Chapter 9 - Lesson 1.

The Earliest Americans

Beringia: An ancient land bridge over which the earliest Americans are believed to have migrated from
Asia into the Americas.

The first Americans arrived during the end of the last Ice Age.

Ice Age: a cold period in which huge ice sheets spread outward from the polar regions. It lowered sea
levels and created a land corridor between Asia and Alaska.

Animals from Siberia migrated across the Beringia. Gradually, Siberians hunters followed these animals
unware that they were entering a new continent. These migrants became the first Americans.

Most experts believe the earliest Americans traveled by foot across the Beringia. However, some
scholars think they also may have paddled from Asia to the Pacific Coast in small boats.

Hunter and Gatherers.

Most challenging and rewarding prey: Mammoth. - Provided meat, hide, bones for food, clothing,
shelters and tools.

Mammoth were overhunted and became extinct. Hunters soon turned into smaller prey for survival.

Home? Caves and temporary shelters in open air for a short time. As hunters it was necessary to move
regularly in search of food.

The Effects of Agriculture

Planting and harvesting dramatically changed their way of life. This technique spread over North and
South America.

Most important crop flourished in the tropical climate of Mexico: Maize or corn.

Other food plants… Squashes, gourds, beans, avocados and chilies.

Before Agriculture After Agriculture

 People hunted or gathered what they
ate.
 Families continually moved in search of
food
 Groups remained small due to the lack of
food.
 Humans used their time looking for food.
 People enjoyed a more reliable and
steady source of food.
 Families settled down and formed larger
communities.
 Humans concentrated on new skills: arts
and craft, architecture, social org.
 Complex societies eventually arose.

Summary: At first people of the Americas survived mainly by hunting. Later they developed farming
methods that ensured a more reliable supply of food. This encouraged population growth and
establishment of communities. Farming methods became more efficient and productive, people turned
their attention to nonagricultural pursuits. Differences between social classes began to emerge. With
the development of agriculture, society became more complex.
 Chapter 9 - Lesson 2. Early Mesoamerican Civilizations

Mesoamerica: an area extending from central Mexico to Honduras, where several of the ancient
complex societies of the Americas developed.

Olmec: Mesoamerican’s first known civilization builders that lived along the Gulf Coast of Mexico.

Often called Mesoamerica’s “Mother Culture” because they influenced neighboring groups, as well as
the later civilizations of the region.

Geography: Region was hot and humid, covered by jungle and swamps. Lots of raining. The rainfall
swelled rivers and caused severe flooding.

Abundant deposits of salt, tar and clay for pottery. Lots of wood and rubber from the rain forest. Hills
provided with hard stones for monuments and tools. Rivers and flooding provided transport. Most
important, the food plains of these rivers provided fertile land for farming.

Important Sites: San Lorenzo and La Venta.

Religion: Experts believe the Olmec prayed to a variety of nature gods. They probably worshiped the
jaguar spirit. Jaguar represented a powerful rain god.

Trade & Commerce: The Olmec had a large trading network throughout Mesoamerica. This helped
boost the Olmec economy and spread Olmec influence. Raw materials in exchange of goods.

-----

Zapotec: an advanced society in what is now Oaxaca, a rugged region of mountains and valleys.

Geography: This valley has fertile soil, mild climate and enough rainfall for agriculture.

Zapotec built the first real urban center in the Americas with a peak population of 25,000; named Monte
Albán. This plaza was surrounded by pyramids, temples and palaces all made out of stone.

Legacy

Olmec  They influenced the Mayans.

 Olmec art styles, the use of the jaguar motif can be seen in pottery and sculpture
of later people in the region
 Future societies copied the Olmec pattern of urban design.
 They left behind ceremonial centers, ritual ball games and an elite ruling class.
 Stone symbols may have influenced later glyph writing.
Zapotec  Hieroglyphic writing system and a calendar system based on the movement of the
sun.
 Zapotec are noted as the America’s first city builders.
 Monte Alba combined ceremonial grandeur with residential living space. This style
influenced the development of future urban centers and became a hallmark of
Mesoamericans Civilizations.
For reasons that are not fully understood, Olmec and Zapotec civilizations eventually collapsed. Scholars
believe they may have suffered a loss of trade or other economic difficulties.
 Chapter 9 - Lesson 3. Early Civilizations of the Andes

While civilizations were emerging in Mesoamerica, advanced societies were independently developing
in South America.

The Andes: A 4,500 miles of mountain down the western edge of South America. After the Himalayas, is
the next highest mountain range in the world.

First civilizations emerged in the northern Andes region in Peru, a harsh place to develop because of its
dry terrain making farming very difficult.

The first settlement occurred in river valleys closed to the Pacific Coast. These first inhabitants were
hunter gatherers who relied on sea food and small game for their survival. Later they farm.

Chavin:

 First influential civilization in South America from the northern highlands of Peru.
 This site features pyramids, temples, plazas and massive earthen mounds.
 No evidence of political or economic organization.
 Chavin were primarily a religious civilization.
 The spread of Chavin art styles and religious images as seen in stone carving, pottery and
textiles shows the powerful influence of this culture.
 Unified Andean culture and lay the foundation for later civilizations in Peru.
 Chavin may have acted as a “Mother Culture” in South America.

Nazca:

 Flourished along the southern coast of Peru. (After the Chavin culture declined)
 Nazca developed an extensive irrigation system, including underground canals, that allowed
them to farm the land.
 Known for their beautiful textiles and pottery ft. images of animals and mythological beings.
 Famous for their extraordinary and puzzling set of creations known as the Nazca Lines.

Moche:

 Flourished along the northern coast of Peru. (After the Nazca).

 Built and impressive irrigation system to water their wide range of crops which included corn,
beans, potatoes, squash and peanuts.
 Enjoyed a diet rich in protein and probably better balanced than others modern Peruvians.
 Uncovered tombs revealed a civilization with enormous wealth (jewelry crafted from gold, silver
and semiprecious stones).
 Never developed a written language, but their pottery provided a wealth of detail about Moche
life.
 Experts still do not fully understand religious beliefs.
 Chapter 11 - Lesson 1. The Byzantine Empire

Roman leaders had divided the empire in 395, largely due to the lack of communications between the
western and eastern part of the empire, and its capital had moved east from Rome to the Greek city of
Byzantium. The city would become known as Constantinople after the emperor Constantine.

Byzantium would remain as the name of the entire Eastern Empire. Most Byzantines spoke Greek.

Justinian: a high-ranking Byzantine nobleman who succeeded his uncle to the throne of the Eastern
Empire in 527.

Belisaurius: a general sent by Justinian to recover North Africa from the Germanic tribes. Also attacked
Rome and seized it from a group known as the Ostrogoths.

Having unified the two empires, Justinian set up a panel of legal experts to regulate the complex society.
The panel created a single, uniform code known as the Justinian Code.

After its completion consisted of 4 works:

1. The Code contained 5000 roman laws that were still useful for the Byzantine Empire.
2. The Digest summarized the opinions of Rome’s greatest legal thinkers about the laws.
3. The Institutes was a textbook that told law students how to use the laws.
4. The Novellae presented legislation after 534.

Justinian Code regulated whole areas of Byzantine life such as marriage, slavery, property, inheritance,
women’s rights and criminal justice.

Byzantine Emperors ruled with absolute power. They headed not just the state but the church as well.
Brutal politics and often deadly. Church building was the emperor’s greatest passion. He viewed
churches as the most visible sign of the close connection between church and state.

The crowning glory is Justinian’s reign was Hagia Sophia, which means “Holy Wisdom” in Greek.

Building program and preservation of the culture:

 Rebuilt the crumbling fortifications of Constantinople.

 14- mile stone wall along the city’s coastline and repaired massive fortifications.
 Built baths, aqueducts, law courts, schools and hospital.
 Important activity took place, the preservation of Greco-Roman culture. Byzantine families
valued education, specifically classical learning, Latin grammar, philosophy, Greeks and roman
literature. Students memorized Homer. Learned geometry, history medicine. The modern world
owes Byzantine scholars a huge debt for preserving many of the great works of Greece and
Rome.

Theodora: Justinian’s wife.

Division of the Church

Due to the distance and lack of communication between West and East Roman Empires. As the Eastern
Empire became Byzantium and flourished, those differences grew and split apart the Church.

Eastern Christianity built its heritage on the works of early Church fathers such as Saint Basil who wrote
rules for the life of monks.

Patriarch: leading bishop of the East. Patriarch bowed to the emperor.

In 730, Emperor Leo III banned the use of icons, religious images used by Eastern Christians to aid their
devotions. The emperor viewed the use of icons as idol worship. People responded with riots and the
clergy rebelled. Later Empress Theodora restored icons to Eastern churches.

In the west, the pope became involved in this eastern dispute and supported the use of icons.

One pope even ordered the excommunication of a Byzantine emperor, - declared the emperor to be an
outcast from the church.

Cyrillic Alphabet: an alphabet for the Slavic languages created by Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius. Both
were Eastern Missionaries. With this, Slavs would be able to read the Bible in their own tongues.

Slavs: groups that inhabited the forests north of the Black Sea.

Slavs were creating a culture that would form one of history’s most influential countries: Russia.
 Chapter 11 - Lesson 2. The Russian Empire

Small bands of adventurers came down from the north. These were most likely Vikings. Eventually these
Vikings built forts along rivers and settled among the slavs.

Slav and Vikings. Legends say the Slavs invited the Viking chief Rurik to be their king and he founded
Novgorod in 862.

Around 880, a nobleman from Novgorod named Oleg, moved south to Kiev (a city on the Dnieper river).
From Kiev, the Vikings could sail by river and sea to Constantinople. Trading from distant lands.

Kiev was ruled by a prince. Vikings adopted many aspects of Slavic culture, gradually vanishing the line
between them.

Kiev Becomes Orthodox. In 957, Princess Olga visit Constantinople and converted to Christianity. Later
his grandson, Vladimir in 980 considered conversion to Christianity. He sent a team to observe the
major religions of the time. Byzantium’s report convinced him.

Vladimir imported teachers to instruct the people in the new faith. All the beliefs and traditions of
Orthodox Christianity flourished in Kiev. Vladimir appreciated the idea of the emperor as supreme ruler
of the Church.

Kiev’s Power and Decline. Kiev became a capital of a prosperous and educated people. The rise of Kiev
marked the appearance of Russia’s first important unified territory.

Yaroslav The Wise: Vladimir’s son. Led Kiev to even a greater glory. Skillfully married off his daughters
and sisters to create strategic and trading alliances with Western Europe. Create the first library in Kiev.
400 Churches in Kiev. Created a Legal Code to Kiev’s Commercial Culture.

Decline. During his reign, Yaroslav made a crucial error. He had divided his realm among his sons,
instead of following the custom of passing on the throne to the eldest son. After Yaroslav died, the sons
tore the state apart fighting for the choicest territories.

The Mongol Invasions. In 1240, Mongols demolished Kiev. Mongols ruled all of southern Russia for 200
years. Under Mongo rule, Russians could follow all their usual customs, as long as they made no
attempts to rebel. They demanded absolute obedience and payments. The Church, acted as a mediator
between Russian and Mongol Rulers.

Because of the strategic position, a prince of Moscow who could gain control of the 3 rivers (Dnieper,
Don and Volga), could control nearly all of European Russia and perhaps challenge the Mongols.

Ivan I: or Ivan Moneybag. Wealthiest and most powerful Russian prince. Earned Mongols gratitude by
helping vanished a revolt. Mongols appointed him as a tax collector. Powerful ally by moving the
Patriarch of Kiev to Moscow.

Ivan III: He challenged the Mongols. Took the name of Czar (Russian version of Caesar) and publicly
claimed to intent to make Russia the ‘Third Rome’ Refused to pay his rulers further tribute. At the Ugra
River, Mongols and Russians had a bloodless “fight”.
 Chapter 16 - Lesson 1. North American Societies

North American Societies Culture varied greatly depending upon region (climate and vegetation), but
some similarities are:

 Religious view of life

 Social patterns
 Trading Networks tie tribes
 Totems

People of the West were considered cultures of abundance and accomplished builders.

Pacific North West people had the most important resource, the sea. They had a coastal forest that
provided plentiful food. NW Coast tribes developed societies in which differences in wealth created
social classes. (Fish, Wood canoes, potlatch, lived with clans/families).

Potlatch: is a gift-giving feast and ceremony practiced by people of Pacific NW Coast in which families
displayed their rank and prosperity. They gave food, drinks and gifts to the community. (NW)

South West people had a harsher environment than de NW, with dry desert lands. They used irrigation.

North American Societies similarities are: social patterns, religious view of life and trading networks tie
tribes.

Anasazi: People to the north who built impressive cliff dwellings. (SW) (Utah, Colorado, Arizona and
New Mexico was called the Four Corners region). Anasazi relied with human labor to quarry sandstone
from the canyon walls and move it to the site.

Pueblos: village of large apartment-style compounds made of stone, adobe or sunbaked clay.

Great Serpent Mound in Hillsboro, Ohio. (SE)

Mound builders: began to build huge earthen mounds in which they buried their dead. (SE). Adena and
Hopewell are example of group of people who built mounds.

Mississippian: the last mound builder culture who created thriving villages based on farming and trade.
(SE)

Iroquois: A group of people who spoke related languages, lived in eastern Great Lakes and formed
political alliance to ensure protection of tribal lands. (NE). The power of Iroquois women was directly
linked to the gods. North American believed that spirits gave them rituals and customs to guide them in
their lives and to satisfy their basic needs.

Iroquois League: Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Seneca.

Trade was a major factor linking the people of North America. Also Religious beliefs. Most connections
between North American were economic and cultural.

Totems: a natural object with which an individual, clan or group identifies itself. Used as a symbol of
unity. Displayed on masks, boats, houses, rituals, dances, marriages, harvesting of crops. Etc.
 Chapter 16 - Lesson 2. Maya Kings and Cities

From Southern Mexico to Guatemala, Belize and Honduras. Built upon Olmec Culture.

Tikal: A major center in northern Guatemala from the Classic Period of Maya Civilization.

Other important sites where Palenque and Chichén Itzá. Each city was independent ruled by a god-king
and serving as a center for religious ceremonies and trades.

Social Pyramid: Nobles > Middle Class > Peasants.

Religion: Important in daily life. Many gods associated with corn, death, rain and war. Maya believed
that each day was a living god whose behavior could be predicted with their accurate calendar systems.

Worship: Sacrifice food, flowers, incense, people, blood, precious jewels. Lots of rituals around the year.

Glyphs: hieroglyphics symbols. Many still not deciphered.

Codex: bark-paper book where Mayans recorded important historical events based on glyphs. Only 3 of
these books survived.

Popol Vuh: a book containing a version of the Mayan story of creation.

Theories about the decline: Warfare, disease, deforestation, drought and over-farming.

Traits of Civilization: Religious beliefs. Independent city- states. Intensive agriculture.

Strength to Power: Wealthy and prosperous urban centers. United culture loyal to the king.

Weakness leading to Decline: warfare, population growth creates need for more land.

Chapter 16 - Lesson 3. Aztecs Control Central Mexico

Valley of Mexico: Higher elevation but hot and dry. Built upon Olmecs and Zapotecs.

Teotihuacán “City of Gods” with large pyramids. Became the center of a thriving trade network that
extended far into Central America.

Obsidian: a hard volcanic rock used to make sharp weapons. Most valuable trade.

After the decline of Teotihuacan, Toltecs ruled over the heart of Mexico from their capital Tula. Built
pyramids, temples, carved warriors etc.

Quetzalcoatl: God of the Toltecs. (The Feathered Serpent).

Aztecs: Prophecy told them to find an eagle, on a cactus, with a snake in its mouth. To found a city of
their own.

Triple Alliance: An association of the city-states of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan, which led to the
formation of the Aztec Empire.

Social Pyramid: Emperor > Nobles > Commoners > Enslaved People.

Religion: Lots of gods. Many from previous civilizations. Had public ceremonies, rituals, dances. Most
important god, Huitzilopochtli, Sun of God. Needed lots of human blood (sacrifices).
Montezuma II Comes to Power. Years of high taxes and a growing population of Aztecs made neighbors
angry.

Traits of Civilization: Religious beliefs. Powerful army. Empire of tribute states.

Strength to Power: United culture loyal to the emperor. Land, power, prisoners for religious sacrifices.

Weakness leading to Decline: Human funneled into religious activities. Need for prisoners change
warfare style to lees deadly and less aggressive.

Chapter 16 - Lesson 4. The Inca Create a Mountain Empire

Location: Valley of Cuzco. Built upon previous culture like Chavin, Moche and Nazca.

Ruler is descended from Sun God.

Pachacuti: an ambitious ruler who conquered all of Peru. Got the empire to the largest size. Divided
territory into smaller units (Governor and local capital).

Ayllu: extended family group whose members worked together for a common good.

Mita: a requirement that all subjects work for the state a certain number of days each year.

Daily life. Single language, no written language. Schools taught culture. Road system of 14,000-mile-long
network.

Quipus: an accounting device to kept record of numerical information.

Religion: fewer gods, but emperor worship. Nature spirits. Young men/women drafted into religious
service for life. Temple of the Sun in Cuzco.

Traits of Civilization: Religious beliefs. Major road systems

Strength to Power: United culture loyal to the emperor. Interconnected empire that’s easy to control.

Weakness leading to Decline: Human funneled into religious activities. Enemy could also use roads to
move troops.