BFC 2073 Hydraulics

Section 3

Instructors: 1. Tan Lai Wai (Office: D1-309)

(Chapters 1 to 3)
2. Dr. Hartini binti Kasmin (Office: D1-205)
(Chapters 4 to 6)

Lecture: Mondays and Tuesdays, 2 pm to 4 pm

 Chapter 1. Flow in Open Channel

Learning Outcomes:
1. Differentiate between open channel flow and
pipe flow
2. Define and explain on the types of flow
3. Identify the state of flow and flow regimes
4. Define open channel geometries
 Chapter 1. Flow in Open Channel
Tahan river rapids

Stormwater Management and Road Tunnel (SMART),

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Siberian meandering river
Open channel flow is flow of a liquid in a conduit with a free
surface subjected to atmospheric pressure.

y Free surface
T
Flow
u
A y

θ x
B
Datum
Figure. Sketch of open channel geometry

Examples: flow of water in rivers, canals, partially full sewers

and drains and flow of water over land.
Practical applications are the determination of:
a. flow depth in rivers, canals and other conveyance conduits,
b. changes in flow depth due to channel controls e.g. weirs,
spillways, and gates,
c. changes in river stage during floods,
d. surface runoff from rainfall over land,
e. optimal channel design, and
f. others
1.1 Flow Parameters and Geometric Elements
a. Depth of flow y is the vertical measure of water depth.
Normal depth d is measured normal to the channel bottom.
d = y cos θ
For most applications, d ≈ y when θ ≤ 10%. cos 0.1 = 0.995.

Free surface
θ
Sw = water surface slope
Flow Q y d

So = bottom slope θ x
Datum

b. Flow or discharge Q is the volume of fluid passing a cross-section

perpendicular to the direction of flow per unit time.
Q
Mean velocity V is the discharge divided by the cross-sectional area V =
A
1.1 Geometric Elements
c. Wetted perimeter P is the length of channel perimeter that is wetted or
covered by flowing water.

T = top width

A = cross sectional area covered

A y
by flowing water
P

B = bottom width
1.1 Geometric Elements
d. Hydraulic radius R is the ratio of the flow area A to wetted perimeter P.
A
R=
P

e. Hydraulic depth D is the average depth of irregular cross section.

flow area A
D= =
top width T

A y
P

B
Table. Open channel geometries
Area Top width Wetted perimeter
Channel shape
A T P
T
y By B B + 2y
B
Rectangular
T

1 y zy2 2zy 2y 1 + z 2
z
Triangular
T
1 y By + zy2 B + 2zy B + 2y 1 + z 2
z
B
Trapezoidal
T
D2  sinθ  θD
(θ − sinθ ) D 
D y 8  2  2
θ
Circle θ in radian θ in angle θ in radian
1.2 Types of Open Channel
• Prismatic and non-prismatic channels
Prismatic channel is the channel which cross-sectional shape, size
and bottom slope are constant. Most of the man-made (artificial)
channels are prismatic channels over long stretches. Examples of
man-made channels are irrigation canal, flume, drainage ditches,
roadside gutters, drop, chute, culvert and tunnel.
All natural channels generally have varying cross-sections and
therefore are non-prismatic. Examples of natural channels are tiny
hillside rivulets, through brooks, streams, rivers and tidal estuaries.

• Rigid and mobile boundary channels

Rigid channels are channels with boundaries that is not deformable.
Channel geometry and roughness are constant over time. Typical
examples are lined canals, sewers and non-erodible unlined canals.
Mobile boundary channels are channels with boundaries that
undergo deformation due to the continuous process of erosion and
deposition due to the flow. Examples are unlined man-made
channels and natural rivers.
Canals - is usually a long and mild-sloped channel built in the ground, which may be
unlined or lined with stoned masonry, concrete, cement, wood or
bituminous material.

Terusan Wan Muhammad Saman, Kedah

Griboyedov Canal, St. Petersburg, Russia

Flumes - is a channel of wood, metal, concrete, or masonry, usually supported on or
above the surface of the ground to carry water across a depression.

This flume diverts water from White River,

Washington to generate electricity Bull Run Hydroelectric Project diversion flume

Open-channel flume in laboratory

Chute - is a channel having steep slopes.

Natural chute (falls) on the left and man-made logging chute on the right
on the Coulonge River, Quebec, Canada

Drop - is similar to a chute, but the change in

elevation is within a short distance. The spillway of Leasburg Diversion Dam is
a vertical hard basin drop structure
designed to dissipate energy
Stormwater sewer - is a drain or drain system designed to drain excess rain from
paved streets, parkinglots, sidewalks and roofs.

Storm drain receiving urban runoff

Storm sewer
1.3 Types / Classification of Open Channel Flows
Open channel flow conditions can be characterised with respect to space
(uniform or non-uniform flows) and time (steady or unsteady flows).

Space - how do the flow conditions change along the reach of an open
channel system.
a. Uniform flow - depth of flow is the same at every section of the
flow dy/dx = 0
b. Non-uniform flow - depth of flow varies along the flow dy/dx ≠ 0

Time - how do the flow conditions change over time at a specific section
in an open channel system.
c. Steady flow - depth of flow does not change/ constant during
the time interval under consideration dy/dt = 0
d. Unsteady flow - depth of flow changes with time dy/dt ≠ 0
1.3 Types / Classification of Open Channel Flows
a. Uniform flow
y
y Cons
tant water dep
th

b. Non-uniform flow
y1
y2 Depth change
s
along the cha
nnel

c. Steady flow
y y y1 y1

Time = t1 Time = t2 Time = t1 Time = t2

d. Unsteady flow
t3
t1 t3
t1
y t2 y t2
 Open channel flow

Steady flow Unsteady flow

Uniform flow Non-uniform flow

Rapidly-varied flow Gradually-varied flow

Various types of open-channel flow

 The flow is rapidly varied if the depth changes abruptly over a
comparatively short distance. Examples of rapidly varied flow (RVF) are
hydraulic jump, hydraulic drop, flow over weir and flow under a sluice gate.

The flow is gradually varied if the depth changes slowly over a

comparatively long distance. Examples of gradually varied flow (GVF) are
flow over a mild slope and the backing up of flow (backwater).

RVF GVF RVF GVF RVF GVF RVF

Hydraulic Flow over

jump weir
Sluice

Hydraulic
drop
Contraction
below the sluice
1.4 State of Flow
The state or behaviour of open-channel flow is governed basically by the
viscosity and gravity effects relative to the inertial forces of the flow.

Effect of viscosity - depending on the effect of viscosity relative to inertial

forces, the flow may be in laminar, turbulent, or
transitional state.
- Reynolds number represents the effect of viscosity
relative to inertia,
VR
Re =
ν
where V is the velocity, R is the hydraulic radius of a
conduit and ν is the kinematic viscosity (for water at 20°C,
ν = 1.004 × 10−6 m2/s, dynamic viscosity µ = 1.002 × 10−3
Ns/m2 and density ρ = 998.2 kg/m3).

Re < 500 , the flow is laminar

500 < Re < 12500, the flow is transitional
Re > 12500 , the flow is turbulent
 Re < 500 , the flow is laminar
VR
Re = 500 < Re < 12500, the flow is transitional
ν
Re > 12500 , the flow is turbulent

The flow is laminar if the viscous forces are dominant relative to inertia.
Viscosity will determine the flow behaviour. In laminar flow, water
particles move in definite smooth paths.

The flow is turbulent if the inertial forces are dominant than the viscous
force. In turbulent flow, water particles move in irregular paths which
are not smooth.
1.4 State of Flow

Effect of gravity - depending on the effect of gravity forces relative to inertial

forces, the flow may be subcritical, critical and supercritical.
- Froude number represents the ratio of inertial forces to
gravity forces,
V
Fr =
gD

where V is the velocity, D is the hydraulic depth of a

conduit and g is the gravity acceleration (g = 9.81 m/s2).

Fr < 1 , the flow is in subcritical state → V < gD

Fr = 1 , the flow is in critical state → V = gD
Fr > 1 , the flow is in supercritical state → V > gD
1.5 Regimes of Flow
A combined effect of viscosity and gravity may produce any one of the
following four regimes of flow in an open channel:
a. subcritical - laminar , when Fr < 1 and Re < 500
b. supercritical - laminar , when Fr > 1 and Re < 500
c. supercritical - turbulent , when Fr > 1 and Re > 12500
d. subcritical - turbulent , when Fr < 1 and Re > 12500
1.6 Assignment No. 1 (due date January 10, 2011)
Q1. [Final Exam Sem. 1, Session 2010/2011]
Justify the difference between:
(a) uniform flow and nonuniform flow
(b) state of flow using Reynolds number Re and Froude number Fr

Q2. [Final Exam Sem. 1, Session 2008/2009]

(a) What is:
(i) Wetted perimeter
(ii) Gradually varied flow
(iii) Non-uniform flow
(iv) Froude number
(b) Explain the differences between canal and sewer.
Q3. [Final Exam Sem. 1, Session 2006/2007]
What is:
(a) Reynolds number
(b) Froude number
(c) Hydraulic radius
(d) Prismatic channel
(e) Uniform flow

Q4. A discharge of 16.0 m3/s flows with a depth of 2.0 m in a rectangular

channel of 4.0 m wide. Determine the state of flow based on (i) Froude
number, and (ii) Reynolds number. Determine the flow regime.

Q5. A triangular channel of apex angle 120° carries a discharge of 1573 L/s.
Calculate the critical depth.
Q1. [Final Exam Sem. 1, Session 2010/2011]
Justify the difference between:
(a) uniform flow and nonuniform flow
Uniform flow occurs when the depth of flow is the same at every section
along the channel, dy/dx = 0.
Nonuniform flow occurs when the depth of flow varies along the flow in the
channel dy/dx ≠ 0.

(b) state of flow using Reynolds number Re and Froude number Fr

Based on Reynolds number Re = VR/ν, the flow can be classified into
laminar, transitional and turbulent states as follows:
Re < 500 laminar
500 < Re < 12500 transitional
Re > 12500 turbulent

Based on Froude number Fr = V/(gD)1/2, the flow can be classified into

subcritical, critical and supercritical flows as follows:
Fr < 1 subcritical
Fr = 1 critical
Fr > 1 supercritical
Q2. [Final Exam Sem. 1, Session 2008/2009]
(a) What is:
(i) Wetted perimeter
Wetted perimeter P is the length of channel perimeter that is wetted or
covered by flowing water.
(ii) Gradually varied flow
Gradually varied flow occurs when the depth of flow changes slowly over a
long distance.
(iii) Non-uniform flow

Non-uniform flow occurs when the flow depth varies along the flow in the
channel, dy/dx ≠ 0
(iv) Froude number
Froude number represents the ratio of inertial forces to gravity forces,
Fr = V/(gD)1/2

(b) Explain the differences between canal and sewer.

Canal is usually a long and mild-sloped channel built in the ground for
water supply, agricultural and navigation purposes.
Sewer is a system of pipes built underground for conveying sewage,
wastewater and stormwater.
Q3. [Final Exam Sem. 1, Session 2006/2007]
What is:
(a) Reynolds number
Reynolds number represents the ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces, Re = VR/ν

(b) Froude number

Froude number represents the ratio of inertial forces to gravity forces, Fr = V/(gD)1/2

(c) Hydraulic radius

Hydraulic radius R is the ratio of the flow area A to wetted perimeter P, R = A/P

(d) Prismatic channel

Prismatic channel is the channel which cross-sectional shape, size and bottom
slope are constant.

(e) Uniform flow

Uniform flow occurs when the depth of flow is the same at every section along the
channel, dy/dx = 0.
Q4. A discharge of 16.0 m3/s flows with a depth of 2.0 m in a rectangular channel of
4.0 m wide. Determine the state of flow based on (i) Froude number, and (ii)
Reynolds number.

Given Q = 16 m3/s, y = 2 m, B = 4 m.
For rectangular channel, area A = By = 8 m2, wetted perimeter P = B + 2y = 8 m,
and hydraulic radius R = A/P = 8/8 = 1.
Thus, the average velocity V = Q/A = 16/8 = 2 m/s.

V 2
Froude number Fr = = = 0.452 → subcritical flow
gD 9.81× 2

VR 2 ×1
Reynolds number Re = = = × → turbulent flow
6
−6
1 . 99 10
ν 1.004 × 10
Q5. A triangular channel of apex angle 120° carries a discharge of 1573 L/s.
Calculate the critical depth.

Given Q = 1573 L/s = 1.573 m3/s.

Critical depth occurs when Fr = 1 120° 1 y
z = 1.732
V
Fr =
gD A = zy 2 T = 2zy
Q y
Fr = D=
gy 2
zy 2
2

1.573
1=
9.81y c
1.732 y c2
2
5
3.836 y = 1.573
2
c

y c = 0.7 m