Link Budget and Satcoms Training

Introduction

 The aim of this presentation is to provide an overview of the considerations

necessary when calculating a satellite link budget.
 INVSAT as a VSAT provider must implement solutions ensuring link budget
integrity, whilst maintaining simple and inexpensive solutions where possible.

 The link budget, no matter what part of the world the system is operating in, is
driven by hardware performance, as well as atmospheric effects. The four main
contributions from hardware to the overall performance are:
 Satellite performance
 Antenna performance
 MODEM performance
 HPA performance

 The satellite performance is out of our hands, so it up to us to identify satellites with

a suitable footprint for a required link and choose the appropriate provider based on
cost and performance. Once a satellite has been identified a link budget calculation
can be performed.
 Introduction

 There are often constraints on the size of antennas that can be deployed at a given
site. For VSAT applications cost, mobility, type approval, location and appearance
often feature in antenna choice.
 In order for a satellite link to be maintained the MODEMS must ‘keep lock’.
MODEM manufacturers specify signal strength, required to ‘keep lock’, in terms of
power received as a carrier or error to noise ratio.
 VSAT HPAs are sized in order to achieve a given performance (Eb/No). For VSAT
applications solid state parametric amplifiers, SSPAs, are used to provide efficient ,
reliable, low cost amplification.
 When performing a link budget calculation it is often necessary to trade
performance, with antenna size or HPA size. The aim being to provide a reliable,
compliant low cost solution.
 UNITS

 Link budget calculations express power in dBW

 1W = 0dBW
 2W = 3 dBW
 10W = 10dBW
 100W = 20dBW
 1000W = 30dBW
 x W = 10*log(x/1) dBW
 x dBW = 10x/10 W

 Noise calculations use both noise temperatures and noise figure

 Noise Temperature = 290(10NF/10 - 1)
 Antennas

 Invsat 2400SE - C Band

 Invsat 1200SE - Ku Band

 Antenna Gain

 The gain of an antenna is the ratio of power radiated (or received) by an antenna
per unit solid angle in a given direction to the power radiated (or received) by an
isotropic antenna (radiates evenly an all directions) fed with the same power

 The gain is maximum in the direction of peak radiation (antenna boresight) and has
a value expressed as:

Gmax = (4πD / λ2)Aeff

 Aeff is the equivalent electromagnetic surface area of the antenna. For

circular aperture antennas of diameter, D, A= πD2/4
 Aeff= ηA, where η is efficiency of the antenna.

Gmax = η(πD / λ)2 = η(π D f / c)2

c is the speed of light
Question:
The 1200SE has a gain of 43.4dB at 14GHz, what is it’s efficiency?
 Polarisation
Vertical Vertical

a ac

At Transmitting At Receiving
Antenna Antenna
bx

ax
Cross Polar Isolation
XPI = ac / bx or bc / ax
b bc or in dB
XPI(dB) = 20log(ac / bx ) or 20log(bc / ax )
Horizontal Horizontal
Cross Polar Discrimination
XPD = 20log ( ac / ax )

A typical value for XPD is 30dBc

 Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power

GT = 1
GT

PT PT
R Area A
Solid Angle = A / R2

ISOTROPIC ANTENNA REAL ANTENNA

 The power radiated per solid angle by an isotropic antenna fed from a an
RF source of power PT is given by, PT / 4π
 In a direction where the transmit gain is GT , any antenna radiates a
power per unit solid angle equal to, PT GT / 4π
 Power Flux Density

GT = 1
GT

PT PT
R Area A
Solid Angle = A / R2

ISOTROPIC ANTENNA REAL ANTENNA

 A satellite antenna of effective area A, at a distance R from the earth

station subtends a solid angle A / R2, at the earth station antenna. The
satellite antenna receives a power equal to
PR = (PT GT / 4π)(A / R2) = φ A

 φ = PT GT / 4π R2 is called the power flux density (W / m2)

 Typical values of φ are -90dBW/m2 to -80dBW/m2
 Received Signal Power

 For a receive antenna of effective area, AReff, from the transmit antenna,
the received power is:
PR= φAReff = (PT GT / 4πR)AReff

 The equivalent area of the antenna is a function of the gain, GR, and can
be expressed as:
AReff = GR/(4π/λ2)

 Therefore received power:

PR= (PT GT / 4π R2) (λ2 /4π) GR
= (PT GT )(λ2 /4πR)2 GR
= (PT GT )(1/LFS) GR

 LFS is free space loss and represents the ratio of the received and
transmitted powers in a link between two isotropic antennas and is of the
order of 200dB.
 Free Space Loss

 Geostationary satellites are placed at a range, R0, 35786km above the

equator.
LFS= (4πR/λ)2 = (4πR0/λ)2 (R/R0)= LFS(R0) (R/R0) 2

 The range from an earth station to a satellite can be calculated from:

(R/R0)2 = (1+0.42(1 - cosLcosl))
l is the earth station latitude
L is the earth station to satellite relative longitude

 (R/R0)2 is between 1 and 1.356 (0 to 1.3dB) depending on the earth

station location.
 Example Uplink

 The 1200SE has a maximum antenna gain 43.4dB at 14GHz

 It is fed by a 25W Kstar transceiver operating at 1dB output back off
(OBO).
 The RF loss between the Kstar output and the antenna interface is 1.5dB.
 Calculate the uplink EIRP.
EIRP = PTGTmax/L
=((10*log(25))-1)+ 43.4 -1.5
= ? dBW

 Calculate the power flux density , assuming the uplink is from Aberdeen
to Telstar 12.
φ = (PTGTmax/L) / (4πR2)
= EIRP / (10*log(4*3.14*39100))
= ? dB(W/m2)
 Example Downlink

 BP operate a VSAT link to Aberdeen from the Jack Bates platform

located West of Shetland. The range from the platform to the satellite is
39477km.
 Calculate the power flux density at the earth station. Assume the link is
via Telstar 12. The EIRP over the Shetland area is 49dBW.
φ = (PTGTmax/L) / (4πR2)
= 49 - (10*log(4*3.14*(39477000)2)
= -114 dB(W/m2)

 If the downlink is to a 1200SE at 11.4GHz, calculate the free space loss,

the gain of the 1200SE at the receive frequency and the power received
by the 1200SE at Westhill.
LFS= 10*Log((4*3.14*39100000*11.4*10^9)/(3*10^8)) = 205.4dB
Grmax=10*log(0.67((3.14*1.2*11.4*10^9)/(3*10^8)^2) = 41.4
PR= EIRP - LFS + Grmax = 49 - 205.4 + 41.4= -115dBW = = 3.16pW
 Sources of RF Loss

 As well as free space loss and thermal losses in the output run from a
VSAT HPA, there are additional losses arising from varied sources
including:
 atmospheric attenuation, rain, scattering, etc.
 thermal losses in the equipment
 mis-alignment of Tx and/or Rx antenna boresight
 polarisation mismatch losses
 Sources of RF Loss

 Attenuation Of RF signal in the Atmosphere

 Attenuation by rain and free space loss gives a total path loss that can
be expressed as L = LFSLA

 Transmit Losses, LFTX, between the HPA and the antenna

 To provide an antenna with a power, PT, it is necessary to provide a
power, PTX, at the HPA output so that PTX = PTLFTX
 EIRP is, therefore, expressed as, EIRP = PTGT = (PTXGT)/ LFTX

 Receive path losses, LFRX ,between the antenna and the receiver (LNB)
 The signal power at the input to the receiver is P RX = PR LFTX / LFRX

 Losses due to antenna misalignment

 If the Tx and Rx antenna boresights are not aligned perfectly, there is a
resultant loss in antenna gain. The losses are a function of the
misalignment angles. Their value in dB is given by:
LT = 12(αT / θ3dB)2 and LR = 12(αR / θ3dB)2
 Sources of RF Loss

 Losses due to polarisation mismatch, LPOL

 These occur when the receiving antenna is not oriented with the
polarisation of the received wave.
 At C Band we commonly use circular polarisation. The transmitted
wave is only circularly polarised
γ on the boresight axis of the antenna.
Off axis the polarisation becomes elliptical. Propagation through the
atmosphere can also change circular into elliptical polarisation.
 At Ku Band we commonly use linear polarisation, as the wave
propagates through the atmosphere the the of polarisation can rotate.
 If the receive antenna is not properly aligned to the received waves
plane of polarisation, and the angle of offset is γ, then LPOL = 20logcos γ

Typically, when installing a VSAT antenna feeds are adjusted to align the
receive antenna boresight to the polarisation of the received wave.
 Summary of RF Loss

 Considering all sources of loss, the signal power at the receiver

becomes:
PRX = (PTX Gtmax / LTLFTX)(1/LFSLA)(Grmax/ LRLFRXLPOL)

 The first bracket characterises the transmitting equipment EIRP

– This expression accounts for losses between the HPA and the
antenna and the reduction in gain due to misalignment of the
transmitting antenna.
 The second bracket (1/L) characterises the transmitting medium
– The path loss takes account of attenuation of free space and the
attenuation of the atmosphere due to rain etc.
 The third bracket characterises the gain of the receiving equipment
– This expression accounts for losses between the receive antenna
and the receiver (LNB), the loss of antenna gain due to
misalignment and the losses due to polarisation mismatch.
 Noise at the Receiver Input

 Noise is unwanted signal without information content which is added to

the useful signal. Noise reduces the ability of a receiver to reproduce the
information content of the wanted signal correctly.
 Noise originates from:
 natural sources of radiation located within the antenna reception area
 electronic components in the equipment
 Only noise which lies in the signal bandwidth degrades receiver
performance. Noise is commonly modelled assuming the power spectral
density, N0 (W/Hz), is constant across the bandwidth. This is white noise.
The equivalent noise power N (W) measured in a bandwidth BN (Hz) has
a value: N = N0 BN (W)
N0(f) Spectral White Noise Density
(W/Hz)
N0

Frequency (Hz)
B
 Noise at the Receiver Input

 The noise temperature of a noise source with noise power N is

T = N / kB = N0 / k
k is Boltzman’s constant = 1.379*10-23
 T represents the thermodynamic temperature of a resistance which
delivers the same available noise power as the source under
consideration e.g. an LNB

 If we consider the receive path of a VSAT terminal, we have several

elements in series, each of these element has a gain, Gj (j-1, 2, ….N) and
an associated noise Tej. The overall noise of the receive path receives a
contribution from each of the elements in the path.
 The noise temperature of the device is
Te = Te1 + Te2/G1 + Te3/G1 G2 + …..+ TiN/G1 G2….GN-1
 The noise figure of the device is
F = F1 + (F2 -1)G1 + (F3 -1)G1 G2 + …..+ (FN -1)G1 G2 ….GN-1
 Application to noise temperature of
Receiving Equipment
TA , Antenna

T1

TF LFRX Feeder

TR , LNB
T2

 The receiving equipment above shows an antenna connected to an LNB.

 There connection is lossy and is at a thermodynamic temperature, TF
(which will be close to 290K). The connection has a loss value, LFRX, which
corresponds to the equipment gain, GFRX= 1/ LFRX and is less than 1. The
noise temperature of the system is determined at:
– the antenna output, before connection losses, temperature T 1
– the LNB input, after connection losses, temperature T 2
 Application to noise temperature of
Receiving Equipment
TA , Antenna

T1

TF LFRX Feeder

TR , LNB
T2

 At the antenna output, T1, the noise temperature, is the sum of the
antenna noise temperature, and the receive subsystem consisting of the
connection and the LNB in series. The noise temperature of the receive
subsystem is (LFRX - 1) TF+ TR / GFRX. Adding the contribution of the antenna,
which should be considered as a noise source, this becomes
T1 = TA + (LFRX - 1)TF + TR/GFRX
 Now consider the LNB input, this noise must be attenuated by a factor
LFRX. Replacing GFRX with 1/ LFRX , the noise temperature, T2, is:
T2 = T1 / LFRX = TA / LFRX + TF(1 - 1/LFRX ) + TR
 Noise Temperature Example

 Consider a system with and without connection loss, LFRX.

 Antenna noise temperature: TA = 100K
 Thermodynamic temperature of the connection: TF = 290K
 LNB noise temperature: TR = 90K

 If LFRX, is zero
T2 = T1 / LFRX = TA / LFRX + TF(1 - 1/LFRX ) + TR
= 100 + 90 = 190K
 If LFRX, is 1dB
= 100/101/10 + 290(1 - 1/101/10) + 90 = 79.43 + 59.6 + 90 = 229K
 The connection losses reduce the antenna noise contribution but cause
an overall increase in system noise temperature. Every 0.1dB of loss in
the connection causes a 6.6K increase in system noise temperature
 Note that the antenna noise temperature is a function of the direction in
which it is pointing, its environment and its radiation pattern.
 Carrier to Noise Ratio

 The Carrier to Noise Ratio, (Hz), of a link is calculated from

C/N0 = [(PTX Gtmax / LTLFTX)(1/LFSLA)(Grmax/ LRLFRXLPOL)]
/ [TA / LFRX + TF(1 - 1/LFRX ) + TR ](1/k)

 C/N0 can also be interpreted as:

C/N0 = (transmitter EIRP)(1/path loss)(receiver gain/noise temperature)(1/k)
 C/N0 can also be expressed in terms of power flux density
C/N0 = φ(λ2/4π)(receiver gain/noise temperature)(1/k)
Where, φ = (transmitter EIRP)(4πR2)
 Carrier to Noise Ratio

 The Carrier to Noise Ratio, (Hz), of a link is calculated from

C/N0 = [(PTX Gtmax / LTLFTX)(1/LFSLA)(Grmax/ LRLFRXLPOL)]
/ [TA / LFRX + TF(1 - 1/LFRX ) + TR ](1/k)

 C/N0 can also be interpreted as:

C/N0 = (transmitter EIRP)(1/path loss)(receiver gain/noise temperature)(1/k)
 C/N0 can also be expressed in terms of power flux density
C/N0 = φ(λ2/4π)(receiver gain/noise temperature)(1/k)
Where, φ = (transmitter EIRP)(4πR2)

 The (receiver gain/noise temperature) expression in C/N0 the receive

equipment G/T and is a figure of merit for the quality of performance of
the receiving equipment.
 Receiver Noise Temperature
Example
 The noise temperature of a receiver (LNB) depends on the contributions
from the components within it. Thus, there is a contribution from the front
end LNA, a contribution from the downconverter stage and a contribution
from any output IF amplifiers. This can be expressed as:
TR = TLNA + TMX/GLNA + TIF/GLNA GMX

 Calculate the LNB system noise temperature for an LNB comprising:

 TLNA = 110K, GLNA = 50dB
 TMX = 850K, GMX = -10dB or LMX = 10dB
 TIF = 400K, GIF = 30dB
TR = 110 + 850/105 + 400/ 105 10-1
=110K
 It is the high gain of the LNA which limits the overall noise temperature of
the LNB to that of the LNA.
 Example C/N0 Uplink

 Calculate the uplink C/N0 for the

following system:

 VSAT parameters:
 Satellite Parameters:
– Frequency, 14.4GHz
– Antenna efficiency, 0.65
– Transmit power, 25W
– Receiving beam
– Loss between HPA and aperture, 2.5°
antenna, 1.5dB
– Receiver noise figure,
– Antenna diameter, 1.2m 2.5dB
– Antenna efficiency, 0.67 – Input losses, 1dB
– Maximum pointing error, – Polarisation mismatch
0.2° loss, 0dB
– VSAT-Satellite distance, – Thermodynamic
39100km temperature of
– Atmospheric wave connection, 290K
attenuation, 0.3dB – Antenna noise
temperature, 290K
 Example C/N0 Uplink

 From the VSAT, EIRP = (PTX Gtmax / LTLFTX)

 PTX = 25W = 10*log(25) = 14dBW
 GTmax = η(πD / λ)2 = η(π D f / c)2 = 0.67[(π*1.2*14.4*109)/(3*108)]2 = 29139
 GTmax = 10*log(29139) = 43.4dB
 LT = 12(αT / θ3dB)2 =12 (αTDfu / 70c)2 = 0.3
 EIRP = 43.4 + 14 - 0.3 - 1.5 = 55. 6dBW

 Attenuation in the uplink is LU = LFS LA

 LFS = (4πRfu / c)2 = 5.55*1020 = 10*log(5.55*1020 ) = 207.4dB
 LU = 207.4 + 0.3 = 207.7dB

 For the satellite,

G/T = (Grmax/ LRLFRXLPOL)] / [TA / LFRX + TF(1 - 1/LFRX ) + TR ]
 GTmax = η(πD / λ)2 = η(π70/θ3dB)2 = 0.65(3.14*70/2.5)2 = 37dBi
 Example C/N0 Uplink

 G/T = 37 - 2.5 -1 - 10log(290/10 1/10 + 290(1 - 1/ 101/10) + 290) = 5.9dBK-1

 For the uplink, (C/N0)U = (EIRP)VSAT(1/LU)(G/ T)SL(1/k)

 (C/N0)U = 55.5dBW - 207.7dB + 5.9dBK-1 + 10*log(1.38*10-23) = 82.3dBHz

 In order to calculate / achieve a given link availability it is necessary to

include rain margin in the link budget. In a temperate climate (Northern
Europe), attenuation due to rain, ARAIN, is typically 10dB. This figure, at a
frequency of 14GHz, would typically be exceeded for 0.01% of the time for an
average year.
 This gives LU = 207.7 + 10 = 217.7dB
 (C/N0)U = 55.5dBW - 217.7dB + 5.9dBK-1 + 10*log(1.38*10-23) = 72.3dBHz

 The ratio (C/N0)U for the uplink would be greater than the 72.3dBHz for 99.99%
of the time in an average year.
 Example C/N0 Downlink

 Calculate the downlink C/N0 for the

following system:

 Satellite parameters:
– Frequency, 11.6GHz  VSAT Parameters (Contd.):
– Transmit power, 125W – Antenna efficiency, 0.67
– Satellite Output Losses, – Receiving beam
2 dB aperture, 2.5°
– Satellite EIRP, 50dBW – Receiver noise figure,
1.4dB
 VSAT Parameters: – Input losses, 0.5 dB
– VSAT-Satellite distance, – Polarisation mismatch
39400km loss, 0dB
– Atmospheric attenuation, – Thermodynamic
0.3dB temperature of
– Antenna diameter, 1.2m connection, 290K
– Antenna noise
temperature, 290K
 Example C/N0 Downlink

 From the Satellite, EIRP = (PTX Gtmax / LTLFTX) = 50dBW

 Attenuation in the uplink is LD = LFS LA

 LFS = (4πRfu / c)2 = 3.66*1020 = 10*log(5.55*1020 ) = 205.6dB
 LU = 205.6 + 0.3 = 205.9dB

 For the VSAT,

G/T = (GRmax/ LRLFRXLPOL)] / [TA / LFRX + TF(1 - 1/LFRX ) + TR ]
 GRmax = η(πD / λ)2 = η(π D f / c)2 = 0.67[(π*1.2*11.6*109)/(3*108)]2 = 14236
 GRmax = 10*log(14236) = 41.5dB
 LT = 12(αT / θ3dB)2 =12 (αTDfu / 70c)2 = 0.2
 LFRX = 0.5dB
 Antenna noise temperature, TA = TSKY / ARAIN + Tm(1-1/ ARAIN) + TGROUND
– = 20/1010/10 + 275(1-1/1010/10) + 45 = 295K
 G/T = 41.5 - 0.2 - 0.6 -10*log(295/100.5/10 + 290(1-1/ 100.5/10)+110 =
14.8dBK-1
 Example C/N0 Downlink

 For the downlink, (C/N0)D = (EIRP)SL(1/LU)(G/ T)ES(1/k)

 (C/N0)D = 50 - 216.2 + 14.8 +228.6 = 77.1 dBHz

 The ratio C/ND for the downlink will be greater than 77.1dBHz for 99.99% of
the time during an average year.
 Example C/N0 Total

 For the complete VSAT to VSAT link

(C/N0)-1T = (C/N0)-1U + (C/N0)-1D + (C/N) )-1SAT

 This link has been calculated for a single carrier case.

 For multicarriers, the HPA, of the VSAT uplink and the Satellite are
backed off from saturation. This is done so that Intermodulation products
resulting from interaction between the carriers are reduced. When the
HPA is backed off sufficiently, it is said to be operating in the linear
region.
 Digital Transmission - Modulation

Analog Digital
Source Source

Source
Encoder

Encryption
R,
and / or
Scrambling Symbol Rate (baud)

Time Division Channel Digital

Multiplexer Encoding Modulation VSAT

Rb, Rc,
Bit Rate Bit Rate (bits/s)
 Digital Transmission - Channel Encoding

r
redundancy bits

N = 2n N = 2n
information data symbols Encoded data symbols
Channel
Encoder
Input rate Output rate
Rb Rc

 Code Rate, ρ = n / (n + r)
 Channel encoding inserts redundancy (r redundant bits for n information
bits) for purposes of error control and error correction.
 Rb = information bit rate
 Rc = channel (encoded) bit rate
 Rc = R b / ρ
 Rc is larger than Rb
 Digital Transmission - Demodulation

R
VSAT DEMOD & SYMBOL BIT
DETECTION DETECTION DETECTION

Symbol error Bit error

Probability Probability

 Symbol error probability is a function E/N0

 E = energy per bit (J)
 N0 = noise power spectral density (W/Hz)
 Eb/N0 = (C/N0) / Rb