutan.

Zhemgang district can be reached by driving 14 hours in a four-wheel
drive vehicle from the capital city of Thimphu. The winding road passes
through dense forests and is prone to landslides. Many parts of the
district can only be reached on foot. Daily life in Zhemgang is a challenge
for the people, most of whom are farmers. Access to education and social
services is lower in Zhemgang than in other parts of Bhutan.
Task B
Again, the mountain kingdom of Bhutan is the focus, but this paragraph
takes a broader view in the regional context of South Asia. There is a lot
of information here: read carefully!
_________________________________________________________.
Although access to safe water lags slightly behind, housing, access to
sanitation and health care are significantly better. The population without
access to health services, safe waters, and sanitation in 2007 were 35, 42
and 30 percent, respectively. Thirty-eight percent of children under 5
years were malnourished, compared with 53 percent in South Asia, as a
whole.

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Possible Solution
This one is certainly more challenging. For one, we have a lot more
information to process. Secondly, the controlling idea of the paragraph
only really becomes clear at the end with the words ‘compared with (the
rest of) South Asia as a whole’.
So we are comparing Bhutan with rest of the region but what, exactly, are
we comparing, and what’s the conclusion? Let’s see …
The paragraph discusses water, housing, sanitation, health care … oh,

and nutrition comes in at the end.
Access to water is slightly behind the rest of the region. Housing,

sanitation and health care are all ‘significantly better’. We’ve got some
data for these from 1995, though the dates are not really relevant to us as
we don’t know the same figures for rest of the region. That’s also a tricky
bunch of figures. The word ‘respectively’ forces the eye to jump six times
around the sentence.
Looking at malnutrition, 38% seems very high. But looking at the rest of
the region with 53%, food security also seems better in Bhutan.
So, it seems Bhutan compares better in four out of five …. what?

Indicators? That sounds a little technical and dry. What do these five
things have in common? Water, housing, sanitation, health care and
nutrition are all …. Got it! Basic needs! Which gives us:
In terms of basic human needs, Bhutan compares well with its

neighbours. Although access to safe water lags slightly behind, housing,
access to sanitation and health care are significantly better. The
population without access to health services, safe waters, and sanitation
in 2007 were 35, 42 and 30 percent, respectively. Thirty-eight percent of
children under 5 years were malnourished, compared with 53 percent in
South Asia, as a whole.
OK, that was quite a struggle, I think, but now the writer’s intention is
much clearer. Let’s not force our readers to go through the same process
every time we write.

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Task C
OK, now the hardest task of all. The following text consists of four
paragraphs, and each one needs a Topic Sentence.
As the four paragraphs are part of the same text, I suggest you read
everything to get an idea of the main flow of the argument before
attempting to write the sentences. Don’t give up too quickly. The real
learning in this exercise is in the mental gymnastics, not the solution.
1. _____________________________________________ .
In 33 countries surveyed by the research team, at least a quarter of all
mothers under the age of 50 have seen one or more of their children die.
In five of the sub-Saharan African nations studied more than half said that
they had lost at least one child.
2. _____________________________________________ .
The major causes were found to be pneumonia, diarrhoea, measles,
tetanus, and malaria – five diseases that account for two thirds of illness
and death among children in the developing world. More than half of the
children who succumb to these diseases are weakened by malnutrition.
3. _____________________________________________ .
As well as the psychological pain of losing a child, a woman may lose the
contraceptive effect of breastfeeding – and so become pregnant again too
quickly.
4. _____________________________________________ .
Where child death rates exceed 100 per 1000 births, contraceptive use
generally remains below 20%.

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Possible Solution
Paragraph 1
In 33 countries surveyed by the research team, at least a quarter of all

mothers under the age of 50 have seen one or more of their children die.
In five of the sub-Saharan African nations studied, more than half said
that they had lost at least one child.
Did you come up with something about child mortality in Africa? If you did,
I am afraid you are off track. A lot of people jump on this piece of
information as being the most important. After all, what could be more
important than the fact that more than half of the mothers in those
countries had lost a child?
Actually, this paragraph is written following the Inverted Pyramid model

so, however serious that last piece of information is, it comes last
because it counts as ‘other information’.
So what does that leave us?
We have a lot of numbers. Where is the focus here?
33 countries? That’s a lot of research – perhaps the Topic Sentence is

something like ‘Our research was the most extensive ever carried out’.
But one look at the rest of the paragraphs makes it pretty clear that we
are not writing about our methodology.
‘Mothers under the age of 50’ also defines the scope of the research and
doesn’t tell us anything dramatic.

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That leaves ‘at least a quarter of all mothers’.
33 countries surveyed, and in each one at least one in four mothers had
lost a child. Yes, for sure the situation in five of those 33 countries is even
worse, but the ‘one in four’ is our common denominator, the one fact that
is true in every place we surveyed.
Now remember we said no numbers in Topic Sentences except visual

numbers. Remember these are the numbers 1 – 10 or any fractions that
can be seen in the ‘mind’s eye’. So, our suggested Topic Sentence for
Paragraph 1 gives us the attention-grabbing headline:
One in four mothers see their children die. In 33 countries surveyed by

the research team, at least a quarter of all mothers under the age of 50
have seen one or more of their children die. In five of the sub-Saharan
African nations studied, more than half said that they had lost at least one
child.

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Paragraph 2
The major causes were found to be pneumonia, diarrhoea, measles,

tetanus, and malaria – five diseases that account for two thirds of illness
and death among children in the developing world. More than half of the
children who succumb to these diseases are weakened by malnutrition.
Again, did you get distracted by the ‘other information’? Widespread

malnutrition certainly is a cause for concern, but, again, it is placed last.
Malnutrition is not actually the killer, just a contributing factor – let’s not
confuse direct cause and circumstance. It is much harder to survive the
five causes if the body is also suffering from lack of nourishment.
Let’s look at those causes more closely: pneumonia, diarrhoea, measles,

tetanus, and malaria. Is there something they have in common?
We know they are diseases, and that they are prevalent in developing
countries. Are they infectious, perhaps? No, not that. Water-borne? No.
So what can we conclude about them?
Let’s consider malaria. Most of you will not have had malaria, even
though you may live or have visited areas where malaria can be found.
What about tetanus? That’s typically a result of a cut, perhaps rusted
metal. But if you cut yourself like that, the first thing you’d do would be to
get a booster shot.
That’s it! These are all preventable diseases. No child actually has to die
due to them.
Death through pneumonia can

be prevented through
antibiotics. There are jabs for
measles and tetanus, and
even malaria, though avoiding
getting bitten is the most
common form of prevention –
treated nets, mosquito coils …
and preventing diarrhoea isn’t
so difficult … which gives us:
There are several preventable

causes. The major causes
were found to be pneumonia,
diarrhoea, measles, tetanus,
and malaria – five diseases
that account for two thirds of
illness and death among
children in the developing
world. More than half of the
children who succumb to
these diseases are weakened
by malnutrition.

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Paragraph 3
As well as the psychological pain of losing a child, a woman may lose the
contraceptive effect of breastfeeding – and so become pregnant again too
quickly.
We are going to see a different type of Topic Sentence here. This one
illustrates how the ‘expert’ writer sometimes needs to develop the chain of
cause and effect which is beyond the reader’s grasp. The Topic Sentence
here will look at impact. The question is, then, what happens next in this
chain of cause and effect?
Let’s go through this again step by step.

If you are an expert in maternal health
issues, please be patient.
Nature, in its wisdom, recognised that

giving birth was, physically, extremely
exhausting for a mother. As a solution, it
came up with the idea that while a
mother is producing breast milk it will
send a signal to the reproductive system
to quit work: nature’s own contraception.
However, when breastfeeding stops, the
reproductive system will become active
again. If this cessation of breastfeeding
is due to early death of the child, the
mother will not be physically fully
recovered. So what does it mean by
‘become pregnant again too quickly’?
There are two possible impacts. One is

on population growth, and the other is
directly on the physical health of the
mother herself. This gives us:
Child mortality also has effects on

mothers’ health. As well as the
psychological pain of losing a child, a
woman may lose the contraceptive effect
of breastfeeding – and so become
pregnant again too quickly.

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Paragraph 4
Where child death rates exceed 100 per 1000 births, contraceptive use generally
remains below 20%.
As with each example so far, we are going to try to make the data visual.
Let’s remember that the medium of text is linear. But what we are trying to
do each time we present an argument is to take the picture we see and
paint it, with words, so our
reader can see it also. So let’s
see the data before we ‘look’ at
it.
We can see that there is a

balance here between the left
and right supports of our
pyramid. Basically, we’ve got an
‘if A is true then B is also true’
equation.
Moving up the Ladder of

Abstraction one level, we can
say that if child mortality is high,
then contraception use will be
low. That alone would often be
enough to offer as an analysis of
the data, but we can also go one
step further. Why is there low
use of contraception when child
death is widespread?
Let’s put ourselves for a moment in the shoes of the target group. You
live in a community where at least one in four mothers loses their child to
preventable disease. Family members, neighbours, everyone has some
story to tell. When your first child is born, how likely are you to be
interested in family planning, regardless of the efforts of NGOs? Knowing
your child could die, you would be more likely to resist these efforts and
have more children. This gives us a possible solution such as:
Where parents cannot be certain of the survival of their children, they are less likely
to be interested in family planning. Where child death rates exceed 100 per 1000
births, contraceptive use generally remains below 20%.

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Using Topic Sentences for Summarising and to Aid Speed Reading
Readers do not read everything. They will skim the text, reading enough
of each paragraph to get the main point and, if satisfied, will jump to the
next paragraph. As you read the complete version below, notice how
easy it is for the reader to get the conclusion of each paragraph right from
the start.
One in four mothers see their children die. In 33 countries surveyed by the research
team, at least a quarter of all mothers under the age of 50 have seen one or more of
their children die. In five of the sub-Saharan African nations studied, more than half
said that they had lost at least one child.
There are several preventable causes. The major causes were found to be
pneumonia, diarrhoea, measles, tetanus, and malaria – five diseases that account
for two thirds of illness and death among children in the developing world. More than
half of the children who succumb to these diseases are weakened by malnutrition.
Child mortality also has effects on mothers’ health. As well as the psychological pain
of losing a child, a woman may lose the contraceptive effect of breastfeeding – and
so become pregnant again too quickly.
Where parents cannot be certain of the survival of their children, they are less likely
to be interested in family planning. Where child death rates exceed 100 per 1000
births, contraceptive use generally remains below 20%.
Developing the habit of always explaining the data before you present it is
a key to presenting our arguments effectively. Data is never neutral:
everything means something, and it’s our job to explain it.
For you, further advantages are:
• You will increase your conceptual brain power. Writing in this style
is good workout for the brain, especially the right hemisphere
which we often neglect in our working lives.
• By summarising throughout, we can easily summarise our entire
document by simply extracting the topic sentences and making
minor changes and additions, as below:
One in four mothers see their children die. Child mortality has several preventable
causes. Child mortality also has effects on mothers’ health. Furthermore, where
parents cannot be certain of the survival of their children, they are less likely to be
interested in family planning.

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Linking the Parts Together

We said earlier that a good paragraph should flow and be linked together
well. In this section we will share with you the main functions of linkers
and the most common ones you should use. You do not need to learn
any new ones, just understand well the most frequent ones and use them
correctly.
There are six major functions of linking devices you need to know. These
are:
• Addition
• Contrast
• Expressing cause / reason
• Expressing effect / result
• Narration
• Giving examples
Adding Contrasting
and but
as well as however
besides although
moreover despite
furthermore in spite of
what is more nevertheless
in addition on the contrary
another point is that whereas
while
Expressing cause / reason Narration
because first(ly)
as second(ly)
since finally
this is why next
because of before
due to after
owing to after that
when
while
during
Giving examples Expressing effect / result
for example, so
for instance, so....that
this includes therefore
such as consequently
e.g. (for example) as a result
i.e. (that is) for this reason
A sound knowledge of these is all you need to link your ideas together.

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Endnote
In this module we looked at the essential writer’s tool of Organisation. We
have seen how the traditional, scientific (Inductive) approach to writing
compares to the Inverted Pyramid of Deductive writing; and, that in most
cases, we should present our ideas deductively.
Most important is that we give our main point – the significance of our
data, the conclusion of our analysis – first. After that, we should select
whichever way of organising our main points is most appropriate. Most
often this will be general to specific / order of importance, but may also
mean arranging our ideas by location or chronology.
We have investigated what makes a successful paragraph. It’s a

synthesis of analysis, presented first in our Topic Sentence, along with
supporting data developed logically and linked together.
In the next module we will apply this tool – as well as the tool of clarity –
in taking the analysis we did on the extended assignment and turning the
plan into a cohesive and persuasive draft. The next module, ‘Putting It All
Together’, will walk you through the steps of drafting the major sections of
your proposal.

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8: Putting it all Together

In this module we will walk through the steps of turning your Mind Map
into a complete, cohesive proposal. We will return to the example from
Indonesia, using the Mind Map to draft the various major sections of the
proposal. There is clear guidance at each step, and you should draft your
own proposal sections as we work through this. Do not expect exactly the
same results – every proposal is unique – and it’s the process of
developing a sound proposal we are practising here.
At the end of this module is an example first draft of the complete

Indonesia proposal, illustrating how all the data can be transformed into a
clear, brief and well-organised proposal that achieves its objectives. (The
final version – edited and ready for submission – is at the end of Module
Nine.)
Drafting the Proposal

In this section we will walk through the drafting process together, using
the situation XYZ which we have returned to several times during this
programme. Let’s remember that we are at Step 3 of a 4-step Writing
Process which is:
1. Analysis
2. Planning
3. Drafting
4. Editing
While drafting it is not necessary to worry too much about:
• Finding the ‘right’ word

• Spelling
• Punctuation
• Grammar
• Style
The above are all editing tasks. If you saw the draft of this programme
you would realise what a mess it can look! However, drafts are not for the
public to see. They can be very untidy, and turning off the ‘highlight
spelling and grammar errors’ can help. This will allow you to stay focused
on the drafting, and not interrupt your ‘flow’ of writing to correct errors
which can be fixed later.

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It is important, however, to:
• Have fully completed the analysis and planning steps –this is not a
time to be thinking ‘What do I want to say?’ or ‘What comes next?’
Nothing should interrupt the flow as you simply follow the plan,
turning your ideas into words. Nor should you be looking for any
extra data at this point – all the information needed should be at
your fingertips in your Mind Map.
• Write clearly: short words, short sentences, no unnecessary
language! Plain and simple English (or whatever language you are
writing in), direct and to the point. You can always make the
sentences longer later if you don’t think it sounds ‘serious’
enough.
• Organise your ideas well. Follow the plan / map, and work from
the most important to least important, or general (map ‘branches’)
to specific (‘leaves and fruit’). Always explain data before you give
the specifics. Use topic sentences consistently.
In this module we are going to work with the Indonesia Case Study. We
will give you guidance on how to deal with each section, after which we
suggest you try to draft the relevant section using your Mind Map to guide
you. After our possible solution, we strongly recommend you apply the
ideas to your own ongoing proposal.
The Title
Guess what? We don’t do this here. Of course, you probably have a title
in mind, but it is the very last thing we will draft. There’s an obvious
reason: the title should reflect the proposal. If we write the title first, we
may subconsciously try to make our ideas fit the title, when the title
should reflect the ideas.

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The Situation Analysis

This is the most important part of your proposal and must make an
impact. There’s no time here for longwinded histories, generalisations or
background. Your reader probably will usually know something about the
context already. We have to get the reader’s attention immediately, and
keep them interested.
Most donors will specifically limit how much you are allowed to say here,
anyway. In some cases, you might be asked to use a maximum number
of words or pages (anything from 100 words to 2 pages), but the best
principle to follow here is say a little as possible to get your point across.
Don’t be tempted to add any unnecessary detail (you can always annex
longer ‘context’ descriptions) or show off your knowledge of the topic. The
reader has questions in mind, and you should answer them.
Before we get to the Core problem, however, you may need to establish
the context, particularly if your reader is unfamiliar with either the local
situation or events leading up to the problem. However, you must be brief.
Bear in mind what the reader needs to know to understand the problem
analysis, and limit yourself to the absolute minimum.
Task
Draft the description of the context. Bear in mind this is just a first draft.
Try to organise your ideas well and keep the language clear.

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Possible Solution
Context
On 17 July at around 5PM a big flood hit the coast of Kampung. As a

result 60 people died and more than one hundred were injured. Poor
people in coastal areas were the worst affected.
Over 5000 people have been displaced. More than 2000 have lost their
homes, and the rest are traumatised, afraid to return home. These IDPs
have taken shelter in temporary camps in a local school.
Camp conditions are overcrowded. There are insufficient basic services,

and the camp is unsanitary and does not have enough water. This
presents a potential health risk.
So far, response from local Government has been poorly managed and
may not be enough to address the situation.
Next, we come to the problem analysis. The reader’s biggest question is

‘What’s the problem to be addressed’? So, answer it immediately. Go
straight to the Core Problem, making sure you begin with a short
sentence that gets your reader’s attention. Add whatever main points and
evidence you have about the current situation and your first paragraph is
finished. Don’t worry if it seems short.
Whatever you do, don’t exaggerate the problem so that it seems more
critical than it is. Most readers will not be convinced by exaggeration
anyway and, if you describe a situation as hopeless, donors may not see
much point in addressing it. You can reinforce the description of the core
problem in the next paragraph.

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Traditional writers will often move onto a detailed description of the

causes at this point. However, put yourself in the reader’s position and
consider their next question ‘So what?’ OK, perhaps their thinking is not
quite so blunt, but they may be wondering how the problem rates in its
severity in their organisation’s context and how the issue fits in with their
policy.
Also, our donor is usually further removed from the issue than we are.
They may not immediately grasp why the Core Problem is such a priority.
So, before we explain the causes, we should reinforce the initial
impression by discussing the effects and impacts. This justifies the
problem and can help the donor understand how the proposal is in line
with their policy. Again, follow the plan / map, and keep it brief and simple
and organise your ideas deductively. If there are many effects, organise
them by type. If the effects and impacts are a long chain of events, use
chronology.
In the third paragraph you can describe the causes. Your reader should,
at this point, already be convinced that a problem exists and that it
deserves attention. Now it’s time to demonstrate that you have a thorough
understanding of the underlying causes. This allows the reader to see
that you have really investigated the issue and are not just proposing
‘what you can do’, and the analysis will be reflected later in the project
description. Stick to the plan – follow a logical sequence and don’t be
tempted to add extra arguments or ‘spice up’ your language. Keep it
clear, brief and simple.
Task
Draft the Situation Analysis. Bear in mind this is just a first draft. Try to
organise your ideas well and keep the language clear.

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Possible Solution
Situation Analysis
The 5000 IDPs at Camp A are in poor condition and facing potential
serious health risks. As a result, the rate of disease is already high, and
there have even been fatalities. Some cases of diarrhoea, dermatitis and
ARI have been reported so far, and one child has already died due to
dysentery.
The two main causes are a lack of sanitary toilet and kitchen facilities,
and severe overcrowding of available tents.
Limited access / poor quality of water and sanitation are contributing to a

rising number of hygiene-related and waterborne diseases. A serious
potential health threat to the affected population relates to water and
sanitation (WATSAN). The quantity and quality of water supply is
insufficient against SPHERE standards. The number of latrines is not
enough to serve the affected people. Kitchens are unsanitary due to lack
of clean water. Although the local government is providing health services
free of charge, they are unprepared to deal with the likely epidemic, and
local NGOs, too, are limited in their capacity to deal with any major
outbreaks.
IDPs themselves have not been able to adapt easily to camp conditions.
Communities have limited awareness of hygiene practices. In almost in
every location visited the camp’s condition was unclean. Women are also
concerned as they do not feel safe and have little privacy.
There is a clear need for water supply and sanitation intervention and
some support for temporary shelter materials.

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The Project Description

Again, remember the principles of writing we discussed. While drafting,
there is no need to overcomplicate things. Work down your Logframe
from top to bottom, expanding the Narrative Summary.

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Begin with stating the Goal. Let this be a single sentence. Do the same
for the Outcome.
Next, we move onto strategy. What combination of approaches makes up

your strategy? What were your reasons for selecting this particular way
(or combination of ways) to address the causes / eradicate the problem?
If there was an approach you did not select, or a root cause you will not /
cannot address, discuss it here. The source of this information was in
your Alternatives Analysis and should already be included in your map.
Now detail your Outputs and Activities. It may be useful for the reader if
you list all the Outputs, and then describe them one by one, filling in the
details about the actual Activities. Try to avoid giving long lists. This is the
Project Description so remember to actually describe the Activities. Try to
give the reader a feel for how these will actually be conducted on the
ground.
Task
Draft the Project Description. Bear in mind this is just a first draft. Try to
organise your ideas well and keep the language clear.

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Possible Solution
Project Description
This project aims to bring about an improvement in the health status of

IDPs at Camp A. This will be done through immediately improving their
living conditions.
Project strategy addresses the immediate needs / health risks, as well as

longer term, particularly where future emergencies are concerned. The
primary approach is to provide, immediately, better access to WATSAN
services and to reduce overcrowding. At the same time, we will
worktowards improving the hygiene practices of IDPs. Although end-user
participation in planning and implementation is limited, this project will
bring immediate relief to a critical situation. During the process of delivery
we will involve communities wherever feasible, while developing the
capacity of partners to respond more effectively to
future crises.
There are four main Outputs:
1. Provision of safe water

2. Provision of safe latrines
3. Reduced overcrowding
4. Improved hygiene practices of IDPs
Output 1 – Increased availability and accessibility of safe water for

IDPs
IDPs will have access to three litres per person/day from five
communal water tanks (capacity 2,000 litres each) set up in the
camp within the first week intervention. Up to 100 buckets (capacity
20 litres each) will be distributed to 100 households in the camp
within the first week. We will conduct advocacy and coordinate with
NGOs and local Government on how to rapidly provide adequate
safe water facilities for future crises.
Output 2 – Increased availability and accessibility of safe latrines
Up to 20 temporary latrines will be constructed within two weeks.

We will conduct advocacy and coordinate with NGOs and local
Government on how to rapidly provide adequate sanitation facilities
for future crises.

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Output 3 – Occupancy of temporary shelters does not exceed 10

people per tent
Up to 100 tents will be distributed to 100 households within the first

week. We will liaise with the local Government (responsible for
camp security) in setting up a security system participated in by
IDPs. We will conduct advocacy and coordinate with NGOs and
local Government on how to store and manage tents for future
crises.
Output 4 – IDPs apply effective hygiene practices
Parallel to provision of WATSAN services, all IDPs will be educated

in how to responsibly maintain the facilities. Up to 800 women (as
traditional primary caretakers of children and having regular
responsibility for food preparation) will receive training on basic
hygiene with relation tochildren’s defecation and how to maintain
hygienic standards while cooking.

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Monitoring and Evaluation

The M&E is already summarised in the Logframe, and here is where you
describe the Monitoring and Evaluation system. Again, the key word is
‘describe’ – help the reader to actually visualise how M&E activities will be
conducted.
Begin by summarising the approach. What are the main methods that will
be used why? Is it traditional M&E or participatory. How does the system
proposed fulfil the M&E needs of the project?
After this general description, you can get more specific. Who will carry
out M&E activities? Outline who will be responsible and the reason for
your choice. How frequently will monitoring be conducted? What will
happen with the results – how will they be disseminated and used to steer
the project?
How will the final evaluation be conducted? Who will be responsible?

How will the results be shared?
Task
Using the map above, develop the M&E narrative of the Indonesia
proposal.

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Possible Solution
Monitoring & Evaluation
The project will be monitored and evaluated through observation (of work
done, conditions and practices), by IDPs themselves through community
meetings, and through health reports from the local Government health
post. These will be combined into progress and evaluation reports at the
following key stages:
On completion of installation of water supplies, distribution of tents and

buckets:
• Implementation report to donor / Government counterparts

• Report back to IDPs in community meeting
At project end:
• Camp Assessment
• Community Assessment
One month after project end:
• Impact report to donor / Government counterparts

During implementation we will monitor the installation of facilities and

distribution of tents. Once this phase is completed, we will assess the
camp conditions in terms of WATSAN access, and get feedback from
IDPs through community meetings. At the end of two weeks, all activities
will be complete. We will then assess use of services and community
response. One month after completion of all activities we will again
evaluate the camp condition, and assess the health status via health post
reports. We will also assess how IDPs view the improved situation at this
time, and recommend any further actions needed.

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Project Management
Here your reader needs to know how the project will be staffed. In total,
how many staff are there?
Describe the management structure. Who is involved in oversight and

direction? How is the management selected?
For key positions, what skills are required? Do these skills already exist,
or do they need to be outsourced or trained? Have the candidates already
been identified? If needed, explain how they were selected. Describe the
duties for each key person.
Describe the support structure. What positions exist and how do they
contribute to the smooth-running of the project?
Which staff are full-time, and which are on a fixed number of days? What
are the lines of responsibility and communication?
It may help to make an organigram or staffing diagram. Who is

accountable to whom? Who reports to whom within the project? Who
reports externally to donors, partners or media?
Task
Draft the Project Management section of the Indonesia proposal.

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Possible Solution
Project Management
Altogether, there will be four project staff as follows:
1 x Project Manager (PM)

2 x Project Officers (PO)
1 x General Support Officer (GSO)
The Project Manager is responsible for overall coordination of activities

and liaising with Government and NGO partners. The PM is also
responsible for final reports to donors / counterparts.
The Project Officers will be fully involved in oversight / monitoring of

implementation, hygiene awareness training to IDPs and conducting
community meetings. They will report directly to the PM.
The GSO provides logistic support to the PM and POs. Responsibilities

include general administration, transport management and liaising with
construction teams / suppliers.

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Budget
For the budget, do not simply present table of items listed against
expense. When describing the budget, start with the total budget and then
break it down.
If possible, attribute the budget by percentage to each Output, so that the

donors can see how much of the funds are being used to each dimension
of the project. (For fixed investment and support costs, distribute this
evenly over all Outputs. For example, if there are five Outputs and shared
project costs of 20,000$, 1/5 of this belongs to each Output.)
Presenting a breakdown in this way is particularly useful when you may

have several potential donors. While your project itself may not entirely
fall within a donor’s sector, one of its Outputs may.
Also break budget down by type of cost, e.g. infrastructure, office running
costs, staffing, transportation, etc. This will help the donor to assess
whether the funding will be used efficiently.
Now you can list in detail the main items, but don’t put them all into just
one table. Categorise the types of cost as you did above. End the costs
part of the budget by explaining any unusual items or large costs.

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If your organisation intends to meet some of the project input

requirements, mention this here. You may, for example, already have
equipment, vehicles or salaried staff that can be utilised.
This is also where you should mention if the project will generate any
income. For example, a capacity building project may charge fees (even
subsidised ones) for its services; or a target group may produce goods or
provide services (such as handicrafts or tourism services).
If you have already secured other funding, or anticipate particular

organisations to contribute, describe the support you expect here.
Task
Draft the Budget section of the Indonesia proposal.

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Possible Solution
Budget
The total budget will be 18,650 GBP.
Of this, 14,650 will be direct project costs, while another 4000 GBP covers staffing
and running costs.
Direct Costs
Direct project costs by Output are as follows:
Output 1 – Increased availability and accessibility of safe water for IDPs – 6850 GBP
Output 2 – Increased availability and accessibility of safe latrines – 5000 GBP
Output 3 – Occupancy of temporary shelters does not exceed 10 people per tent –
2500 GBP
Output 4 – IDPs apply effective hygiene practices – 300 GBP
Staffing and Running Costs
Total staffing = 2790 GBP
Project Manager – 7 days @ 80 GBP – 540 GBP

Project Officer – 15 days @ 60 GBP – 900 GBP
Project Officer – 15 days @ 60 GBP – 900 GBP
General Support Officer – 15 days @ 30 GBP – 450 GBP
The remaining 1210 GBP (6% of total budget) is to cover day-to-day running costs
and overheads.

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Task
Draft the Organisation Background section of the Indonesia proposal.

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Possible Solution
Our purpose is:

• To prevent loss of life and reduce suffering of people affected by

natural or human-made disasters
With headquarters in the United Kingdom, we work in 70 countries. We

have operated in Indonesia since 1972, conducting development and
humanitarian programmes in education, gender equity, fair trade and
emergency response. Since 2005 our integrated humanitarian
programme has been working to reduce risk for disaster-affected people.
Our Emergency Response Team’s objective is that IDPs have access to
basic needs through the provision of shelter, public health and food and
advocacy activities.

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Final First Draft

Situation Analysis
people in coastal areas were the worst affected. Over 5000 people have
been displaced. More than 2000 have lost their homes, and the rest are
traumatised, afraid to return home. These IDPs have taken shelter in
temporary camps in a local school. Camp conditions are overcrowded.
There are insufficient basic services, and the camp is unsanitary and
does not have enough water. This presents a potential health risk. So far,
response from local government has been poorly managed and may not
be enough to address the situation.
dysentery.

outbreaks.

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Project Description
living conditions.

services and to reduce overcrowding. At the same time, we will work
towards improving the hygiene practices of IDPs. Although end-user
capacity of partners to respond more effectively to future crises.

Output 1 – Increased availability and accessibility of safe water for IDPs
IDPs will have access to three litres per person/day from five communal
water tanks (capacity 2,000 litres each) set up in the camp within the first
week intervention. Up to 100 buckets (capacity 20 litres each) will be
distributed to 100 households in the camp within the first week. We will
conduct advocacy and coordinate with NGOs and local government on
how to rapidly provide adequate safe water facilities for future crises.
Up to 20 temporary latrines will be constructed within two weeks. We will

how to rapidly provide adequate sanitation facilities for future crises.
Output 3 – Occupancy of temporary shelters does not exceed 10 people per

tent
Up to 100 tents will be distributed to 100 households within the first week.
We will liaise with the local government (responsible for camp security) in
setting up a security system participated in by IDPs. We will conduct
advocacy and coordinate with NGOs and local government on how to
store and manage tents for future crises.
Parallel to provision of WATSAN services, all IDPs will be educated in how

to responsibly maintain the facilities. Up to 800 women (as traditional
primary caretakers of children and having regular responsibility for food
preparation) will receive training on basic hygiene with relation to children’s
defecation and how to maintain hygienic standards while cooking.

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meetings, and through health reports from the local government health

buckets
• Implementation report to donor / government counterparts

At project end
• Camp Assessment
One month after project end
• Impact report to donor / government counterparts



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Project Management


and liaising with government and NGO partners. The PM is also


Budget
Of this, 14,650 will be direct project costs, while another 4000 GBP
covers staffing and running costs.
Direct Costs
Output 1 – Increased availability and 6850 GBP

accessibility of safe water for IDPs
accessibility of safe latrines
Output 3 – Occupancy of temporary 2500 GBP
shelters does not exceed 10 people per
tent
Output 4 – IDPs apply effective hygiene 300 GBP
practices
Project 7 days @ 80 GBP 540 GBP

Manager
Project Officer 15 days @ 60 GBP 900 GBP
General 15 days @ 30 GBP 450 GBP
Support Officer
Running Costs (overheads, office supplies, transport, etc.) = 1210 GBP

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Our purpose is:

Our Humanitarian Objective:




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Endnote
Congratulations on having come this far. This module, ‘Putting It All
Together’, covered the Drafting stage of the Writing Process. We have
seen that, once we have a plan, we can take our map and use it to guide
us in presenting our analysis and data.
There’s still a little more to do. In the final module we will look at Finishing
off the Proposal, covering language and style, and the editing process.

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9: Writing Style & Editing Skills

In this module we look at putting finishing touches to the proposal. This
module covers a range of final points to turn your writing into a first-class
document.
You will learn some more about style – how your writing sends a
message to others about who you are. Several pages are devoted to how
to improve your style, and there are several exercises to help you apply
this.
The other major focus of this module is editing. This is a process, and
more than just about checking spelling and grammar, but also about how
to edit for clear objectives, clarity, organisation, language and style as
well.
We wrap up this module with a discussion of design and layout – how to

make your proposal visually attractive.

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Style and Language

Style is the ‘how’ of expressing ideas. Just as the way we dress and walk
sends a message to others about who we are, so does our choice of
words and use of language. It’s not ‘what’ we say – it’s ‘how’ we say it.
Generally, try to write in a style that is close to – but more consistent and
accurate than – the style you speak with. Keep it simple and natural.
Avoid jargon (specialised or technical language that few ‘outsiders’ can
understand) and slang / idioms (they look strange and go out of fashion
quickly). Keep terminology within the reader’s easy comprehension. Just
because we are writing, there is no need to try to impress the reader with
long words and complicated sentences. This is dangerous in Professional
Writing because it gets in the way of ideas, and the writing loses impact.
Whenever we communicate, there are three main factors which affect the
style we use. These are:
The message itself – what we are saying is obviously a big factor. It could
be good news or bad news; we might be discussing a 50$ item or a $2m
project; reporting on a major success or proposing a solution to a
desperate situation. In each case our style would vary.
One thing I frequently notice is that the budget of a project seems to have
a corresponding effect on sentence length and vocabulary. As projects
get bigger, the Fog Index (FI – see the module on Clarity) grows, too.
Unfortunately, this often leads to lack of clarity and impact in many
proposals.

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The second factor is the medium. It’s true that there is a Fog Index (FI)
range for Professional Writing with 12 as a simple average and 15 as an
upper limit. E-mails and memos should be at the lower end of the scale
(around 10), while evaluation reports and longer proposals can reach 15.
(However, in reality, too many reports and proposals have an FI which is
higher than that – 16-18 is a common range.) Whatever you write, you
should aim to follow the principles practised the earlier writing skills
modules and write clearly, getting your main point across as soon as you
can. Never write anything – any word or phrase –that you would not use
while speaking.
The third big factor affecting style is your relationship with your reader. If
we know somebody well we tend to be more direct and conversational,
but when writing to a stranger we might be a little more formal – but not
as formal as you might think.
We all have a repertoire of styles, and we naturally adapt our style of

communication to all situations. You talk to your children, spouse,
colleagues and managers in different ways. So our relationship with the
reader – level of intimacy, previous contact, and Power-Distance – also
affects our style.
Again, remember that your written style should not differ much from the
way you speak. As a rule, if you wouldn’t say it, don’t write it.
Why is a Good Style Important?

Actually, in project proposals, good style is not a matter of life or death:
most proposals manage to get away with being written in a very dull style.
It’s certainly not as important as clear objectives, clarity, conciseness and
good organisation of your analysis.
However, Professional Writing is about action, which means what we

write has to have impact. Positive results can only be achieved through
effective use of language. It is important to have a good style for several
reasons. A good style:
• Helps you build a rapport and develop a relationship with your

reader
• Helps you communicate your ideas better
• Sends a message to your reader about who you are and about
your organisation
• Keeps readers more alert
• Makes your writing more interesting and more personal
• Makes the writing more persuasive
• Helps you gain support for your proposals and ideas

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What is a Good Style?

The best writers will use a style which is:
• Interesting – keeping the reader’s attention

• Persuasive – making an impact
• Personal – speaking directly to the reader
There are several ways in which they can do this. You can make the style
of your writing more dynamic by:
• Beginning your sentences using ‘action’ words

• Using questions to make the reader more alert
• Reducing indefinite language
• Using the active voice
• Using words effectively
The next section covers some of the tools we can use to improve our
style. (Many important ideas related to style have already been discussed
in the module on Clarity.)

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Simple Tools to Improve Style

Begin with the Action
Get your reader’s attention by beginning sentences with ‘action’ words.

Look at the following example:
• We should arrange a meeting of all programme staff to finalise the

immunisation programme schedule.
In the above sentence, there are two actions –‘arrange a meeting’, and
the other is ‘finalise the immunisation programme schedule’. Bringing the
most important action (the result of the meeting) to the beginning, we get:
• To finalise the immunisation programme we should arrange a

meeting of all programme staff.
Similarly, rather than saying:
• I have attached a problem analysis including recommendations for

solving these.
Your writing will have more impact if you say:
• Please refer to the attached problem analysis and recommended

solutions.
Actually, what we are doing here is applying the principles of order of

importance at sentence level.
But a warning: do NOT apply this tool ALL the time! Just, while editing,
reorganise a few sentences – especially the ones which are really about
action – to change the emphasis. This will have a further advantage of
breaking up the ‘rhythm’ of your natural way of organising ideas and keep
your reader more alert.
Use Questions
Another tool is using questions. In writing, you can use questions to

engage your readers directly, making them more alert to your message.
You can use questions such as:
• What are the causes of these problems?

• How have the IEC materials been used at village level?
• What are some of the challenges facing sexual minorities?
• What have been the major achievements of the programme?
These get your reader’s attention. Of course, if you use a question, you
MUST answer it IMMEDIATELY. Don’t overuse this tool.

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Reduce Indefinite Language
An important way to improve your writing style is by avoiding – or

thoroughly editing out – indefinite language. Apart from the obvious
advantage of improved clarity, using definite language makes it clear that
you are confident in your analysis and ideas.
Indefinite words and phrases include:
• Might
• Could
• May
• Hope
• Perhaps
• Possibly / It is possible that
• Quite
• Something like
• Soon
• Later
Use Active Verbs
Wherever possible, always use the active voice. It is not ‘better’ or ‘more
formal’ to use passives – it just causes the reader problems, makes your
writing longer and more difficult to follow, and you are more likely to make
grammatical errors.
Using Words Effectively
There are no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ words to use, just general approaches to

choosing your words. If you can grasp the basic principles, you should
find it very easy to choose the most appropriate words for your
Professional Writing. There are just a few simple guidelines to consider.
Prefer to Use Short Words
Short words are easier to read, and help your writing to ‘flow’ – long
words (‘hard’ words) interrupt the reader’s concentration, especially if
there are a lot of them.
Of course, you should use whichever words are most appropriate.

However, looking at the example (below), we can see that we only need
to reduce some of the hard words to make the style of a text more
effective.
Example
Few will disagree that inappropriate land policies can constitute a serious constraint
on economic and social development: Insecure land tenure, outdated regulations,
and dysfunctional land institutions constrain private investment and undermine local
government’s ability to raise taxes in many countries.

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Straightforward Version
Poor land policies can seriously constrain economic and social development.
Insecure land tenure, outdated regulations, and poorly running land institutions limit
private investment and weaken local government’s ability to raise taxes.
Avoid Pompous Language
Pompous means self-important. In writing this means making what we

say sound extremely important or serious by choosing the least natural
words possible.
Examples of pompous words and phrases include:
• Hereby
• Herein
• Aforementioned
• Heretofore
• Thereby
• Endeavour to ascertain (instead of ‘try to find out’)
• Utilise (instead of ‘use’)
• Methodology (instead of ‘method’)
They are easy to avoid. As mentioned already, don’t write words you
would never use while speaking.
Avoid Unnecessary Words
As well as the tools presented in the module on Clarity, be alert for use of
common unnecessary words / phrases, especially those which occur
frequently. For example, in all cases, the word ‘project’ is redundant in
phrases like:
• Project implementation
• End-users of the project inputs
Depending on which sector you are working in, be also alert for
unnecessary, repeated use of words related to that field, e.g. forestry,
maternal, agricultural, governance, participatory, etc.

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The Editing Process

Editing is not just about going through a text and checking the spelling
and grammar and perhaps changing a word or phrase. Editing itself is a
process that works from the General to Specific. We start at the whole
text level, move onto paragraphs, then to sentences, then to phrases /
words and finally to spelling and punctuation.
There is no definite number of times you will need to go through a text

before it is ready for layout and proofreading. But there is a general
approach you can take. You should go through the text as many times as
needed, working down the hierarchy of effective writing we saw
earlier. Here we will suggest six separate edits, but this is just to clarify
what we look for each time.
Firstly, make sure you leave a decent space of time between finishing
your draft and starting to edit. Otherwise, there is the danger of assuming
that everything which was in your plan and is in your head is also well
explained and complete on paper.
Some of these steps you must do yourself. For final stages, it’s a good
idea to have someone else check. At all stages it is useful to get feedback
from other people, whether it’s about the ‘big three’ (Objectives,
Organisation and Clarity) or about spelling and grammar.
Edit hard copy and not on screen. You must print it if you want to catch
everything. Then, find a place where you will not be disturbed for a
specific time period (at least 20 minutes and no more than 50). Make sure
also that you have a good light, are well rested and are actually in the
mood.

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First Edit: Objectives

The first time you read through you are looking for one and one thing
only, and that is whether the writing achieves its objective. Does the
purpose come through immediately, and at the beginning? It’s a good
idea to read through without stopping or changing anything.
Changes you may make at this stage could vary and include:
• Inserting titles and subtitles

• Moving sentences around (often from last to first place in a
paragraph)
• Moving entire paragraphs to a more prominent position
• Adding Topic Sentences
While you do this first edit, you will probably notice some other things that
you think need changing – the occasional word that escaped you while
drafting, perhaps some inaccurate data or data missing or some obvious
spelling error. Of course, you can change these, and you should, but
don’t get distracted.
Second Edit: Organisation

Here we read through again, this time looking at organisation. Ask
yourself whether the text flows naturally, or if there are any sudden
changes. As a whole, how does the text ‘hang together’ – do any sections
need to be moved or anything added to make it feel like a complete
argument? Are there any ‘signposts’ needed?
Now look at the paragraphs. Are they organised deductively? And, if the
answer is no, do they need to be changed or not? Edits here may be as
minor as moving one sentence to the beginning, or as major as redrafting
the whole paragraph.
Within each paragraph, is there a clear flow of ideas? Are linkers

(because of, as a result, firstly, etc.) present and used correctly?
Read through the draft one more time to see if the changes had the effect
you intended.

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Third Edit: Complete, Correct, Concise and Clear?

Complete: Is all the information there? Do all conclusions have enough
and the right kind of supporting facts?
Correct: Is each fact accurate? Check these if needed.
Concise: Is there any unnecessary information / data which would detract

from the overall argument? Remove anything that is in excess for making
your point.
Clear: Check the Fog Index. (You can use an on-line calculator for this.
It’s very useful as it will highlight all the ‘hard’ words.) Check for:
• Average sentence length – this should be around 15 words per

sentence
• Hard words – these should be around 15% (or the total of both
should be 30)
Things you can do here are:
• If any sentences are over 30 words, find the linker and replace it
with a full stop.
• Reduce unnecessary words. Strike out words that are
unnecessary and look for ways to reduce the length of longer
phrases.
• Remove all phrases that have little meaning or get in the way of
the real meaning of the sentence.
• Check that any emphasising language is used sparingly and
accurately so it has the desired impact.
• Look for any abstract nouns and see if they would sound more
dynamic if changed back into verbs.
• Underline any examples of passive voice and, if you can’t justify
why you are using passive voice, rewrite as active verbs.
I find it useful to use a Fog Index calculator such as

(http://simbon.madpage.com/Fog/). It can be useful for highlighting the
‘hard’ words we might sometimes forget to edit out. Other useful tools
include the Plain English Campaign’s ‘A-Z of Alternative Words’
(http://www.plainenglish.co.uk/alternative.pdf) and this is a good time to
use a Thesaurus – but NOT to find some obscure, longer word, but to find
a simple alternative that is easily understood.

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Fourth Edit: Language

Most of the language issues will have been cleared in the third edit, but
there is still more you can do.
Identify any remaining ‘hard’ words. Replace them with short words
wherever it does not take away from the original meaning. (By the final
stage, most of the remaining ‘hard’ words will be those related to the
content.)
Check that any terminology used is used correctly, appropriately and not
too often. Make sure that they are terms that the reader will understand.
Make sure any terminology is explained, where necessary, the first time it
is introduced. This can be a very brief explanation either immediately in
parentheses or as a footnote.
Repeat the last two points for all acronyms.
Fifth Edit: Style

This edit is really up to you and how well you know various shades of
meaning. It is NOT an opportunity to experiment with new words or show
off your language skills.
As style is very subjective, it is up to you whether you apply tools from

this module such as:
• Changing sentences so they start with action

• Changing statements / titles to questions
• Reducing indefinite language

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Sixth Edit: Accuracy and Proofreading

Here you are checking for accuracy – grammar, punctuation and spelling.
(Be particularly alert whether you are using UK or US spelling here.)
The best way to do this stage is to give it to someone else. By this point
you are probably tired of the whole business and are desperate (or being
pressed by a deadline) to submit the document.
If no-one else is available, and you are confident your grammar,

punctuation and spelling knowledge are up to the job:
• Take a break.
• Print a fresh copy and find a place without distraction
• Read the text aloud as you check for grammar, spelling and
punctuation. It will help you spot mistakes in sentence
construction. (Some software such as Adobe Reader will also
‘read’ your document aloud to you.)
• Work in blocks of at least 20 minutes but never more than 50, as
concentration will drop dramatically after that. This means that you
should take frequent breaks with longer documents.
• Using a ruler or card as you read will help you focus on each line
without your eye jumping to the next line. When checking spelling,
do the same but working in reverse, i.e. from the bottom of the
page working from right to left. When we read from left to right we
automatically read for meaning and will often fail to notice errors:
reading from right to left focuses us on the spelling of individual
words.
• Check fonts (types and sizes), text alignment and, particularly,
consistency of headings.
• Pass to someone else for final checking.

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Design and Layout

Some designers may disagree with some points here, and most
organisations will have their own style guidelines for layout. However,
some general pointers follow.
Font Size and Type

Don’t be tempted to use a mix of fonts in the same document. At most
two fonts are enough, preferably one. Don’t play around with unusual
fonts. Never mix serif and sans serif in the same document. (Arial, the
font used for this handbook, is sans serif, i.e. a ‘smooth’ font. Times New
Roman is an example of serif font.)
12 pt. looks good and is easy to read, 11 is also OK. 10 pt. starts to get
crowded and below that, forget it. Don’t switch font sizes inconsistently for
space (e.g. don’t have a page at 11 pt. and then the last paragraph is 10
pt. to make it fit on the page. Better to continue on a new page.)
Whatever you do, be consistent throughout.
Main headings should be 2 pts bigger than the body text; sub-headings
can be one point bigger. Don’t underline headings, it makes them harder
to read: the only emphasis you need within paragraphs is /bold/. Never
put headings all in capitals. Remember also to only capitalise the first
letter of ‘content’ words in your headings: that’s nouns, verbs, adjectives
and adverbs: prepositions, articles and auxiliary verbs are all lower case.
See the headings throughout this programme and notice which words are
not written with capital letters.
Don’t italicise long texts. Any use of italics should be consistent and for
key words / terms emphasised. (Use ‘quote’ marks, by the way, only
when quoting a person or text, or when indicating a term being used in an
unexpected way, e.g. ‘hard’ words – italics because ‘hard’ has an unusual
meaning here, italics to make the phrase stand out.)
These are just guidelines – we may ourselves not have followed them
exactly throughout this programme. However, it’s important to be as
consistent as you can be throughout.

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White Space and Text Alignment

Avoid creating pages which have dense text (i.e. long paragraphs, no
illustrations, little white space and narrow margins).
Never set the page margins extra wide to accommodate your text. This
looks poor and is hard to follow.
White space is essential between headings and paragraphs and between

the paragraphs themselves as it allows the eyes to rest.
All headings need space above and below to ‘frame’ them.
Using lists also allows some white space to enter the mix. Don’t be
tempted to fill the empty space to the right of your list with a picture / table
– it will be distracting. (Of course, use the space for a picture if it’s
necessary – just don’t try to fill up the space because it’s there.)
Paragraphs should start on new pages. The white space on the preceding
page is good for the eyes.
Although ‘justified’ text looks tidy, it is hard to read and can cause text to
stretch (especially any text in columns). Your text and headings should be
aligned left.
Centred text should be used to caption pictures, graphs and any other
visual information.

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Graphs, Charts and Tables

When these are included, remember that they are there to support your
message – they are not the message itself. It is important that the visual:
1. Illustrates a point raised in the text

2. Is clearly labelled
3. Explains your interpretation
Task
For the following graph, write a statement interpreting the data.
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Fig: Reported Cases of Domestic Violence
Like several exercises in this toolkit, there is no fixed answer – the

interpretation depends on the writer’s own understanding of the situation.

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Possible Solution
There are several possible interpretations. However, one thing the graph
does not say is that domestic violence is increasing: the graph only shows
reported cases.
One possible interpretation could be:
Since the programme began, women are less afraid to speak out about
domestic violence.
Pictures
Pictures also support the message. They are not just a way to make your
document look better (although they do) or fill up ‘white space’ (which you
don’t need to do). As with graphs and tables, they should:
• Relate to what is being discussed in the main argument of the text

• Have a message attached – a statement explaining what the
picture is illustrating
Where you place your visuals (graphs, pictures, quotes) is important. It’s
partly a matter of personal choice (i.e. what ‘looks right’), but bear in mind
the following:
• Make sure the image is close to the text that supports it and,
wherever possible, it must be on the same page
• Make sure the text refers the reader to the illustration
• Don’t break sentences or paragraphs with images
• You can place your images to the right of the page for neat text
wrapping
If there is just one image, the centre of the page is usually the best place.
However there should be white space either side of the image, except
when you are using columns. If you are using columns, make sure the
text on the left and right sides of your visual are not stretched,
compressed or hyphenated. Resize the image if necessary. (Never edit
the text to fit the image – or page size – except as a last resort!)
Text Boxes
Text boxes are used for any non-essential text that either adds further
information or highlights certain parts of the main text.
‘Further information’ doesn’t mean lengthy background and long

discourses – the annexes / appendices are the place for these. However,
a highlighted text box can be used for such extra information as:
• A quick list of key facts and figures

• A short story or case study
• Any ‘point of interest’
• A quote from an end-user
• A quick quote lifted from the text

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Final Task
Please apply all of the tools you have learned in this module, as well as
everything else you know about Professional Writing.
Edit the following first draft proposal for:
• Clear Objectives
• Organisation – here you may need to add, move or remove
sentences and paragraphs
• Clarity – review each sentence for unnecessary words and
phrases, hard words, passive voice, emphasising words and
nominalisations
• Conciseness – information may need to be added, removed or
clarified so that there is the ‘right amount’ of data
• Style – make sure the writing is relaxed, direct and easy to read
• Language – ensure that the terms used are appropriate to the
audience
• Accuracy – grammar, spelling, and punctuation should all be
correct
Finally, arrange your document visually – headings, columns, font,

alignment, pictures and text boxes / pull-quotes.

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First Draft
Situation Analysis

people in coastal areas were the worst affected. Over 5000 people have
been displaced. More than 2000 have lost their homes, and the rest are
traumatised, afraid to return home. These IDPs have taken shelter in
temporary camps in a local school. Camp conditions are overcrowded.
There are insufficient basic services, and the camp is unsanitary and
does not have enough water. This presents a potential health risk. So far,
response from local government has been poorly managed and may not
be enough to address the situation.
dysentery.

outbreaks.

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Project Description

living conditions.

services and to reduce overcrowding. At the same time, we will work
towards improving the hygiene practices of IDPs. Although end-user
capacity of partners to respond more effectively to future crises.

Output 1 – Increased availability and accessibility of safe water

for IDPs
Output 2 – Increased availability and accessibility of safe

latrines

Output 3 – Occupancy of temporary shelters does not exceed

10 people per tent
setting up a security system participated in by IDPs. We will conduct
advocacy and coordinate with NGOs and local government on how to
store and manage tents for future crises.

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Parallel to provision of WATSAN services, all IDPs will be educated in

how to responsibly maintain the facilities. Up to 800 women (as traditional
primary caretakers of children and having regular responsibility for food
preparation) will receive training on basic hygiene with relation to
children’s defecation and how to maintain hygienic standards while
cooking.
meetings, and through health reports from the local government health

buckets

At project end
• Camp Assessment



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Project Management


and liaising with government and NGO partners. The PM is also


Budget
Direct Costs

accessibility of safe water for IDPs
accessibility of safe latrines
Output 3 – Occupancy of temporary 2500 GBP
shelters does not exceed 10 people per
tent
Output 4 – IDPs apply effective hygiene 300 GBP
practices
Project 7 days @ 80 GBP 540 GBP

Manager
General 15 days @ 30 GBP 450 GBP
Support Officer

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Our purpose is:

Our Humanitarian Objective:
To prevent loss of life and reduce suffering of people affected by natural

or human-made disasters



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Indonesia Case Study: Final Edit plus Layout
Emergency Relief for IDPs at Camp

A, Kampung, Indonesia
Submitted by:
Emergency Response Team
24 July 2009

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Situation Analysis
On 17 July at around 5PM a huge flood hit the coast of Kampung. As a
result 60 people died and more than one hundred were injured. The worst
affected were poor people living in coastal areas. More than 2000 people
lost their homes, and the rest are traumatised, afraid to return. Currently,
over 5000 people have been displaced. These IDPs have taken shelter in
Camp A, a temporary camp in a local school managed by local
government.
Camp conditions are unsanitary and overcrowded. Unable to respond to

this sudden crisis, local government has still not been able to provide
sufficient basic services. While there is enough food and basic health
care does exist, there is still not enough clean water and IDPs are living
more than ten to a tent. Local government lacks the capacity to address
the situation, and health facilities are insufficient to deal with any
epidemic. Local NGOs, too, are limited in their capacity to deal with any
major outbreaks.
This presents a potential and severe health risk for both water-borne and
communicable disease. Among the health risks the 5000 IDPs at Camp A
face are diarrhoea, dermatitis and ARI (Acute Respiratory Infection). The
rate of disease is already high, and there have even been fatalities. One
child has already died due to dysentery.
Limited access / poor quality of WATSAN (Water and Sanitation) are

contributing to the rising number of hygiene-related and waterborne
diseases. The quantity and quality of water supply is insufficient against
SPHERE standards. The number of latrines is not enough to serve the
affected people.
Kitchens are unsanitary due to lack of clean water. Tents are also
overcrowded, with more than ten people sharing a space designed for
five. This increases the likelihood of cross-infection among the camp
population.
Communities have limited awareness of hygiene practices and in almost
in every location visited the camp’s condition was unclean. Women are
particularly concerned as they do not feel safe and have little privacy.

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Project Description
living conditions, providing access to safe water, constructing latrines and
tents and educating the population on hygienic practices.
The project strategy addresses the immediate needs / health risks, and
also addresses longer term issues, particularly local NGOs’ and
government’s ability to respond to future emergencies. The primary
approach is to:
• Provide better access to WATSAN; and

• Reduce overcrowding.
At the same time, we will work towards improving the hygiene practices of
IDPs and capacity of local partners. Although end-user participation in
planning and implementation is limited, this project will bring immediate
relief to a critical situation. During the process of delivery we will involve
communities wherever feasible, while developing the capacity of partners
to respond more effectively to future crises.


Output 3 – Occupancy of temporary shelters does not exceed 10 people per

tent
setting up a security system designed and managed by IDPs themselves.
We will conduct advocacy and coordinate with NGOs and local
government on how to store and manage tents for future crises.

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At the same time as providing WATSAN services, all IDPs will be

educated in how to responsibly take care of the facilities. Up to 800
women – traditionally the primary caretakers of children and responsible
for food preparation – will receive training on basic hygiene and how to
maintain hygienic standards while cooking.

The project will be monitored and evaluated:
• Through project team observation (of work done, conditions and

practices);
• By IDPs themselves through community meetings; and through
• Health reports from the local government health post.
These will be combined into progress and evaluation reports at the

End of Week 1 (on completion of installation of water supplies, distribution

of tents and buckets)

End of Week 2 (at project end)
• Camp assessment
• Community assessment

During implementation we will monitor the installation of water supplies

and distribution of buckets and tents. Once this phase is completed, we
will assess the camp conditions in terms of WATSAN access, and get
feedback from IDPs through community meetings.
At the end of two weeks, all activities (including latrine construction and
hygiene training) will be complete. We will then assess usage of services
and community response.
One month after project end we will again evaluate the camp condition,
and assess the health status via health post reports. We will also assess
how IDPs view the improved situation at this time, and recommend any
further actions needed.

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Project Management
There will be four project staff as follows:
1 x Project Manager (PM) – 7 working days

2 x Project Officers (PO) – 15 working days each
1 x General Support Officer (GSO) – 15 working days

and coordinating with government and NGO partners. The PM is also


Budget
Direct Costs

6850 GBP
Output 2 – Increased availability and accessibility of safe latrines 5000
GBP
Output 3 – Occupancy of temporary shelters does not exceed 10 people
per tent 2500 GBP
Output 4 – IDPs apply effective hygiene practices 300 GBP
Indirect Costs
Project Manager 7 days @ 80 GBP 540 GBP

General Support Officer 15 days @ 30 GBP 450 GBP

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Our Purpose

• To work to overcome the economic inequality, social exclusion, and
vulnerability of the poor




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ELD Toolkits

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249
End-User Licence Agreement
Standard Agreement (Single-user Licence)
This toolkit comprising of PDF Handbook and, where purchased, desktop version
and training pack, is the copyright of ELD. By purchasing in any format, each end-
user agrees to the following conditions:
Not to:
• Make multiple electronic copies or post the toolkit or any parts of it on any
web site, intranet, etc., without ELD's prior permission
• Redistribute any copies, modules, pages, sections or images to any third
party in any form
• Lend, hire or resell the toolkit or any parts of it
• Convert into any other media or software or reverse engineer
• Conduct training whether for profit or not (except where a training licence
applies)
• Edit, change or republish any part of the tookit in any form
• Use the toolkit for any commercial gain
Under this agreement you may:
• Save one copy of the toolkit and copy the desktop version to your hard drive
on one PC
• Make one back-up copy on CD or other storage media
• Print one entire copy of the PDF Handbook for reference purposes
• Print selected pages for personal study as per need
Multi-user Licence
If you have purchased a Multi-user Licence you may distribute the Single-user
Edition to as many users as you have obtained licences for. All Single-user Licence
conditions apply to each end-user.
Training Licence
A Trainer Edition includes all the componenents of the Standard Edition as well as a
Training Pack comprising of PowerPoint slides, trainer guide and participants
handouts.
If you have purchased a training licence you may distribute the Single-user Edition to
as many users as you have obtained licences for. All Single-user Licence conditions
apply to each end-user.
You may also distribute participant handouts and conduct training for as many users
as you have obtained licences for. All Single-user Licence conditions apply to each
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Project Proposal Writing Handbook 2010

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Project Proposal Writing

© ELD Training 2010

In some ways, a proposal is an idea waiting to be born. It starts as a

Although we don’t have the advantage of working face-to-face – though

Wishing you the very best of success!

Director of ELD Training

© ELD Training 2010

Why Some Proposals Fail

The issue does not strike the reader as significant

End users (communities) have not been involved in the

© ELD Training 2010

The proposal is poorly written and hard to understand

Poorly written can mean:

• Lack of clear objectives – it takes forever to get to the point or the

The proposal’s outcomes do not reflect the donor's area

This problem can be avoided by first investigating your target donors’

© ELD Training 2010

This isn't quite as simple as it seems, though. As mentioned earlier,

© ELD Training 2010

The project has not been coordinated with other

However, for maximum results and to avoid overlap, you have to

Other organisations can be:

• Local government bodies

The donor is not assured of the organisation's

If your organisation lacks the relevant experience, then consider

© ELD Training 2010

The project is too ambitious

To make projects more manageable (and, ultimately, appear more

• Number / Range of Outcomes – take the most important part and

Look at your Outcomes again. Are they too vague or wide-reaching –

The writer did not follow the guidelines

They exist so that:

• You can stay focused on what's important.

© ELD Training 2010

The evaluation procedure is inadequate

Unfortunately, many organisations seem to be focused on activities rather

Many times people have asked me to examine their potential project

It demonstrates poor strategic thinking. The development of a proposal

© ELD Training 2010

As we will discuss in the analysis stage, effective proposals and effective

• Be better able to justify your proposed solution.

Finally, let me add a note to 'realists'. A lot of people dismiss certain

We are going to offer a two-part definition of a ‘problem’. Here’s the first

A problem is ‘an existing negative situation’

Is this an oversimplification? Perhaps it is. But bearing this in mind will

‘There is no health post in the village’

‘There is no road linking the community to nearby markets’

A problem is ‘not the absence of a solution’

Both the examples suggest that there is a single, predefined 'solution' – a

© ELD Training 2010

Firstly, by expressing the problem in terms of a solution, we close off our

Looking specifically at what is wrong with the two examples:

‘There is no health post in the village’

This suggests that we have already decided there should be a health

A neutral way to express this could be:

‘Children of community X are vulnerable to preventable diseases’ or

Looking at the second example – ‘There is no road linking the community

A neutral way to express this could be:

‘People of community X have limited access to …’ – how it finishes will

© ELD Training 2010

Analysis is ‘the process of breaking a complex topic into smaller parts to

© ELD Training 2010

Glossary of Terms Used

The basic work done to make a project