Soil Dynamics: Static Loads

02-Aug-17
Introduction
to
Soil Dynamics
Dr. Bappaditya Manna

Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
Introduction
So far we dealt with the management of static loads applied to soil.

These loads are applied slowly and their magnitude increases gradually.
They do not necessarily remain constant with time.
Most structures, even ordinary ones, experience many changes in load
during their lifetime. For example, in our own homes, every time we
have a party and lots of people come to our home, the live load on the
structure increases and it decreases when the party is over and the
guests leave.
We do not worry about these changes because we usually design
structures for the maximum static load they are likely to experience
and the variations in load that occur are all at levels below the design
load.
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CVL423 - Soil Dynamics
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02-Aug-17
Contd…
• Civil Engineering structures are, however, also subjected to loads that

are not static but dynamic. i.e. the time over which the load is
applied is very, very small. We need to understand the significance of
applying the load rapidly and how that evokes a different response
from the soil. To do so, in the next slides we will study the following:
(i) how dynamic loads differ from static,
(ii) what are acceptable levels of strain under dynamic loads,
(iii) what additional properties of soil become relevant, and
(iv) how we can determine them
• Thereafter, we will focus on gaining an appreciation of what is Soil
Dynamics and will take note of the Civil Engineering situations where
knowledge of Soil Dynamics needs to be applied.
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Dynamic Loads vs. Static Loads

• So far we have not been very concerned about the time over which
load is applied except for recognizing that, if we constructed a
building, say in a year or so, on a saturated clay, we considered
undrained loading.
• If the same building was constructed in one year on a saturated
sandy soil, we considered it to be drained loading.
• For dynamic loads, conditions are always undrained regardless of the
type of soil because the loads are applied rapidly.
• Loads can be applied repeatedly for very long time spans but each
time the load is applied, it is applied rapidly.

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Contd…
• The time span in which dynamic loads are applied varies.

• It is in terms of milliseconds for shock loading imposed by
blasting or an impact load imposed by hammer foundation.
• It is in terms of a few seconds for the irregular loading imposed
during earthquakes.
• It can be for hours, or days, or months, and years for the
periodic loads imposed by machine foundation.

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Contd…
• An applied load that does not change its sign with time, i.e. it either
keeps increasing or stays constant with time is called Monotonic
loading.
• A load that changes its sign with time is called Cyclic loading.
• We treat most static loads as monotonic although there is often a
cyclic component in them - remember the party in our home is
example of Static Cyclic Loading.
• The simplest example for dynamic cyclic loading is the load applied
by the wind on the foundations of a multi-storied building. It may
increase or decrease, i.e. the foundation may be subjected to
additional compression or tension depending on the direction of wind
which keeps changing.
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• A westerly storm applies wind loads acting to the right and result in
generating +S load and +M moment. The reverse is true with an
easterly storm.

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Contd…
• Monotonic loading does not necessarily mean static loading. For

example, loading on account of a nuclear explosion is monotonic but
it is certainly not static.
• The time of loading of a nuclear explosion may be as short as 1/100th
to 1/1000th of a second. The length of time over which a certain level
of stress/strain is applied may be called time of loading.
• If time of loading is more than 1/10th of seconds, we classify it as
Static Loading and the others with shorter time of loading are
classified as Dynamic Loading.

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• Another feature that differentiates static and dynamic loading is the

rate of straining and number of load repetitions.
• A nuclear explosion generates shock waves in the soil and the rate of
straining would be very high. There is no load repetition - it is a Single
Impulse Loading.
• Typical earthquake loading consists of 10 to 20 repetitions of load
that may last up to a second and they also propagate a stress wave
and generate high rates of straining.
• Pile driving may apply 100 to 1000 load applications.
• The number of load repetitions for machine foundations may be of
the order of millions.
• Sometimes, the above stated problems are also called wave
propagation problems because the load applied generates a stress
wave that propagates through the underlying soil.
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Inertia
• The essential difference between static loading and dynamic loading

is that in the latter we have to account for the Inertia Force.
• If a load is applied slowly no inertia force arises. If the load is applied
very rapidly then we have to apply an inertia force in the direction
opposite to the direction of acceleration.
• One may well ask,
• At what rate of loading does one have to account for the inertia force?
• Or one may first ask the more basic question,
• What is this inertia force?
• Where does it come from?

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What is inertia?
• It is the property of an object that resists change in its state of rest or
motion. Inertia depends on the mass. Greater the mass of an object,
the greater is its inertia.
• Inertia force is defined as the mass multiplied by the acceleration to
which the mass is subjected.
• Suppose you are travelling in a car moving at constant velocity. Your
body is now attuned to moving with that velocity. You do not even
feel that you are moving and in fact within the car you feel you are
stationary. Suppose the driver wants to pick up speed and presses
hard on the accelerator. You suddenly feel yourself being pushed
back. Who pushed you back? The inertia force - the total vehicle
mass multiplied by the acceleration.
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At what rate of loading does one have to account for the inertia
force?
• Clearly, when the inertia force is large or comparable to other forces
acting on a body. Inertia force is large when either the mass or the
acceleration or both are large.
• For example, in the case of a regular triaxial soil specimen, 38 mm in
diameter and 76 mm in length thus having a relatively small mass,
the inertia force may not become significant until the rate of cycle
load application exceeds 25 cycles per second. In applying cyclic load
we push, accelerate, the sample first in one direction and then pull it,
that is, accelerate in the opposite direction.
• On the other hand for a large earth dam, that is, a huge mass, a cyclic
load application rate of 0.5 cycles per second will induce significant
inertial forces.
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Acceptable Levels of Strain under Static and Dynamic Loading

• In Soil Mechanics problems, Consulting Geotechnical Engineers work
with low strain levels. In a settlement problem, for example, the strain
is the total settlement divided by the thickness of the soil layer in
which settlement has taken place; the former is usually of the order
of tens of mm and the latter of the order of meters. Strains are thus
only a few percent or less in magnitude.
• For problems involving soil strength, ultimate strength is often
developed at a strain, again, of a few percent. We work with relatively
high Safety Factors and strain levels that are actually reached in most
foundation structures, retaining structures and earth structures are of
the order of 0.1 to 1%.

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Contd…
• These low strains, from the view point of Soil Dynamics, are much
too high. If such strains were to occur under dynamic loads, we would
have havoc - violent and needless disturbance. The levels of strain to
which we must limit ourselves in Soil Dynamics are of the order of
l0-4 %.
• For a body subjected to simple harmonic motion, inertia force is
proportional to the square of the frequency of load application. The
inertia force is very high, if the rate of cyclic load application is high
• The loads that we consider in Soil Dynamics, such as those generated
during an earthquake produce high inertia forces. With high inertia
forces we have to ensure that strains are as small as 10-4 %. High
inertia forces along with high strains is a deadly combination.
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Additional Soil Properties Relevant for Dynamic Loading

• In Soil Mechanics problems we are usually concerned with soil
behaviour when loads are applied vertically - axially. We need to
assess and limit the vertical, that is, axial strains that are produced.
• In Soil Dynamics, we have a class of problems that are similar in that
the load is applied axially but there is another class of problems that
applies load laterally and induces shear forces such as through shear
waves generated during an earthquake or upon blasting.
• We need to determine the shear strains that are produced and our
concern is with very small strains. The additional relevant soil
property we need to determine is the Shear Modulus. Another
relevant property we need is Material Damping.

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Shear modulus
• We need to know the shear modulus of soils at very low strains as well as its
variation with strain, i.e. the reduction in the modulus as strain increases.
• What is shear stress, shear strain and shear modulus?

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Shear modulus
• The shear modulus, G, as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. For
a linear material, the shear modulus is a constant. For a non-linear
material, it is defined as a secant shear modulus, and as a tangent
shear modulus. For a non-linear material, as shear strain increases,
both the tangent modulus and the secant modulus decrease.

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Material damping
• Cyclic loading will produce some irrecoverable, that is, plastic strain.
Application of load means that we impart energy to soil and that
produces strain. lf on removal of load the strain also vanishes, it
means that we have recovered the energy.
• The development of plastic deformation indicates that energy
imparted during loading has been lost/dissipated and in a sense
converted into plastic deformation. This loss of energy in soils is called
Material Damping or Hysteretic Damping and is designated as D.

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Contd…
• How D is determined for one cycle of loading and unloading?

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Determination of Additional Soil Properties

• In view of the low strain levels associated with determining the two
parameters indicated above (Shear Modulus and Material Damping),
the testing equipment we use is much more sophisticated than that
normally used in the Soil Mechanics Laboratory.
• For example, dial gauges that are usually used to measure
displacement can not be used and are replaced by displacement
transducers. Load-deformation characteristics cannot be recorded
manually and a computer controlled data acquisition system has to be
employed. It follows that characterization of cyclic/dynamic
behaviour of soils requires much more skill and is therefore more
expensive.

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Contd…
• Determining behaviour in the field is usually preferred. There are a
variety of in-situ tests that are based on the principles of wave
propagation. These are commonly known as Geophysical Methods
and include tests such as the cross-hole method, up-hole method,
down-hole method, suspension logging, spectral analysis of surface
waves, etc.
• These are used to measure shear modulus and material damping in
the low strain range (<10-3 %). In all these methods, waves are
generated at source located on ground surface or in a bore hole using
a sledge hammer or an SPT hammer or a mechanical oscillator.
• Wave propagation is monitored by instruments known as Geophones.
Associated with each test are distinct advantages and disadvantages.
Presently spectral analysis of surface waves is being preferred over
the other methods because of its non-destructive nature and because
there is no need to drill a bore hole.
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Contd…
• When we are interested in medium (10-3 % to 1 %) to large (>1 %)
strain cyclic behaviour of soils, we utilize a variety of laboratory tests
that have been developed for the purpose.
• These tests can be conducted on either reconstituted or undisturbed
samples. Amongst these are tests such as: bender elements,
resonant column, cyclic torsional shear, cyclic triaxial shear, cyclic
direct simple shear.
• Resonant column and torsional shear tests are mostly used for
determining small strain behaviour.
• Cyclic triaxial or direct simple shear tests are used more often for
medium to large strains. Owing to its ready availability, familiarity
and simplicity in testing procedure, cyclic triaxial tests are very
popular for evaluating the cyclic behaviour of soils for design
purposes.
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Contd…
• There are also some very specialized tests that are conducted on
large shaking tables or in a centrifuge; these can be conducted at
only a few places in the world where these facilities exist.

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What is Soil Dynamics

• Soil Dynamics deals with the engineering behaviour of soils subjected
to time varying loads and loads applied very rapidly.
• For many engineers, Soil Dynamics means only machine
foundations. This is so because that was the first problem that was
addressed by researchers when they began to gain some
understanding of Soil Dynamics or what is more likely is that the need
to design machine foundations spurred them to understand Soil
Dynamics.
• The earliest texts on Soil Dynamics dealt mostly with machine
foundations. Today Soil Dynamics encompasses many areas and
application of principles of Soil Dynamics impinge on the design of
most Civil Engineering structures.

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• Especially when we recognize that all structures are subjected to

earthquakes and it is the soil on which these structures rest that
transmits loads on account of earthquakes to these structures.
• How soil responds to earthquakes comes in the domain of Soil
Dynamics.
• It is well recognized now that 20 to 30 m of soil below ground surface
significantly influences the damage pattens of structures during an
earthquake.
• The nature of soils in this zone has a crucial influence on some
important parameters of ground shaking that finally travels up to
ground surface. This phenomenon is popularly known as Soil
Amplification.
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Soil Dynamics vs. Soil Mechanics

• In Soil Mechanics we consider applied loads that do not change with
time. For example, the stress and strain induced at a depth below the
ground surface due to construction of a dam are constant. We use
Equilibrium Equation to determine them. In Soil Dynamics applied
loads vary with time. This implies that the stress and strain induced in
the soil are also functions of time. The governing equations are thus
those of Wave Propagation.
• Because of the difference in the nature of applied loads, we need to
consider soil parameters that are relevant for cyclic loading. These
include inelastic hysteretic behaviour of soils and at times the
increase in pore water pressure due to load repetitions.

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Soil Dynamics vs. Soil Mechanics

• In problems that we solve using Soil Mechanics, we know the
magnitudes of loads being applied and then we analyze and design. In
Soil Dynamics we sometimes encounter problems in which we do not
have a priori information about loads. For example, the inertia forces
generated during earthquakes are dependent on the earthquake itself
and their magnitude becomes apparent only during the loading
process.
• Our interest in Soil Mechanics was primarily to make sure that vertical
stresses imposed do not exceed soil capacity and vertical
displacements, i.e. settlements are within permissible limits. In Soil
Dynamics, particularly during earthquakes, our focus is on lateral
movements and our attempt is to keep them within limits.

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Anything Common between Soil Dynamics and Soil Mechanics

• Engineering behaviour of soils under static as well as dynamic loading is a
function of density, water content, confining stress, stress history,
drainage conditions, levels of strains etc.
• When we study the engineering behaviour of soils under dynamic loading,
special attention needs to be paid to the rate of loading and whether,
during shear, the soil dilates or suffers volume reduction. For example, if
the rate of loading is increased while conducting an Unconfined
Compression Strength test, typically the strength of the soil increases.
Similarly, the pore water pressure developed during undiained tests can be
negative or positive depending on the density of soil.
• There are similarities also in designing. For example, you know how to
design a footing for a prescribed maximum settlement. A machine
foundation can be designed on similar lines for a prescribed maximum
amplitude of vibration.

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Contd…
• It must also be recognized that Soil Dynamics has areas of overlap with
Structural Dynamics in the form of Dynamic Soil Structure Interaction.
This sounds complex but all it involves is an assessment of the combined
response of structure and soil to the applied dynamic loads.
• For the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer to be able to competently
handle problems in Soil Dynamics requires that he/she be able to
understand the requirements of Mechanical Engineers and be able to
provide needed inputs to Structural Engineers. This calls for a good
knowledge of vibration theory and principles of wave propagation as well
as that of modern numerical/analytical techniques.
• For example, these days units that manufacture computer chips and optical
reading devices can only withstand vibration levels as low as 10 m/sec.
Such stringent requirements necessitate analysis using the finite element,
the finite difference and the boundary element methods for predicting
the amplitude of vibrations in a Dr.complex environment.
Bappaditya Manna
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Applications
• There are a variety of engineering problems that rely heavily on
inputs from Soil Dynamics.
• These include design and remediation of machine foundations,
geotechnical earthquake engineering, protection against
construction vibrations, nondestructive characterization of the
subsurface, design of offshore structures, screening of rail and traffic
induced vibrations, vibration isolation, etc. An overview of these
applications is presented hereafter.

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A. Machine Foundations
• For a Consulting Geotechnical Engineer, the most common and
frequently encountered problem involving time varying load
transmitted to the foundation and ultimately to the soil supporting it,
is the design of a machine foundation.
• There are several types of machines such as
• reciprocating machines
• rotary machines
• punch presses
• shredders
• forge hammers
• rollers
that transmit time varying (dynamic) loading to the underlying soil.
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Machine Foundations
• Machines such as reciprocating pumps and rotary machines transmit

sinusoidal loading where as machines such punch presses, shredders
and forge hammers transmit impact type of loading to the underlying
soil.

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Machine Foundations
• Dynamic forces from these machines induced vibrations in the

foundations and make it uncomfortable for the people working
around them.
• If the vibrations are excessive, they can cause damage to the
connecting piping or even the machine itself.
• Your goal as a Consulting Geotechnical Engineer is to make sure that
the vibrations of the designed foundation are within the prescribed
limits as stipulated by the manufacturer of the machine and also that
they do not cause distress to the surrounding structures.
• Some times, you might also be called upon as a Consultant to suggest
appropriate remedial measures for an existing foundation
transmitting excessive vibrations.
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Machine Foundations
• To perform either of these tasks, i.e. design a new foundation or

remedy an existing one, you will need to know how to calculate the
dynamic response of the foundation-soil system.
• A typical foundation-soil system would consist of a foundation block,
which is very rigid compared to underlying soil and finite and the
supporting soil which is semi-infinite.
• To calculate the dynamic response requires making numerous
assumptions and simplifications.
• There are several methods to compute the dynamic response such as:
analytical, semi-analytical, hybrid, dynamic finite element and
simplified procedures (will discussed later).

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B. Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering

• Earthquakes can damage or destroy buildings, bridges, towers,
retaining walls, dams, water front structures, in fact, all man made
structures as well as naturally existing formations such as slopes.
• Most earthquakes are of tectonic origin and have their source at great
depth, often a few kilometres, below ground surface.
• By the time, the stress waves reach the ground surface they get
modified in amplitude, frequency and duration.
• They are significantly affected by the position of the ground water
table and the nature of soils in the zone 20 to 30 m thick directly
below the ground surface.

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Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering
The final modified frequency may

(i) match the natural frequency of existing structures and give rise to
resonance which manifests in inducing high displacement amplitudes
leading to damage,
(ii) induce large inertia forces in a structure leading to excessive lateral
forces, or
(iii) trigger liquefaction to take place in a saturated soil below the
foundation and lead to structural damage or collapse.

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Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering
• We need to recognize that structural damage is not always on

account of local soil conditions. Often the reason is poor structural
design and construction of the superstructure itself.
• Nevertheless, Consulting Geotechnical Engineers now have an
important role to play in providing valuable input for seismic hazard
mitigation such as:
(i) natural period of the underlying soil,
(ii) design ground motion for structures,
(iii) dynamic soil properties for soil-structure interaction studies, etc.
A more detailed consideration of these will be presented later.

(by Prof. G. V. Ramana)
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C. Construction Vibrations
• Several processes employed during Civil Engineering Construction
such as dynamic compaction, vibratory compaction, blast
densification of sand, pile driving, mechanical trenching, explosive
demolition, etc. set off vibrations in the ground.
• These vibrations propagate through the surrounding soil to adjacent
structures and may cause either damage or cosmetic cracking.
• Until recently, protection measures were based on vibration induced
peak particle velocity and its decay with distance from the source
based on empirical observations.
• More rational guidelines are now being developed using our
knowledge of the dynamic behaviour of soils along with response
spectra of ground motions recorded during the above said activities.
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Construction Vibrations

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Construction Vibrations
• These guidelines are for such diverse activities as

(i) determining safe distances from the source of vibration,
(ii) organizing proper sequencing of blasts,
(iii) estimating the thickness of the lift and number of passes of the
roller for compaction etc.

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D. Nondestructive Characterization of Subsurface

• Nondestructive methods like seismic reflection, seismic refraction and
spectral analysis of surface waves are increasingly being used to
characterize subsurface geology and some times even the pavement
systems.
• These methods use seismic waves and their propagation characteristics
through underlying materials to establish the shear wave velocity,
thickness and Poission's Ratio of the subsurface layers.
• These methods also give an indication of the depth to the bed rock and the
ground water table.
• These methods are not substitutes for drilling, sampling and testing.
Properly planned and executed, they can optimize exploration programmes
by maximizing the rate of ground coverage and minimizing the drilling
requirements.
• Many principles of wave propagation through soils are applicable to
seismic methods and a sound knowledge of attenuation of seismic energy
along ray paths, reflection and transmission of seismic wave along
boundaries in a layered medium, etc. are required for proper interpretation
of results. Dr. Bappaditya Manna
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E. Offshore Structures
• Offshore structures are subjected to alternating lateral forces and
time varying vertical forces due to passage of waves.
• The period and height of waves also vary. These varying loads are
transmitted to the foundations in the seabed and then to the soil
below the seabed.

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Offshore Structures
• The cyclic loading may induce high pore water pressures leading to
stability problems and excessive settlements.
• Many floating offshore platforms have connecting pipes and the
stability of these pipes also becomes an issue.
• These problems are typically dealt within the framework of not just
soil-structure interaction but soil-structure-fluid interaction and is
one of the most challenging design problems encountered in
professional practice.

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F. Traffic and Rail Induced Vibrations

• With the increase in speed of trains and vehicles, traffic induced
vibrations have to be taken account of in designing tracks and
pavements.
• The vibrations are also becoming not only an environmental concern
but also a concern for the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer from
another viewpoint.
• The micro-vibrations induced by the transit of trains or vehicles may
not result in the collapse of nearby buildings, they, however, can
cause the malfunctioning of sensitive/delicate instruments located in
these buildings and cause disturbance to the people living along the
track lines.

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Traffic and Rail Induced Vibrations

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Traffic and Rail Induced Vibrations
• Here also, the subsoil acts as a medium of wave transmission from

the source to the neighbouring structures.
• A good understanding of cyclic behaviour of subsoil is required in
addition to several other parameters such as speed of the train, type
of the train, building foundation, distance to the building from the
track etc. for a proper design so as to reduce the vibrations reaching
the building and to mitigate their effect.

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G. Other Problems
• There are several other problems that require a knowledge of Soil
Dynamics for their solution. Few problems are as follows:
(i) vibration isolation and screening so as to reduce or minimize the
vibrations transmitted to foundation/building,
(ii) force transmission so as to reduce the force transmitted to the
subsoil,
(iii) seismic protection of buildings, and
(iv) control and reduction of structural vibrations

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Simple Harmonic Motion

Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
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 = Phase angle, it is required to specify

The time relationship between two
Quantities having the same frequency
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Theory of Vibration
Dr. Bappaditya Manna Department of Civil Engineering

Associate Professor Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
Introduction
 Vibration is a mechanical phenomenon whereby
oscillations occur about an equilibrium point. The word
comes from Latin vibrationem ("shaking").
 The oscillations may be periodic, such as the motion of a
pendulum or random, such as the movement of a tire on
a gravel road.
 The studies of sound and vibration are closely related.
Sound, or pressure waves, are generated by vibrating
structures (e.g. vocal cords); these pressure waves can
also induce the vibration of structures (e.g. ear drum).
Hence, attempts to reduce noise are often related to
issues of vibration.
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Why Study Vibration ??

 Earthquake-induced vibration

 Wind-induced vibration
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 Turbomachinery

 Other Example
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 Other Example
Is all Vibration Bad??

 Desirable Vibrations
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DEFINITIONS
Period of Motion: If motion repeats itself in equal intervals of time, it is
called periodic motion. The time that elapses when the motion is
repeated once is called its period.
Aperiodic Motion: Motion that does not repeat itself at regular intervals
of time is called aperiodic motion.
Cycle: Motion completed during a period is referred to as a cycle.
Frequency: The number of cycles of motion in a unit of time is called the
frequency of vibrations.
Natural Frequency: If an oscillatory system vibrates under the action of
forces inherent in the system and no externally applied force acts, the
frequency with which it vibrates is known as its natural frequency.
Forced Vibrations: Vibrations that are developed by externally applied
exciting forces are called forced vibrations. Forced vibrations occur at the
frequency of the externally applied exciting force. The frequency of
excitation does not depend on the natural frequency of the system.
Amplitude of Motion: The maximum distance that a body moves during

vibrations from its position of rest is its amplitude of motion.
Degrees of Freedom: The number of independent coordinates
necessary to describe the motion of a system are the degrees of freedom of
the system. A system that has several degrees of freedom is called a multi
degree freedom system.
Consider the simple pendulum shown in Fig. 2.1a. The displaced position
of this system is completely defined by the angle θ only. Hence it is a
system with one degree of freedom, that is, n is equal to 1.
In Figs. 2.1b and c, two and three independent coordinates are needed to
fully describe the motion of the two systems respectively. Hence they
constitute systems with two and three degrees of freedom.
The number of coordinates necessary to completely describe the
motion of an elastic simply supported beam is infinite. Hence the beam in
Fig. 2.1d constitutes an infinite degree of freedom system.
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 Examples of single DOF systems
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 Examples of two and three DOF systems
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Resonance: If the frequency of excitation coincides with

any one of the natural frequencies of the system, the
condition of resonance is reached. At resonance the amplitude
of motion may be excessive. So in the design of machine
foundations, the determination of the natural frequencies of
system is important.
Frequency Ratio: The ratio of the forcing or operating
frequency to the natural frequency of the system is referred
to as the frequency ratio.
Principal Modes of Vibration: A system with n degrees of
freedom vibrates in such a complex manner that the
amplitude and frequencies do not appear to follow any
definite pattern. Still, among such a disorderly array of
motions, there is a special type of simple and orderly motion
that has been termed the principal mode of vibration. In a
principal mode, each point in the system vibrates with the
same frequency, which is one of the system's natural
frequencies.
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Thus, a system with n degrees of freedom possesses n principal

modes with n natural frequencies. More general types of motion
can always be represented by the superposition of principal modes.
Normal Mode of Vibration: When the amplitude of motion of a

point of the system vibrating in one of the principal modes is made
equal to unity, the motion is called the normal mode of vibration.
Damping: Damping is associated with energy dissipation and

opposes the free vibrations of a system. If the force of damping is
constant, it is termed Coulomb damping. If the force of damping is
proportional to its velocity, it is termed Viscous damping. If the
damping in a system is free from its material property and is
contributed to by the geometry of the system, it is called
Geometrical or, Radiation damping.
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Basic Concepts of Vibrations
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Classification of Vibration
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Free and Forced Vibration
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Free and Forced Vibration
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Undamped and Damped Vibration
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Linear and Nonlinear Vibration
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Deterministic and Random Vibration
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 The harmonic load imposed by unbalanced

rotating machinery is an example of Deterministic
Vibration
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Spring Elements
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Spring Elements
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Damping Elements
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Harmonic Motion
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Harmonic Motion
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Theory of Vibration in Soil Dynamics
The problems related to the dynamic loading of soils and earth

structures frequently encountered by a geotechnical engineer include:
1. Earthquake, ground vibration, and wave propagation through soils
2. Dynamic stress, deformation, and strength properties of soils
3. Dynamic earth pressure problem
4. Dynamic bearing capacity problems and design of shallow
foundations
5. Problems related to soil liquefaction
6. Design of foundations for machinery and vibrating equipment
7. Design of embedded foundations and piles under dynamic loads
8. Stability of embankments under earthquake loading.
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Fundamentals of Vibration
Satisfactory design of foundations for vibrating equipments is mostly
based on displacement considerations. Displacement due to vibratory
loading can be classified under two major divisions:
1. Cyclic displacement due to the elastic response of the soil-
foundation system to the vibrating loading
2. Permanent displacement due to compaction of soil below the
foundation
In order to estimate the displacement due to the first loading
condition listed above, it is essential to know the nature of the
unbalanced forces (usually supplied by the manufacturer of the
machine) in a foundation such as shown in Figure.
Note that a foundation can vibrate in any or all six possible modes. For
ease of analysis, each mode is considered separately and design is carried out
by considering the displacement due to each mode separately.
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• Approximate mathematical models for computing the displacement of

foundations under dynamic loads can be developed by treating soil as a
viscoelastic material. The Figure shows a foundation subjected to a vibratory
loading in the vertical direction.
• The parameters for the vibration of the foundation can be evaluated by treating
the soil as equivalent to a spring and a dashpot which supports the
foundation as shown in Figure. This is usually referred to as a lumped
parameter vibrating system.
• In order to solve the vibration problems of lumped parameter systems, one
needs to know the fundamentals of theory of vibration. Therefore, a brief
review of the mathematical solutions of simple vibration problems is presented.
Free Vibration of a Spring-Mass System

Figure shows a foundation resting on a spring.
Let the spring represent the elastic
properties of the soil. The load W represents
the weight of the foundation plus that which
comes from the machinery supported by the
foundation. If the area of the foundation is
equal to A, the intensity of load transmitted
to the subgrade can be given by
Due to the load W, a static deflection zs will

develop. By definition,
where k = spring constant for the elastic

support. The coefficient of subgrade reaction
ks can be given by
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Free Vibration of a Spring-Mass System…

 If the foundation is disturbed from its
static equilibrium position, the system will
vibrate. The equation of motion of the
foundation when it has been disturbed
through a distance z can be written from
Newton’s second law of motion as
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In order to determine the values of A1 and A2, one must

substitute the proper boundary conditions. At time t = 0,
let
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38
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From Figure, it can be seen that the nature of

displacement of the foundation is sinusoidal.
The magnitude of maximum displacement is
equal to Z. This is usually referred to as the
single amplitude. The peak-to-peak
displacement amplitude is equal to 2Z, which is
sometimes referred to as the double
amplitude. The time required for the motion
to repeat itself is called the period of the
vibration. The motion is repeating itself at
points A, B, and C.
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Forced Vibration of a Spring-Mass System

Figure shows a foundation that has been
idealized to a simple spring-mass system.
Weight W is equal to the weight of the
foundation itself and that supported by it; the
spring constant is k.
This foundation is being subjected to an
alternating force Q=Q0sin(t+ ) .
This type of problem is generally encountered
with foundations supporting reciprocating
engines, and so on.
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Forced Vibration of a Spring-Mass System…
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Free Vibration with Viscous Damping

In the case of undamped free vibration, vibration
would continue once the system has been set in
motion. However, in practical cases, all vibrations
undergo a gradual decrease of amplitude with
time. This characteristic of vibration is referred to
as damping.
Figure shows a foundation supported by a spring
and dashpot. The dashpot represents the
damping characteristic of the soil. The dashpot
coefficient is equal to c.
For free vibration of the foundation (i.e., the force Q = Q0 sin t on the foundation is
zero), the differential equation of motion can be given by
51
Free Vibration with Viscous Damping…
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Note:
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Note:
Where, A9 = A7 + A8 and A10 = i (A7 - A8)
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60
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Steady-State Forced Vibration with Viscous

Damping
Figure shows the case of a foundation resting
on a soil that can be approximated to an
equivalent spring and dashpot. This foundation
is being subjected to a sinusoidally varying
force
The differential equation of motion for this

system can be given be
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Forced Vibration with Viscous Damping…
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Forced Vibration with Viscous Damping – Vectorial Solution
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Forced Vibration with Viscous Damping –

Vectorial Solution
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Vectorial Solution
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Vectorial Solution
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Vectorial Solution
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Rotating-Mass-Type Excitation
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Rotating-Mass-Type Excitation…
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Determination of Damping Ratio
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Transmissibility
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Transmissibility
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Transmissibility
Also, all curves pass through r = √2. When r

is greater than √2, all the curves approach the
x-axis asymptotically. The higher the
frequency ratio, the better the isolation, and
hence the smaller the force transmitted. But
there may be excessive amplitudes at the time
of starting and stopping a machine, because it
will pass through the zone of resonance.
Damping helps to reduce these amplitudes.
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Vibration Measuring Instruments
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90
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System with Two Degrees of Freedom
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Figure shows a two-mass-two-spring system, which has two degrees of freedom.

Free-body diagrams of the masses are also shown. In a practical system, the
spring k1 and the mass m1 constitute the main system, and spring k2 and mass m2
a vibration absorber. The equations for motion of both the masses may be
written in the following form:
or
and
or
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The natural frequencies of this system are obtained by considering its free
vibrations. Making F0 = 0 in Eq. (2.95a), we obtain
Let
and
By substituting the solutions from Eqs. (2.96) into Eqs. (2.95b and 2.95c), we
obtain
and
From Eqs. (2.97), we obtain
Simplifying this we obtain
or
or
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or
Let
Therefore,
or
or
in which
The values of the two natural frequencies ωn1 and ωn2 for this system are
obtained by solving Eq. as a quadratic in ω2n.
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Amplitudes of Vibrations
For the force acting on mass m1 , the vibration amplitudes are obtained by
assuming the following solution for the principal modes:
and
By substituting the solution from Eqs. (2.100) into Eqs. (2.95a) and
(2.95b), we obtain
and
From Eq. (2.101b),
Substituting for Z2 from Eq. (2.102) into Eq. (2.101a), we obtain
or
or
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or
or
or
in which
Substituting for Z1 from Eq. (2.103a) into Eq. (2.102), we obtain
or
From Eq. (2.103a), it is seen that Z1 =0, if
Then
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or
The amplitudes of motion of mass m1 can be appreciably reduced by

attaching to it, a spring-mass system having its natural frequency.
The negative sign in Eq. indicates that Z2 and F0 are in phase opposition. In
fact, the amplitude of the main mass Z1; becomes zero at this frequency,
because the force, k2Z2, exerted by spring 2 on mass m1 is equal and
opposite to the force of excitation F0.
The size of the absorber mass m2 and its displacement, depend upon the
magnitude of the disturbing force, F0(=k2Z2), For a given force F0, the
smaller stiffness of the absorber spring, the larger its amplitude Z2 and vice
versa.
28-Aug-17
 Figure shows a plot of Z1/Zst versus ω/ωn/2 with μ = m2/m1 of 0.20.

Although the amplitude of the main mass m1 becomes zero when ω =
ωn/2, there are two resonant frequencies at which the amplitude of mass
m1 becomes infinite. In Fig, (ω/ωn/2) has been plotted versus μ for a
particular case of ωn/1 = ωn/2.
 In Fig. , if the forcing function F0 sin ωt is acting on mass m2, instead of
mass m1 (as shown), it can be shown that the amplitudes of motion Z1
and Z2 are given by:
and
Thank You
106

Soil Dynamics: Static Loads

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Soil Dynamics: Static Loads

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02-Aug-17

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

So far we dealt with the management of static loads applied to soil.

• Civil Engineering structures are, however, also subjected to loads that

Dynamic Loads vs. Static Loads

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

• The time span in which dynamic loads are applied varies.

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

• Monotonic loading does not necessarily mean static loading. For

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

• Another feature that differentiates static and dynamic loading is the

• The essential difference between static loading and dynamic loading

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

Acceptable Levels of Strain under Static and Dynamic Loading

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

Additional Soil Properties Relevant for Dynamic Loading

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Dr. Bappaditya Manna

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

Determination of Additional Soil Properties

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

What is Soil Dynamics

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

What is Soil Dynamics

• Especially when we recognize that all structures are subjected to

What is Soil Dynamics

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Soil Dynamics vs. Soil Mechanics

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

Soil Dynamics vs. Soil Mechanics

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Anything Common between Soil Dynamics and Soil Mechanics

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

• Machines such as reciprocating pumps and rotary machines transmit

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

• Dynamic forces from these machines induced vibrations in the

• To perform either of these tasks, i.e. design a new foundation or

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

B. Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering

The final modified frequency may

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering

• We need to recognize that structural damage is not always on

A more detailed consideration of these will be presented later.

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

• These guidelines are for such diverse activities as

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

D. Nondestructive Characterization of Subsurface

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

F. Traffic and Rail Induced Vibrations

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

Traffic and Rail Induced Vibrations

Dr. Bappaditya Manna

Traffic and Rail Induced Vibrations