Education is a systematic process through which a child
Mahatma Gandhi – “By education I mean an all-
or an adult acquires knowledge, experience, skill and
sound attitude. It makes an individual civilized, refined,
cultured and educated. For a civilized and socialized
society, education is the only means. Its goal is to make
an individual perfect. Every society gives importance to
education because it is a panacea for all evils. It is the
key to solve the various problems of life.
Education has been described as a process of waking up
to life:
· Waking up to life and its mysteries, its solvable
problems and the ways to solve the problems and
celebrate the mysteries of life.
· Waking up to the inter-dependencies of all things, to
the threat to our global village, to the power within the
human race to create alternatives, to the obstacles
entrenched in economic, social and political structures
that prevent our waking up.
– Education in the broadest sense of the term is meant to
aid the human being in his/her pursuit of wholeness.
Wholeness implies the harmonious development of all
the potentialities God has given to a human person.
– True education is the harmonious development of the
physical, mental, moral (spiritual), and social faculties,
the four dimensions of life, for a life of dedicated service.
ETYMOLOGICAL MEANING OF EDUCATION
Etymologically, the word ‘Education’ has been derived
from different Latin words.
a) ‘educare’ which means ‘to bring out’ or ‘to
nourish’.
b) ‘educere’ which means ‘to lead out’ or ‘to draw
out’.
c) ‘educatum’ which means ‘act of teaching’ or
‘training’.
d) ‘educatus’ which means ‘to bring up, rear,
educate’.
e) ‘ēducātiō’ which means “a breeding, a bringing
up, a rearing.”
· The Greek word ‘pedagogy’ is sometimes used for
education.
· The most common Indian word ‘shiksha’ is derived
from the Sanskrit verbal root ‘shas’which means ‘to
discipline’, ‘to control’, ‘to instruct’ and ‘to teach’.
· Similarly the word ‘vidya’ is derived from Sanskrit
verbal root ‘vid’ which means ‘to know’. Vidya is thus
the subject matter of knowledge. This shows that
disciplining the mind and imparting knowledge where
the foremost considerations in India.
Back in the 1500s, the word education meant “the raising
of children,” but it also meant “the training of animals.”
While there are probably a few teachers who feel like
animal trainers, education these days has come to mean
either “teaching” or “the process of acquiring
knowledge.”
DEFINITIONS
Since time immemorial, education is estimated as the
right road to progress and prosperity. Different
educationists’ thoughts from both Eastern and Western
side have explained the term ‘education’ according to the
need of the hour. Various educationists have given their
views on education. Some important definitions are:
1.
round drawing out of the best in man – body, mind and
spirit.”
2. Rabindranath Tagore – “Education enables the
mind to find out the ultimate truth, which gives us the
wealth of inner light and love and gives significance to
life.”
3. Dr. Zakir Husain – “Education is the process of the
individual mind, getting to its full possible
development.”
4. Swami Vivekananda – “Education is the
manifestation of divine perfection already existing in
man.”
5. Aristotle – “Education is the creation of sound mind
in a sound body.”
6. Rousseau – “Education is the child’s development
from within.”
7. Herbert Spencer– “Education is complete living.”
8. Plato – “Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and
pain at the right moment.”
9. Aristotle – “Education is the creation of a sound
mind in a sound body.”
10. Pestalozzi – “Education is natural, harmonious and
progressive development of man’s innate powers.”
11. Froebel -“Education is enfoldment of what is already
enfolded in the germ.”
12. T.P. Nunn – “Education is the complete
development of the individuality of the child.”
13. John Dewey – “Education is the process of living
through a continuous reconstruction of experiences.”
14. Indira Gandhi – “Education is a liberating force
and in our age it is also a democratizing force, cutting
across the barriers of caste and class, smoothing out
inequalities imposed by birth and other circumstances.”
John Locke said, “Plants are developed by cultivation
and men by education”. This world would have been
enveloped in intellectual darkness if it had not been
illuminated by the light of education. It is right to say
that the story of civilization is the story of education.
Thus, education is an integral part of human life. It is the
basic condition for a development of a whole man and
vital instrument For accelerating the wellbeing and
prosperity by the light of education.
NATURE OF EDUCATION
As is the meaning of education, so is its nature. It is very
complex. Let us now discuss the nature of education:
1. Education is a life-long process- Education is a
continuous and lifelong process. It starts from the womb
of the mother and continues till death. It is the process of
development from infancy to maturity. It includes the
effect of everything which influences human personality.
2. Education is a systematic process- It refers to transact
its activities through a systematic institution and
regulation.
3. Education is development of individual and the
society- It is called a force for social development, which
brings improvement in every aspect in the society.
4. Education is modification of behaviour- Human
behaviour is modified and improved through educational
process.
5. Education is purposive: every individual has some
goal in his life. Education contributes in attainment of
that goal. There is a definite purpose underlined all
educational activities.
6. Education is a training- Human senses, mind,
behaviour, activities; skills are trained in a constructive
and socially desirable way.
7. Education is instruction and direction- It directs and
instructs an individual to fulfill his desires and needs for
exaltation of his whole personality.
8. Education is life- Life without education is
meaningless and like the life of a beast. Every aspect and
incident needs education for its sound development.
9. Education is continuous reconstruction of our
experiences- As per the definition of John Dewey
education reconstructs and remodels our experiences
towards socially desirable way.
10. Education helps in individual adjustment: a man is a
social being. If he is not able to adjust himself in
different aspects of life his personality can’t remain
balanced. Through the medium of education he learns to
adjust himself with the friends, class fellows, parents,
relations, neighbours and teachers etc.
11. Education is balanced development: Education is
concerned with the development of all faculties of the
child. it performs the functions of the physical, mental,
aesthetic, moral, economic, spiritual development of the
individual so that the individual may get rid of his
animal instincts by sublimating the same so that he
becomes a civilized person.
12. Education is a dynamic process: Education is not a
static but a dynamic process which develops the child
according to changing situations and times. It always
induces the individual towards progress. It reconstructs
the society according to the changing needs of the time
and place of the society.
13. Education is a bipolar process: According to Adams,
education is a bipolar process in which one personality
acts on another to modify the development of other
person. The process is not only conscious but deliberate.
14. Education is a three dimensional process: John
Dewey has rightly remarked, “All educations proceeds by
participation of the individual in the social
consciousness of the race.” Thus it is the society which
will determine the aims, contents and methods of
teachings. In this way the process of education consists
of 3 poles – the teacher, the child and the society.
15. Education as growth: The end of growth is more
growth and the end of education is more education.
According to John Dewey, “an individual is a changing
and growing personality.” The purpose of education is to
facilitate the process of his/her growth.
Therefore, the role of education is countless for a perfect
society and man. It is necessary for every society and
nation to bring holistic happiness and prosperity to its
individuals.
AIMS OF EDUCATION
Aims give direction to activities. Aims of education are
formulated keeping in view the needs of situation.
Human nature is multisided with multiple needs, which
are related to life. Educational aims are correlated to
ideals of life.
The goal of education should be the full flowering of the
human on this earth. According to a UNESCO study, “the
physical, intellectual, emotional and ethical integration
of the individual into a complete man/woman is the
fundamental aim of education.”
The goal of education is also to form children into
human persons committed to work for the creation of
human communities of love, fellowship, freedom, justice
and harmony. Students are to be moulded only by
making them experience the significance of these values
in the school itself. Teachers could achieve this only by
the lived example of their lives manifested in hundreds
of small and big transactions with students in word and
deed.
Individual and Social Aims:
Individual aims and social aims are the most important
aims of education. They are opposed to each other
individual aims gives importance for the development of
the individuality. Social aim gives importance to the
development of society through individual not fulfilling
his desire. But it will be seen that development of
individuality assumes meaning only in a social
environment.
Individual Aims – Sir Percy Nunn observes, “Nothing
goods enters into the human world except in and
through the free activities of individual men and women
and that educational practice must be shaped the
individual. Education should give scope to develop the
inborn potentialities through maximum freedom.”
Because:
(1) Biologists believe that every individual is different
from others. Every child is a new and unique product
and a new experiment with life. Thompson says,
“Education is for the individual”. Individual should be
the centre of all educational efforts and activities.
(2) Naturalists believe that central aim of education is
the autonomous development of the individual.
Rousseau said, “Everything is good as it comes from the
hands of the Author of Nature, but everything
degenerates in the hands of man.” God makes all things
good, man meddles with them and they become evil. God
creates everything good man makes it evil. So individual
should be given maximum freedom for its own
development.
(3) Psychologists believe that education is an individual
process because of individual differences. No two
individuals are alike. So education should be according
to the interest of the individual.
Criticism of Individual Aim:
Individual aim is not desirable because man is a social
animal. Society’s interest should be protected.
(1) Individual aim makes individual selfish.
(2) Maximum freedom may go against the society.
(3) Individuality cannot develop from a vacuum; it
develops in a social atmosphere.
(4) Unless society develops, individual cannot develop.
(5) Who will recognize society- where individual is
selfish?
Social Aim:
The supporters believe that society or state is supreme or
real. The individual is only a means. The progress of the
society is the aim of education. Education is for the
society and of the society. The function of education is
for the welfare of the state. The state will make the
individual as it desires. It prepares the individual to play
different roles in society. Individuality has no value, and
personality is meaningless apart from society. If society
will develop individual will develop automatically. Here
society plays an important role.
Criticism of Social Aim:
(1) It makes individual only a tool of government.
(2) It reduces individual to a mere non-entity.
(3) Society ignores the legitimate needs, desires and
interests of the individual.
(4) It is against the development of individuality of the
individual.
Synthesis between individual and social aims of
education:
Individual aim and social aim of education go
independently. Both are opposing to each other. It is not
in reality. Neither the individual nor the society can
exist. The individual is the product of the society while
society finds its advancement in the development of its
individual member.
Individual cannot develop in vacuum. According to John
Adams, “Individuality requires a social medium to
grow.” And T.P. Nunn says,” Individuality develops in
social environment.”
Conclusion: According to James Ross, “The aim of
education is the development of valuable personality and
spiritual individuality.” The true aim of education cannot
be other than the highest development of the individual
as a member of society. Let education burn the
individual flame, feeding it with the oil of society.
1. Knowledge Aim. Perhaps the oldest aims of
education. Education emphasizes the acquisition of
knowledge for its own sake. Knowledge is essential for
intellectual development, better adjustment in life, social
efficiency, character formation and spiritual upliftment.
The mere acquisition of knowledge might transform an
individual into an intellectual but it alone cannot make
him a complete man. Practical wisdom and skills, as well
as the capacity to apply knowledge are important.
2. Vocational Aim. Self-preservation is the individual’s
first need. So education should enable one to earn his
bread and butter. Most of the parents send their children
to school mainly with this aim in mind.
3. Harmonious Development Aim. Pestalozzi
defined education as the harmonious development of the
head, heart and hand. Gandhiji too stressed the need for
developing the body, mind and spirit. According to a
UNESCO study, “the physical, intellectual, emotional
and ethical integration of the individual into a complete
man/woman is the fundamental aim of education.”
4. Complete Living Aim. Complete living aim was
formulated by Herbert Spencer. According to him
complete living consists of five groups of activities. They
are (i) self –preservation (ii) securing a vocation (iii)
being a worthy member of his home (iv) contributing
one’s best to the society, and (v) utilizing leisure time
profitably.
5. Character Aim. Dewey stressed formation of
character as a comprehensive aim of school instruction.
The aim of living is the ever evolving process of
perfecting, maturing and refining. Education should
elevate man from the brutal level to the human level. To
Gandhiji, character building was an important aim of
education.
6. Individual Aim. Sir Percy Nunn, Rousseau and
Herbert have all advocated the individual aim in
education. According to Percy Nunn, “Nothing goods
enters into the human world except in and through the
free activities of individual men and women and that
educational practice must be shaped the individual.
Education should give scope to develop the inborn
potentialities through maximum freedom.” The progress
of mankind is due to great individuals. The school should
therefore aim at the full and unimpeded development of
all the innate abilities of the individual. It should cater to
the physical, intellectual, social, emotional and moral
development of the child.
Whatever is acquired in human life is the result of
education. When a child is born he has no knowledge of
his surroundings. Gradually he comes to recognise his
environment by using the sense organs and by coming in
contact with other people. Many ideas and habits he
learns merely by observing others.
Individual aims of education include – development of
natural abilities, character-building, development of
personality, preparation for adult life, sublimation and
control of basic instincts and proper use of leisure time
etc.
7. Social Aim. Education is the process of socialization.
Education is for the society and of the society. It
prepares the individuals to play different roles in society.
The function of education is for the welfare of the state.
Society is the book which pupils should study in schools.
The school itself is a cross section of the society, and
active participation in school life should be the method
of learning. According to Dewey and Bagley, education
should aim at making each individual socially efficient. a
socially efficient individual is able to earn his livelihood;
he is not a drag on society; he is a good citizen and has
intelligence to understand and appreciate the world; he
is ready to dedicate himself to the ideals of his society.
Social aims of education include – creation of the sense
of citizenship, development of a sense of community
involvement, protection and increase of culture and
civilization, increasing consciousness of other cultures,
encouragement to social welfare, national development,
developing national integration and international
understanding.
Synthesis between individual and social aims of
education:
Individual cannot develop in vacuum. According to John
Adams, “Individuality requires a social medium to
grow.” And T.P. Nunn says,” Individuality develops in
social environment.”
There exists a functional relationship between the two.
The individual lives in and through the society. He is
influencing and is being influenced by the society. He is
making his own contribution to society, while society is
enriching his personality and also helps him to meet
many of his needs. The progress of the society and the
individual go hand in hand, and both exist for mutual
benefit. Hence the aim of education may be defined as
the highest development of the individual as a member
of the society.
Conclusion: According to Sidney Smith, “the real
object of education is to give children resources that will
endure as long as life endures; habits that time will
ameliorate, not destroy; occupations that will render
sickness tolerable, solitude pleasant, age venerable, life
more dignified and useful, and death less terrible.” S.
Radhakrishnanobserves, “The goal of education is not
merely to produce good individuals, but to turn our
individuals who understand their social responsibilities
as integral elements of the society in which they live.”
Again, according to Tyron Edwards, “The great end of
education is, to discipline rather than to furnish the
mind; to train it to the use of its own powers, rather than
fill it with the accumulation of others.”
The Significance, Nature and Role of Philosophy
of Education
The Significance, Nature and Role of Philosophy of
Education
G-one T. Paisones
Plants are shaped by
cultivation and men by
education. .. We are born
weak, we need strength; we
are born totally unprovided,
we need aid; we are born
stupid, we need judgment.
Everything we do not have at
our birth and which we need
when we are grown is given us
by education.
(Jean Jacques Rousseau,
Emile, On Philosophy of
Education)
Significance = the quality of being significant (Webster
Dictionary)
Significant = meaning, importance (T.F. Hoad, 1996)
Nature =
character, kind, or sort (http://dictionary.reference.com)
Role = proper or customary function (The Random House
Dictionary)
Philosophy of Education – means an analytical treatment of
education together with an attempt to relate it in a certain
way to certain parts of speculative philosophy (Kingsley Price,
1967)
According to Noddings, Philosophy of education is "the
philosophical study of education and its problems...its central
subject matter is education, and its methods are those of
philosophy" (1995).
Significance of Philosophy of Education = the philosophy of
education which students ought now to study is therefore
something which might properly called “the philosophy of
curriculum.”
Nature of Philosophy of Education = is a normative theory of
education that unifies pedagogy, curriculum, learning theory,
and the purpose of education and is grounded in specific
metaphysical, epistemological, and axiological assumptions.
Role of Philosophy of Education = ways of conceiving
education coupled with the multiple fields and approaches of
philosophy make philosophy of education not only a very
diverse field but also one that is not easily defined.
Below are some renowned educational philosophers that had
been greatly contributed to the foundation of education.
 Plato - Education would be holistic, including facts,
skills, physical discipline, and music and art, which he
considered the highest form of endeavor (retrieve
from:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_ed
ucation)
 St. Thomas Aquinas – used of the Aristotelian
distinction between potentiality and actuality, the
notion that life as a goal intended by God is also
potentially present in all men as what they strive to
make equal (Price, 1967)
 St. Augustine – Sensation and introspection yield
knowledge(Price, 1967)
 Comenius – everything we know is discovered by
introspection(Price, 1967)
 Quintilian – suppose that internal equability has some
relation to the order of nature(Price, 1967)
 Herbart – advocates religious teaching as a means of
moral improvements (Price, 1967)
 Locke – the rules of morality follow from the relation
of the idea of God and the idea of His Creature
(Price, 1967)
 Kant – believed that education differs from training in
that the latter involves thinking whereas the former
does not. In addition to educating reason, of central
importance to him was the
Word Power
Introspection -
observation or examination of one's own mental and emotio
nal state, mentalprocesses, etc.; the
act of looking within oneself.
Maxims -
an expression of a general truth or principle, especially an ap
horistic or sententiousone
Philosophy – from Greek words philo and sophy meaning
love of wisdom
Axiology - the branch of philosophy dealing with values, as
those of ethics, aesthetics, or religion. Epistemology -
a branch of philosophy that investigates the origin, nature, m
ethods, and limits of human knowledge.
development of character and teaching of moral maxims.
 Dewey – All proposition can be mean only experiences
connected by operation;
PHILOSOPHY, HISTORY, EDUCATIONAL
SOCIOLOGY, AND FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
The Educational Theory and Social Foundations
area offers concentrations in the philosophy of
education, history of education, educational
sociology, and interdisciplinary foundations of
education.
Areas of Concentration:
 Philosophy of Education: This concentration
seeks to provide students with a rigorous
methodological and theoretical training in
philosophical research. The general
purposes of the program are to foster the
understanding and development of
educational theory in the context of the
broader questions of philosophy and to
develop the capacity to engage in effective
discussion of theoretical problems
pertaining to education, especially
educational justice, peace, and democracy.
 History of Education: This concentration
seeks to provide students with a rigorous
methodological and theoretical training in
historical research, so that they acquire and
are able to advance a deep understanding
of the origins and development of American
education within the context of American
social and intellectual history. This
concentration involves an understanding of
the history of social injustice and the
political and economic history of the social
and educational reproduction of inequality.
 Educational Sociology: This concentration
seeks to provide students with a rigorous
methodological and theoretical training in
sociological research. Sociology of
education explores the school-
society/educational-cultural interface – how
socio-cultural forces define the limits and
possibilities of schooling and how
education impacts society. Of particular
interest is an understanding of how social
institutions produce injustice/justice, the
nature and dynamics of social stratification,
an understanding of the dynamics of racial,
gendered, and ethnic discrimination, and
the nature and development of a pluralistic
democratic culture.
 Foundations of Education: This
concentration seeks to provide students
with a rigorous methodological and
theoretical training in interdisciplinary
research involving sociology, philosophy
and history of education.
The strength of the faculty and thus the current
organizing focus of these concentrations is social
justice. We seek to critically examine the
multidimensional nature of justice and education in
a way that explores the basic assumptions,
policies, and practices of our educational
institutions in order to contribute to the creation of
a more just, peaceful, and democratic society and
world. We believe that at the core of an education
for democracy and justice is the capacity for critical
reflection. Reflection is a process of examination
and analysis that is significantly informed by an
understanding of the phenomena that underlie and
contextualize educational ideas, practices and
problems. We seek to understand education as it is
shaped by social, cultural, and ideological forces in
order to enhance the reflective practice and thus
decision making of educators, leaders, and
scholars.
The following questions constitute broad
categories of inquiry that frame the inquiry-based
model of graduate education in the field of
Educational Theory and Social Foundations.
 Social Justice
 What is the nature of social justice?
 What constitutes educational and
social justice in a democracy?
 In what ways and to what degree are
American (and other) educational
systems just or unjust?
 How is educational and social justice
enacted?
 What is the relationship between
justice, education, and peace?
 What is the impact of our knowledge
of justice and foundations on
educational theory, policy, and
practice?
 Power
 What is the nature of power?
 What is the current and historical
distribution of power in American
society?
 How should power be distributed in
a democratic society?
  What implications does a particular
distribution of power have on
education and other social
institutions?
 What are the power dynamics in
schools and classrooms?
 Is there are a relationship between
school and classroom power
dynamics and those of the larger
society?
 How is power exercised in society
and in educational institutions?
 What is the relationship between
power and justice?
 What is the source(s) of power?
 What is the relationship between
power and wealth?
 Knowledge
 What is the nature of knowledge?
 What does it mean to know
something?
 What is the difference between belief
and knowledge?
 Is there a relationship between
knowledge and power?
 Are there various ways of knowing
and forms of knowledge?
 Is knowledge socially and culturally
constructed?
 What knowledge is most valuable?
 In what ways does knowledge define
teaching and learning?
 Do race, gender, and ethnicity
influence what and how we know?
 Culture
 What is culture?
 Is reality culturally constructed?
 What is the relationship between
power, knowledge, and culture?
 Do schools reflect the culture of the
society within which they are
situated?
 What constitutes a just response to
cultural diversity?
 What is the nature of multicultural
education?
 Is justice culturally relative?
 Is there a cultural mismatch between
the school and the student’s home
life?
 Ideology
 What is the nature of ideology?
 Do all societies have an ideology?
 Is justice defined by ideology?
 What is the relationship between
power and ideology?
 Do schools promote ideological
hegemony – a dominant ideology?
 What is the relationship between
knowledge and ideology?
 Does ideology drive politics?
 Is the curriculum shaped by the
dominant ideology?
 Does ideology justify a particular
distribution of power and wealth in
society?
 What role does schooling play in this
distribution?
 What is the relationship between
ideology and religion?
 Is there a relationship between
American democracy and
imperialism?
 Society
 What is the nature of society?
 What is the relationship between
social structures and forces and
social institutions?
 What is the relationship between
power and social structure?
 What is the nature of the school-
society interface?
 Does schooling reflect the nature of
the society’s structures?
 What is the nature of the “good”
society?
 Are schools social institutions?
 What is the relationship between
dominant social institutions
(government, economy, media,
military-industrial complex, etc.)
and educational institutions?
  In what ways are power, knowledge,
and ideology institutionalized?
Foundation of Education
1. TOPIC 4: THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND ITS
SIGNIFICANCE FOR TEACHERS (MIDSEM TEST)4.1 Introduction
The philosophy of education will be discussed first, since we
need to understand the philosophy of education, before we
can discuss about its significance for teachers. The lecture will
cover seven philosophies of education (idealism, realism,
pragmatism, existentialism, essentialism, progressivism, and
social reconstructionism); followed by the significance of four
of these philosophies (pragmatism, existentialism,
essentialism, and social reconstructionism) for teachers.
4.2 The Philosophy of Education Philosophy of education, as
we know, focuses on the values, beliefs and attitudes in
relation to the process of growth of individuals and society.
These values, beliefs and attitudes determine the direction of
our education, particularly the aims, goals, objectives,
contents, delivery and assessment of education. Now, we will
look some educational philosophies which will help us to
understand better the goals of education. • Idealism: “Ideal”
means “a conception of objects as something that are
perfect, having noble character, visionary, and existing only in
imagination”. Idealism views that education should focus on
moral, spiritual and mental aspects of human being; and that
the truth and values are absolute, timeless, and universal.
Education should concern with ideas and concepts and their
relationship, with the final outcomes of education are the
most general and abstract subjects. Mathematics is important
to develop abstract thinking; while history and literature are
important to develop moral and culture. • Realism: “Real”
means “a conception of objects as something that are actual,
existence, and authentic, rather than imaginary”. Realism
views the world in terms of objects and matter; and
everything is derived from nature and is subjected to its laws.
Realism suggests that education should focus on objects and
matter; and views that people can learn about the world
through their senses and reasons. However, just like idealist,
realist views that the ultimate goals of education are the
most general and abstract subjects. Realist stresses that the
subjects such as ethical, political and economics are
important in life; while reading, writing and arithmetic are
necessary as basic education. • Pragmatism: “Pragmatic”
means “a conception of objects as something that are real,
and having cause-effect relationship and practical values”.
Pragmatism views the world as not fixed, but constantly
changing; and views knowledge as process and not as
product. Education, therefore, should focus on experiencing
the process, for example, learning occurs as pupil engages in
problem solving. Knowing is an interaction between the
learner and environment (both are undergoing constant
changes). Teaching is not focused on “what to think”, but on
“how to think critically”; and hence, it should be more
exploratory than explanatory. The ultimate goal of education
is for the learner to acquire the process of solving problems in
an intelligent manner. • Existentialism: “Existential” means “a
conception of objects as actual being, existing, occurring,
appearing, or emerging”. Existentialism views the world as
subjective, depending upon one’s perception; and that
knowledge is a personal choice. Education should focus on
emotional, aesthetic and philosophical subjects; such as
literature, drama and arts. Learners are allowed to choose
the subject(s) for their self-fulfillment. Curriculum should
stress on self-expressive and experimentation activities that
will create emotions, feelings and insights. The ultimate goal
of education is to develop consciousness about freedom to
choose, and the meaning one’s choices and responsibility in
relation to these choices. • Essentialism: “Essential” means “a
conception of objects as something that are absolutely
necessary, indispensable, or vital”. Essentialism views that
education should focus on the fundamental and essential
subjects, such as the 3 R’s (reading, writing, arithmetic) as the
fundamental subjects at primary school level; and five
academic subjects at secondary school level (English,
mathematics, science, history & foreign language).
Essentialism rejects the subjects such as arts, music, physical
education, homemaking and vocational education. The
ultimate goal of education is the acquisition of culture and
mastery of essential skills, facts, concepts, and thinking skills.
• Progressivism: “Progressive” means “a conception of
objects as something that are moving forward toward specific
goal, further stage, or cumulative improvement”.
Progressivism views that education should promote 1
2. democratic society in which students could learn and
practice the skills and tools necessary for democratic living;
which include problem-solving methods and scientific inquiry;
and learning experiences that include cooperative behaviors
and self-discipline; which are important for democratic living.
Since reality constantly keeps changing (similar to
pragmatism), progressivism believes that there is little need
to focus on fixed body of knowledge. • Social
Reconstructionism: “Social reconstruction” means “a
conception that the social problems; such as poverty and lack
of educational and employment opportunities; can be solved
through education”. Social reconstructionism believes that
“people are responsible for creating social conditions,
whether they are good or bad”. It views that education
should prepare people to create new good and just society
and to bring the have- nots into a better society. Other than
those who are fortunate helping out those who are
unfortunate, education can play its role by preparing students
to meet their intellectual, emotional, personal, and social
needs, to solve their social problems.4.3 Significance of
Philosophy of Education for Teachers The significance of the
philosophy of education for teachers can be discussed by
looking at the goals of education, role of students, role of
teachers and teaching methods for various philosophies of
education (Figure 6.3, p 151). We are going to look at four
philosophies of education as examples, i.e. the Existentialism,
Pragmatism, Essentialism, and Social Reconstructionism. •
Pragmatism: The goal of education under this philosophy is
“developing and applying practical knowledge and skills for
life in a progressive democratic society”. The role of students
is to show “active learning and participation”. Hence,
teachers need to plan teaching and learning activities that
encourage students to actively participate in learning. The
role of teachers is to “teach inductive and deductive
reasoning, scientific method, and the power of observation
and practice”, which can be achieved through the teaching
methods of “hands-on curricula, group work, and
experimentation”. • Existentialism: The goal of education
under this philosophy is “developing authentic individuals
who exercise freedom of choice and take responsibility for
their actions”. The role of students is to “develop
independence, self-discipline, set challenges, and solve
problems”. Teachers should know this goal to decide what to
teach, how to teach, how students learn and how to assess
learning outcomes. The role of teachers is to “encourage
students to philosophize about life and to recognize and fulfill
personal freedom”, which can be done through the teaching
methods of “discussion and analysis, examination of choice-
making in own and other’s live”. • Essentialism: The goal of
education under this philosophy is “acquisition of culture and
cultural literacy for personal benefit”. The role of students is
to “receive knowledge and demonstrate minimum
competencies”. The role of teachers under this philosophy is
to “deliver a standard curriculum”, which can be done
through teaching methods of “subject-centered direct
instruction”. Teachers need to know this role in order to plan
teaching and learning activities that are subject-centered and
can deliver the standard content through direct instruction.
An example of a subject with standard curriculum is history. A
teacher can prepare the content of a lesson and delivers the
content through direct instruction. • Social
Reconstructionism: The goal of education under this
philosophy is “solving social problems and create a better
world”. The role of students is to “inquire, apply critical
thinking skills, and take action”. The role of teachers under
this philosophy is to “ask questions, present social issues and
problem solving challenges, and serve as organizer and
information resource”, which can be done through the
teaching methods of “stimulating divergent thinking and
group discussion”. Teachers should give emphasis on social
studies, social problems, global education, and environmental
issues.4.4 Tutorial Activity • Read Chapter 6 of the textbook
from page 152 to 156. Explain in your own words of your
understanding about the philosophies of Marxism,
Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Perennialism and Essentialism. 2
3. TOPIC 5: THE SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION (MIDSEM
TEST)5.1 Introduction • In Topic 1, we defined “education” as
“the growth process of the individuals and society”; and in
Topic 2, we defined “sociology” as “the branch of knowledge
that deals with the origin, development, organization and
functioning of human society”. Since, sociology of education
is a branch of sociology that focuses on education, it can be
defined as “the origin, development, organization and
functioning of human society that are associated with the
growth process of the individuals and society”. • Some
argued that education is a valued-based activity in which
individuals experiencing and accepting what is valued by our
society. Few argued that education is the transmission of
culture. As we all know, a society is made up of people with
different customs, beliefs, values, languages, religions and
social institutions. Beside all these “local” cultures, our
society is exposed to “global” cultures brought to us by
foreign visitors and various technologies, such as internet,
CD’s, magazines, films, etc. Ask ourselves, “Which of these
cultures should we transfer to children/youths?”5.2 Social
Foundations of Education • Transmitting and Improving
Society: John Dewey (an American educator) believed that
aims of education were of both transmitting and improving
society. To do this, educators must be very selective in
determining and organizing the experiences for the children
and society. Hence, educators, together with others in the
society, are responsible in determining the content and
activities (experiences) that can help individuals to grow and
finally to improve their society. The aims of transmitting and
improving society were carried out by the schools which
educate and socialize the younger members of the society. •
Modal Personality comprises of a set of characteristics that
differentiate citizens of one country to those of other
countries (“mod” means “distinguished attributes”). For
example, there are certain behaviours, attitudes and feelings
that distinguish the Americans from Europeans, which are
believed to be the outcomes of schooling. American schools,
among other things, focus on the national civic culture to
inculcate modal personality. How do Malaysians differ from
citizens of other countries? Is it due to their schooling (formal
education) or other institutions, such as homes or religious
institutions (informal education)? • Though each country has
cultural pluralism, there still exist a modal personality for all
citizens of that country. They gain this modal personality
through schooling, which offers standard curriculum that
develops the modal personality. Do Malaysians have modal
characteristics? Can we list some of them? We in Malaysia
have a large number of foreign workers that came from many
countries. Do you think they have the Malaysian modal
personality? If we have a modal personality, regardless of
religion, national origin, race, class or gender; we will still
have common points of likeness. • The Americans, for
example, despite of having different economic level,
education, manners, taste, ethnic group, origin and tradition;
they have many points of likeness, such as language, diet,
hygiene, dress, basic skills, land use, community settlement
and recreation. They are closer together in their moral
outlook, political beliefs and social attitudes; compared to
other nationals. Do we have any points of likeness in
Malaysia? What are they? Most of these points of likeness
are society behaviours, which are actually the sociology of a
community. This is in fact an example of the social
foundations of education. • Belief in the possible is perhaps
another point of likeness that the Americans have, i.e. belief
that “anything is possible”. Slogans such as “Work hard and
you will succeed”, 3
4. “Just do it”, “Anyone can grow up to be president” and
“What counts is not where you came from but what you do”
are just some examples of this belief. US schools are
promoting this message throughout the country. What can
these slogans promote for the American people? Perhaps
right attitudes and the belief that “The measure of a person is
his or her achievements”. • Belief in moral bases for right
action is another point of likeness for the Americans. When
American educators discuss about the rights of individuals to
an education, they belief that people have a moral right to
further their humanness (to be good people). The belief also
will guide the Americans in their individual and collective
(group) conduct (behaviour). The slogan such as “Just say no”
to either sex or drugs indicates the influence of this belief.
This is another social phenomenon that influences
education.5.3 A Dynamic, Changing Society • The social
foundations become very important in education because of
the rapid change in our society. The appropriate education
for various groups cannot be determined accurately, since
the groups are changing, ethnic demands are emerging,
information is exploding, behaviours are being modified, and
values are being altered. What are the changes that we see in
Malaysia? May be food preferences, entertainments, etc.
How do these affect education? Thus, we have difficulty to
set education for the present, and even more complex for the
future. • As the society changes rapidly, the education should
also change accordingly. For example, as most mothers are
now working, they have problems taking care of their young
children. In response to this change, the schools now have
the provisions of taking children as young as four years old.
Parents can send their younger children to nurseries either at
private place or at place of work. The idea of literacy is no
longer confined to reading and writing, but must be
expanded to cultural, scientific, computer, technological,
electronic and research literacy. • The number of Asian
immigrants in US increases from 13% to 38% in 1981-1990. In
California, people of colour are already majority. In Seattle
schools, over 34 languages are spoken. English as second
language is a must for the students. Education must be
responsive to the needs of the diversity of students, while at
the same time, transferring the civic culture that serves as the
binding for the American nation. Schools need different
learning outcomes, pedagogical approaches, flexible
curricula, and different teaching environments.5.4 Tutorial
Activity • National Philosophy of Malaysian Education
(NPME): “Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards
further developing the potential of individuals in a holistic
and integrated manner so as to produce individuals who are
intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced
and harmonic, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God.
Such an effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who
are knowledgeable and competent, who possess high moral
standards and who are responsible and capable of achieving
high level of personal well-being as well as being able to
contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family,
society and nation at large” (CDC, MOE, 1988). • Discuss the
Malaysian philosophy of education from the perspectives of
the philosophy of education and the sociology of education.
Which philosophy(s) matches the NPME? What are the social
aspects of human relations that are covered by NPME? 4
5. TOPIC 6: HISTORY OF EDUCATION (FINAL EXAM)6.1 History
of Education: Introduction • History, in Topic 2 is defined as:
“the branch of knowledge that deals with past events”.
Therefore, history of education can be defined as: “the
branch of knowledge that deals with past events that were
related to education”. The events that took place during a
particular period of time in a country had influenced the
education of that country, that is, the history of particular
country becomes the foundations of education of that
country. Think of Malaysia, can you recall an event that had
changed our goals of education? • Curricula are prepared or
created within political, social, economic and cultural
contexts. The people who created the curricula have firm
belief in appropriate social action, views of knowledge,
acceptance of political ideologies, allegiances to class value
systems, incorporation of economic motives, and even
adherence to religious convictions. These values are
sometimes being challenged by various sectors of
community. Can you think of one curriculum that was not yet
accepted in Malaysia? We are going to look at American
history of education as an example.6.2 The Colonial Period:
1642-1776 • In the northern (New England) colonies, the
history of American education started with the education in
the earliest colony of Massachusetts, a settlement of the
Puritans (members of a sect of Protestant from England) who
hold strictly to religious discipline. The earlier schools in
Massachusetts were concerned with the doctrines of Puritan
church. The major purpose of schooling was to teach children
to read scriptures (passages) from the Bible and the notices
of civil affairs department. The major goal of education then
was to enable children to read and understand the principles
of religion and the laws of the Commonwealth. The basic
education in Massachusetts at that time was reading and
writing; and Latin in addition was taught mainly to prepare
students to go to Harvard College. • In the middle colonies,
unlike in Massachusetts (everyone used English language),
there were no common language or religion existed. Due to
the differences in the language used and religious believes,
no single school system could be established in the middle college and university education, • The school curriculum
colonies. These differences motivated the settlers of different during the National Period (Rush’s curriculum) stressed on
ethnic and religious groups to established parochial reading, writing, arithmetic and history in elementary school;
(provincial/ local) and independent schools, rather than the English, German, the arts and especially sciences at
central or district-wide school system as in New England. The secondary school and college level; and good manners and
present concept of cultural pluralism in fact already existed moral principles for all levels. Education was seen more for
200 years ago in the middle colonies. Think of Malaysia, are the development of natural resources, and to promote
there similarities to what had happened in the North America democracy. During this period also, grammar schools were
with respect to school system or cultural pluralism? • In the built for gifted students and scholarships were given to gifted
southern colonies, the education decisions were left to the students who could not pay tuition fees. Half of the
family. There was no formal education here and the focus of scholarship students were later assigned positions as primary
education was only on vocational skills. Why vocational skills? school teachers. Educational policy makers (e.g. Rush,
The legislative provision was instituted only to the guardians Jefferson, Franklin) were all concerned with equality of
of poor children, orphans, and illegitimate children, that is for educational opportunity; and had proposed nationwide
them to provide private education or vocational skills to the education for all children and youth. Students of superior
children. The privileged class of white children (children of ability were identified and given free secondary and college
plantation owners) received their education through private education. • During this period also, the Americans were
tutors. The poor white children (children of the farm workers) thinking of having their own national cultures, for example
did not have any formal education, with most of them could having a national language and literature, which should be
not read or write. They continued to become farmers just like different from the English language and literature used in
their parents. The children of Black slaves were forbidden to Britain. This language (spelling, pronunciation & reading)
learn to read or write. 5 should be taught deliberately and systematically to the
children and youth in the nation’s schools. The selection of
6. • The curriculum of colonial schools in the northern,
literature was focused on portraying patriotism, heroism,
middle and southern colonies; despite the differences in
hard work, diligence, and virtuous living; with the tone of
language, religion, and economic system; was influenced by
moral, religion, capitalistic, and pro-American. Other than the
the English political ideas. The religious commitment had high
cultures, the Americans also aspired to expand the moral and
priority in all schools and society, and the family played a
political ideas as their contributions to humankind. For
major role in socialization and education of all children. The
example, they had shown to Europe the proof that
curriculum of colonial schools consisted of reading, writing,
institutions founded on equality and representation
arithmetic, and some religious faith, and lessons to develop
principles (democracy) were capable of maintaining good
manners and morals. The curriculum stressed on basic skills,
governments.6.4 Tutorial Activity • Read Chapter 4 of the
social and religious conformity, faith in authority, knowledge
textbook from page 90 to 102. Explain in your own words,
for the sake of knowledge, rote learning and memorization.
your understanding about the influence of religion, politics,
There were various types of schools existed during this
industry or others in each of the education described
period, such as the town schools (one-room primary schools),
(Education in Southern Colonies, Middle Atlantic Colonies,
private schools (established by missionary, ethnic and
New England Colonies, 6
religious groups), Latin grammar schools (for sons of upper
class), academy (secondary school) and college (Harvard or 7. Education for the Slaves, Education for Native Americans,
Yale).6.3 The National Period: 1776-1850 • School curricula Education in Spain’s Colonies,Education for Women). 7
during Colonial Period were mostly based on religious needs.
However, during the National Period, secular forces had
changed American education from religious based primary
and secondary education to more function based education.
The secular forces argued that the time spent on studying the
two dead languages (Latin & Greek), for example, should be
better used to study science, to help the new America to
explore and develop its natural resources. The secular forces
also had influenced the development of democracy, strong
federal government, an emerging cultural nationalism, the
idea of religious freedom, and new discoveries in natural
sciences. As a result of this movement, the federal
government became more committed to education and had
allocated 154 million acres of land for schools. The
government even decided to give free primary, secondary,