ASIA-PACIFIC JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng. 2008; 3: 144–150

Published online in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI:10.1002/apj.126

Research Article
Using CFD to identify means of reducing power
consumption for mixing and suspension in paper pulp stock
chests
Yann Kae Kor,1 Rolf G. H. Prince1,2 and David F. Fletcher1 *
1
School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
2
Visy Pulp & Paper, Smithfield, NSW 2164, Australia

Received 20 November 2007; Revised 29 January 2008; Accepted 2 February 2008

ABSTRACT: This paper presents ongoing work at Australia’s largest paper recycler, Visy Pulp & Paper, involving
experimental and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) studies to understand paper pulp mixing processes, aimed at
identifying means of reducing the large power consumption of the agitators currently used. The key focus of this paper
is on the modelling of a pseudo-plastic fluid and the determination of means by which adequate flow circulation can be
maintained in such a system. We look at reducing the present agitator speed, at using a larger impeller, and examine
the performance of a completely different design. Power consumption reductions of 50%, and perhaps 75–80%, from
present levels, appear feasible and could be implemented economically.  2008 Curtin University of Technology and
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

KEYWORDS: recycled paper pulp stock; mixing; suspension; computational fluid dynamics; Bingham fluid; impeller
design; power consumption

INTRODUCTION original data upon which the empirical correlations were

The design of existing agitators employed by the pulp
and paper industry for mixing or blending of stock
of various consistencies is based largely on empirical
correlations developed from accumulated experience.
The most commonly used method is to identify the
momentum required to produce sufficient motion, a
quantity that has been correlated with a range of design
variables, including the stock chest size and geometry,
impeller location, type of fibre, stock consistency and
temperature and the desired retention time.[1] On the
basis of these requirements, an appropriate impeller
for agitation is then selected. This process is largely
empirical and has undergone very little computational
analysis.
It is widely believed by researchers that existing
design procedures are not based sufficiently on the
well-founded science of fluid mechanics and rheology.
Bennington[2] states that the design procedures used
throughout the years for industrial stock chests provide
no indication of the degree of motion generated in the
paper pulp stock subjected to mixing. In addition, the
*Correspondence to: David F. Fletcher, School of Chemical and
Biomolecular Engineering, University of Sydney, NSW 2006,
Australia. E-mail: d.fletcher@usyd.edu.au
 2008 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
developed have never been published.[2] The penalty
for operating stock chests designed on the basis of
poorly founded science is that mixing is carried out
with excessive energy expenditure. Often, mill engi-
neers tend to think that good circulation is equivalent
to adequate mixing. This is not necessarily true, since
for example, ‘plug flow’ of stock (dictated by its rheo-
logical behaviour) that occurs during circulatory flows
will cause paper pulp stock to flow but not to mix
effectively.
In fact, there are reports of estimations of the cost
related to macro-scale mixing inefficiencies. Studies
of paper machine variability showed that 55% of the
variability in final paper quality was at frequencies
related to flow instabilities and mixing deficiencies.[3]
Bialkowski[3] also concluded that these frequencies
were higher than what could be removed by process
control strategies.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is used exten-
sively to model the behaviour of mixing for an enor-
mous variety of industries. However, little progress
has been made in the modelling of agitation of paper
pulp stock, in particular for stocks composed of recy-
cled paper fibres. One of the major reasons is that the
macro-scale mixing of paper pulp stock is not well
Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering
understood, owing to the lack of knowledge of the rhe-
ological properties involved: at present most models are
empirical and data are not available for particular stock
compositions.
There are many questions concerning the mixing
efficiency of paper pulp stock. Actual energy assessment
at Visy Pulp & Paper indicated that expenditure on
the operation of mechanical agitation is substantial.
Improvements in energy efficiency would significantly
reduce the consumption of electrical energy, leading to
reduction in production costs of recycled papers. This
paper proposes a rheological model, which describes the
behaviour of recycled paper pulp stock, and uses CFD
simulations to illustrate the complex issues associated
with agitation of such fluids and proposes possible
strategies for power consumption reduction.
RHEOLOGY AND MIXING
Recycled paper pulp stock is essentially a mixture of
recycled paper and wood fibres suspended in water.
They behave as a non-Newtonian fluid, in which the
application of a minimum shear stress is required before
any bulk motion can be observed. A study of the
rheology of this stock was performed to provide a
suitable rheological model for the CFD simulations.
The rheology of paper pulp stock
The rheological properties of fibre suspensions observed
in paper pulp stock were presented by Gullichsen in a
Technical Association for the Pulp and Paper Industry
(TAPPI) seminar.[4] Referring to Fig. 1, Gullichsen
concluded that fibre suspensions behave as a non-
Newtonian fluid with a yield stress τy , and a disruptive
shear stress (of fibre network) τd . Above a stress of τy ,
the paper pulp stock behaviour is non-Newtonian, and
when the shear stress exceeds a second threshold value,
τd , the fibre network structure is disrupted and paper
pulp stock behaviour is similar to that of a turbulent
Newtonian fluid.[5]
The mixing of Bingham plastic fluids
Subsequent experimental evidence indicates that paper
pulp stock can be approximated as a Bingham plastic
fluid. Hence to allow motion (not necessarily mixing)
in the entire stock chest, the shear strain must be
maintained above the critical shear strain everywhere.
There are reported studies, which demonstrate the
relationship between power consumption and the mix-
ing of Bingham plastic liquids. Since the shearing gen-
erated by impellers is proportional to power input, it is
 2008 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
CFD MODELLING OF PAPER PULP CHESTS 145
Shear Stress
Laminar Turbulent
td
Fibre structure
ty disrupted
Sd Shear Rate
Figure 1. Stress–strain curve for fibre suspensions
determined by Gullichsen[4] .
thus common to relate motion of paper pulp stock to the
power delivered by the agitator. These studies were first
summarised by Nagata[6] , and led to the deduction of a
dimensionless parameter known as the Hedström num-
ber, He, given by Eqn (1), where τy , ρ and µp are the
yield stress, density, and plastic viscosity of the fluid,
respectively, and d the impeller diameter. NY is the
power number, which corresponds to the power required
to overcome the yield stress, and Re

is the Reynolds
number based on the plastic viscosity.
τy ρd 2
He = = NY (Re

)2 (1)
µ2P
Tatterson[7] reported that Nagata et al .[8] showed a
plot of the critical Reynolds number required to provide
motion throughout a tank filled with a Bingham plastic
fluid. The plot indicated that the critical Reynolds
number, NRe

,critical varies to the one-half power of
the Hedström number, and it equals 10 000 when the
Hedström number equals 107 , so that
NRe

,critical = (10Heprocess )0.5 (2)
The empirical correlation given by Eqn (2) was obtained
from studies utilising helical ribbon, anchor, and 6-
blade turbine type impellers. Relatively little deviation
is expected when applied to other impellers, such as
marine types.
METHODOLOGY
The work of this study can be divided into two main
steps. Rheological experiments were first performed to
determine the parameters for a Bingham plastic model
that describes the behaviour of recycled paper pulp
stock. Then a CFD model was built to investigate the
effect of design changes on the flow behaviour in the
tank.
Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng. 2008; 3: 144–150
DOI: 10.1002/apj
146 Y. K. KOR, R. G. H. PRINCE AND D. F. FLETCHER
Details of the case study
This study looked at a mixing stock chest located in
the stock preparation section of the mill. The chest
is used to keep stock (in this case, fibre content of
4% consistency) suspended and mixed, such that stock
pumped into the paper machine contains the required
proportion of short fibres. A schematic diagram of the
stock chest is given in Fig. 2. It is built of concrete and
is rectangular in shape, with a height of 5 m, a length
of 4 m and width of 4 m. There are no baffles attached
to the walls of the stock chest. The stock chest has an
inclined bottom (approximately 20◦ ), which serves the
purpose of allowing stock to flow or settle by gravitation
towards the discharge side. It can also be regarded as a
baffle, which acts to ‘swirl’ stock propelled onto it by
the agitator. The agitator is a marine type propeller. It
has three flights, and a pitch ratio of approximately 1.5.
Currently, the existing impeller rotates at 211 rpm and
has a power rating of 30 kW.
Rheological measurements
Rheological measurements of recycled paper pulp stock
were obtained using an oscillatory shear tests performed
with a Physica MCR300 Rheometer. Figure 3 shows
the relationship between shear stress and shear rate
of recycled paper pulp stock (of 4% consistency) for
two runs, giving an idea of the repeatability of the
results. The yield shear stress of the pulp is found to be
approximately 250 Pa.
Enlarged plots showed that this yield stress is
achieved at a shear rate of 0.02 s−1 . Attempts were
made to obtain the plastic viscosity of recycled paper
pulp stock. However, ‘slippage’ occurred when further
shearing was applied. As seen in Fig. 3, slippage starts
at a shear rate of 9 s−1 for both runs. During slippage,
the rotating element was not effectively gripping the
30kW Agitator Motor
& Belt Drive Unit
30kW
Impeller Centrifugal
Pump
20°
Figure 2. Schematic of the mixing stock chest
employed in the case study.
 2008 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering
400
Shear stress (Pa)
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Shear rate (s-1)
Figure 3. Plot of shear stress versus shear rate for recycled
paper pulp stock. This figure is available in colour online at
www.apjChemEng.com.
stock but allowing it to slip. As a result, the shear
stress applied to the stock did not correspond to the
applied shearing and measurements obtained after the
point of slippage cannot be used to determine the plastic
viscosity.
Therefore, an empirical equation formulated by Ben-
nington et al .[9] was used to estimate the plastic vis-
cosity of the pulp, which was found to be 1.36 Pas.
Substituting the values obtained for the yield stress and
plastic viscosity into the Bingham plastic model (see
Tanner[10] for more details of this model and its proper-
ties) yields Eqn (3), where τ and γ are the shear stress
and strain rate, respectively:
τ = 250 + 1.36γ̇ (3)
Simulation model
All simulations were performed using the commercial
code ANSYS CFX[11] , which solves the Navier-Stokes
equations using a vertex based finite volume-scheme
with shape functions to increase accuracy. The resulting
equations are solved using a coupled solver together
with an algebraic multi-grid method. The geometry was
meshed using an unstructured tetrahedral mesh, with
inflation on all walls to capture the boundary layers. A
typical mesh comprised 518 000 nodes and the surface
mesh on the two impellers studied is shown in Fig. 4.
The simulations were performed assuming turbulent
flow, with the non-Newtonian viscosity for the paper
pulp given by Eqn (3) being implemented via CFX
expression language. We used the standard k-ε to
represent turbulence. We are aware that this is a
significant act of faith, as we could find no validated
simulations for turbulent flow with a Bingham fluid.
Our logic is that in regions where the velocity is small
and the non-Newtonian rheology is important, little
turbulence is generated. In regions of high-flow speed
the non-Newtonian nature of the fluid is less important
and the standard turbulence model applies.
Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng. 2008; 3: 144–150
DOI: 10.1002/apj
Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering
Figure 4. The unstructured mesh on the existing and ITT Flygt impellers.
Note the fine meshing to capture details of the flow near the blade tips.
The impellers are not shown with the same scale. This figure is available in
colour online at www.apjChemEng.com.
The impeller rotation was modelled using the well-
known multiple reference frame (MFR) approach, in
which a cylindrical zone around the impeller is simu-
lated in a frame of reference moving with the impeller
and the remainder of the fluid is in a stationary frame.
The frozen rotor approach, in which the frame transfor-
mation is made assuming a single fixed position of the
rotor blade, was used. The known inflow of 50 kg s−1
of stock and the outflow to the pump were modelled via
an inlet and outlet, respectively. The free surface was
assumed to be flat and was represented via a no stress
boundary.
The high-resolution scheme, which provides bounded
values as close as possible to second order accuracy,
was used for the convective scheme. In all reported
cases the normalised residuals were below 10−4 and
mass and momentum balances were below 1%. The
torque on the blade was monitored to ensure that it
had stabilised.
SIMULATION RESULTS
Simulations were performed for the existing impeller
used by Visy Pulp & Paper and two alternative
impellers. The first alternative impeller was of the same
shape but had twice the diameter of the existing one
(described as the larger impeller). The second was a
new model, an ITT Flygt impeller (a 4650 mixer with-
out a jet ring)[12] designed to be compact, submersible,
and to therefore have a self-contained motor to avoid
shaft sealing problems. For each impeller, simulations
were carried out for three different rotational speeds.
The impeller torque was determined from the simula-
tion results and converted into power consumption. In
addition, the process and critical Reynolds number were
estimated for each scenario. Along with the streamlines
produced by the simulations, these quantities form the
basis for our comparisons.
Simulations of the existing impeller (diameter 1.2 m)
were initially performed for the speed of 211 rpm (i.e.
 2008 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
CFD MODELLING OF PAPER PULP CHESTS 147
power rating of 30 kW), then half, and finally a quar-
ter of that. Since the existing impeller and the larger
impeller are both marine type propellers, they have the
same power number (i.e. NP = 0.28). Hence when sim-
ulations were performed for the larger impeller (diam-
eter 2.4 m), the speed that corresponds to a power
consumption of 30 kW and NP = 0.28 was first inves-
tigated (calculated to be 62 rpm). Subsequent simula-
tions were performed for half and a quarter of that
speed. The new model ITT Flygt impeller (diame-
ter 0.58 m) is not a marine type propeller, and does
not have the same power number as the existing
and larger impellers. Hence, the manufacturer’s recom-
mended speed of 633 rpm was chosen, and subsequent
simulations were performed for two-third and one-third
of that speed.
The existing impeller
Figure 5 shows a plot of tangential velocities on a plane
through the impeller, coloured by the fluid age. These
show that the main axial jet from the impeller strikes
the inclined floor and splits into several streams. The
fluid age, which is simply the mean residence time of
the fluid at a given location, is very uniform on this
plane showing that the fluids are indeed well mixed.
Figure 6 shows plots of the streamlines for the
existing impeller at the three different speeds studied.
The critical Reynolds number for this scenario is
NRe

,critical = 1400.
The streamlines indicate that stock would flow
directly towards the impeller after it enters the stock
chest. For the case where the impeller rotates at
211 rpm, stock would be drawn into the impeller and
propelled for approximately 1 m into the chest before
discharging into the outlet pump. The same occurs when
the impeller speed is halved, except that stock is not pro-
pelled as far into the stock chest and a small amount of
bypass is observed. A further decrease in the speed of
Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng. 2008; 3: 144–150
DOI: 10.1002/apj
148 Y. K. KOR, R. G. H. PRINCE AND D. F. FLETCHER
Figure 5. Tangential flow vectors through the impeller
plane coloured by the fluid age. This figure is available in
colour online at www.apjChemEng.com.
the impeller shows that most of the stock then bypasses
the impeller and flows straight towards the pump. Com-
paring the process Reynolds numbers, only the 211 and
106 rpm cases satisfy the critical Reynolds number con-
dition. Stock agitated with these two impeller speeds
should be well suspended and reasonably mixed before
being discharged. A reduction of the rotation rate to
106 rpm is then potentially feasible, consuming only
5 kW, and hence performing much better economically.
At 53 rpm or lower, the stock may not be adequately
suspended or mixed, and hence this cannot be consid-
ered as an option.
The larger impeller
Figure 7 shows plots of the streamlines for the larger
impeller at the three different speeds studied. The
N = 211rpm, Power = 30kW, N = 106rpm, Power = 5kW,
NRe′′, Process = 3700 NRe′′, Process = 1900
Figure 6. Steamlines for the existing impeller for various rotation speeds. The rotation rate,
power consumption and critical Reynolds number are also given. This figure is available in
colour online at www.apjChemEng.com.
 2008 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering
critical Reynolds number for this scenario is NRe

,critical
= 2800.
The streamlines indicate that stock would always be
drawn or swept into the core of the impeller before
discharging. For speeds of 62 and 31 rpm, stock would
be drawn in by the impeller immediately after it enters
the stock chest. In the former case, the stock would
be propelled with high velocities towards the inclined
bottom of the stock chest, while in the latter case
stock would flow at lower velocities as it approaches
the bottom of the stock chest. At 15 rpm, stock is
drawn in and swirled around before discharging. Stock
in this case will reside longer in the chest compared
with the first two cases. Plotting the results as velocity
contours demonstrates that a large proportion of stock
would travel at velocities greater than 0.1 m s−1 . For
the 62 and 31 rpm cases, stock within the impeller’s
vicinity travels at velocities of at least 1 m s−1 . On the
basis of these plots, it appears that there is sufficient
motion within the stock chest to keep stock suspended
or mixed for each case. However, when the process
Reynolds numbers are compared, only the 62 and
31 rpm cases yield values above the critical value.
Hence, only the 31 rpm case, consuming 6 kW can
be considered further as an economic alternative to the
existing impeller.
The ITT Flygt impeller
Figure 8 shows plots of the streamlines for the ITT
Flygt impeller at the three different speeds studied.
The critical Reynolds number for this scenario is
NRe

,critical = 700. The streamlines indicate that all the
stock would be drawn into the impeller before being
discharged into the pump. For the 633 and 422 rpm
cases, stock would be drawn into the vicinity of the
impeller at high velocities, and propelled immediately
towards the far end of the inclined bottom before trav-
elling into the middle of the stock chest. At 211 rpm, a
smaller proportion of stock would be propelled at low
N = 53rpm, Power = 1kW,
NRe′′, Process = 900
Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng. 2008; 3: 144–150
DOI: 10.1002/apj
Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering CFD MODELLING OF PAPER PULP CHESTS 149

N = 62rpm, Power = 30kW, N = 31rpm, Power = 6kW, N = 15rpm, Power = 2kW,

NRe′′, Process = 4400 NRe′′, Process = 2200 NRe′′, Process = 11900

Figure 7. Steamlines for the large impeller for various rotation speeds. The rotation rate,
power consumption and critical Reynolds number are also given. This figure is available in
colour online at www.apjChemEng.com.

N = 633rpm, Power = 123kW, N = 422rpm, Power = 40kW, N = 211rpm, Power = 7kW,

NRe′′, Process = 2600 NRe′′, Process = 1700 NRe′′, Process = 900

Figure 8. Steamlines for the ITT Flygt impeller for various rotation speeds. The rotation rate,
power consumption and critical Reynolds number are also given. This figure is available in
colour online at www.apjChemEng.com.

velocities towards the inclined bottom. The remainder
would be propelled at higher velocities towards the near
end of the bottom before discharging. The velocity con-
tours demonstrated that a larger proportion of stock has
a speed greater than 0.1 m s−1 . In particular for the
633 rpm case, stock propelled into the middle of the
stock chest reaches a minimum speed of 1 m s−1 . Most
of the contents are in motion, with stock travelling at
velocities of at least 0.2 m s−1 .
The critical Reynolds number is satisfied at all speeds.
Hence, stock agitated with the ITT Flygt impeller, at
all proposed speeds, would be in good suspension and
adequately mixed before being discharged. Even at the
lowest speed, the degree of suspension and mixing
appears to be sufficient. This speed consumes only
7 kW of electrical power, and hence can be considered
further as an alternative to the existing impeller.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
CFD simulations have been performed that allow the
flow-field in the stock chest and the power consump-
tion to be calculated. Examination of the CFD results
demonstrates that the mixing of the paper pulp stock
 2008 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
may be achievable at reduced power consumption.
These simulations indicated that 50%, and perhaps
75–80%, saving from present levels of energy con-
sumption may be possible. Three possibilities to achieve
energy savings have been examined here. The first is to
operate the present agitator at half the existing speed,
lowering it from 211 to 106 rpm. This would reduce
power consumption from 30 to 5 kW, an 83% reduc-
tion in electricity expenditure. The second alternative is
to replace the existing impeller with the same model but
having twice the diameter, and to run it at a low speed.
When set to run at 31 rpm, the power consumption is
predicted to be reduced from 30 to 6 kW, which implies
an 80% reduction in electricity expenditure. However, it
is worth noting that running a large impeller at very low
speeds is similar to providing a ‘paddle’ or ‘sweeping’
action to the contents of the stock chest. This action may
offer satisfactory macro-scale motion, but perhaps not
sufficient mixing. The third alternative is to replace the
existing impeller with an ITT Flygt impeller. If operated
at 211 rpm, the power consumption could be reduced
from 30 to 7 kW, offering a 77% reduction in electricity
expenditures.
On the basis of the results reported here, further
investigations were undertaken by Visy Pulp & Paper to
Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng. 2008; 3: 144–150
DOI: 10.1002/apj
150 Y. K. KOR, R. G. H. PRINCE AND D. F. FLETCHER
assess the effectiveness of mixing. This includes con-
ducting on-site experiments by using a spare impeller
and a smaller mixing stock chest. Results from a series
of experimental work confirmed that the CFD simula-
tions reported here indicated correctly that reduction in
the speed of agitators, and hence reduced power con-
sumption could be achieved without disrupting the con-
sistency of paper pulp stock produced. Although reduc-
tions were slightly less than that predicted, it still repre-
sented substantial savings in power consumption, found
to be of the order of tens of thousands of dollars per
agitator. Speed reductions were implemented for all the
agitators examined by means of incorporating a variable
speed drive or changes in the size of driving pulleys.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Associate Professor
Howard See of the School of Chemical and Biomolecu-
lar Engineering, University of Sydney for his assistance
with the rheological measurements. They also acknowl-
edge the substantial input of staff of the Smithfield mills
of Visy Pulp & Paper, especially Messrs A Allan, R de
Sousa and R Hardwick.
 2008 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering
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Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng. 2008; 3: 144–150
DOI: 10.1002/apj