lubricants

Article
Experimental and Numerical Simulation of the
Dynamic Frictional Contact between an Aircraft
Tire Rubber and a Rough Surface
Iulian Rosu 1 , Hélène L. Elias-Birembaux 1, *, Frédéric Lebon 1 , Hagen Lind 2 and
Matthias Wangenheim 2
1 LMA CNRS UPR 7051, Aix-Marseille University, Centrale Marseille, 4 impasse Nikola Tesla, CS40006,
13453 Marseille Cedex 13, France; rosu@lma.cnrs-mrs.fr (I.R.); lebon@lma.cnrs-mrs.fr (F.L.)
2 Institute of Dynamics and Vibration Research, Leibniz University Hannover, Appelstr. 11,
D-30167 Hannover, Germany; lind@ids.uni-hannover.de (H.L.); wingenheim@ids.uni-hannover.de (M.W.)
* Correspondence: elias@lma.cnrs-mrs.fr; Tel.: +33-484-524-269

Academic Editor: James E. Krzanowski

Received: 15 January 2016; Accepted: 21 July 2016; Published: 17 August 2016

Abstract: This paper presents a numerical simulation of an aircraft tire in contact with a rough surface
using a variable friction coefficient dependent on temperature and contact pressure. A sliding facility
was used in order to evaluate this dependence of the friction coefficient. The temperature diffusion
throughout the tire cross-section was measured by means of thermocouples. Both frictional heating
and temperature diffusion were compared to numerical two- and three- dimensional simulations.
An adequate temperature prediction could be obtained. In future simulations, wear should be taken
into account in order to have a more accurate simulation especially in the case of high pressures
and slipping velocities. A 3D finite element model for a rolling tire at a velocity of 37.79 knots
(19.44 m/s) and in a cornering phase was investigated using a variable friction coefficient dependent
on temperature and pressure. The numerical simulation tended to predict the temperature of the
tire tread after a few seconds of rolling in skidding position, the temperature of the contact zone
increases to 140 ◦ C. Further investigations must be carried out in order to obtain the evolution of the
temperature observed experimentally. The authors would like to point out that for confidentiality
reasons, certain numerical data could not be revealed.

Keywords: tire; modeling; finite element; friction coefficient; contact pressure; temperature

1. Introduction
Aircraft tires are subject to very high performance requirements when providing directional
control and braking during the maneuvering of the airplane on the ground. The tires must not only
support the aircraft’s weight, and transmit acceleration and braking forces to the runway surface, but
also supply the forces necessary for the directional control of the aircraft [1]. It is well known that the
directional capacity of an aircraft is measured by the friction coefficient [2]; this is the measurement of
the contact area forces as a fraction of the aircraft’s weight. In the field of aeronautics, NASA carried out
the first experimental and related studies [3–5] on the thermal aspect (influence of temperature and its
distribution) of the evolution of the friction coefficient between the tire and the ground. Subsequently,
many other studies also investigated the interaction of various phenomena in the contact area, with the
friction coefficient [6–8]. As friction is the major factor for generating forces on the aircraft through the
tire, it is extremely important to have an accurate characterization of the magnitude and direction of the
frictional force generated at the ground/tire interface. Generally, the normalized tire friction coefficient
µ = Fy /Fz is used in most tire friction models, where Fy is the tangential friction force at the tire/runway
interface and Fz is the vertical loading on the tire (Figure 1). Thus, µ is the sliding friction coefficient,

Lubricants 2016, 4, 29; doi:10.3390/lubricants4030029 www.mdpi.com/journal/lubricants

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1). Thus, μ is the sliding friction coefficient, this being a nonlinear function depending principally on
the velocity of the tire. Grosch [9] studied different vulcanized rubber tires and described the
this being a nonlinear function depending principally on the velocity of the tire. Grosch [9] studied
dependence of the friction coefficient on sliding velocity, temperature and surface roughness. He
different vulcanized rubber tires and described the dependence of the friction coefficient on sliding
explained that friction is due to energy dissipation when rubber is compressed and released by
velocity, temperature and surface roughness. He explained that friction is due to energy dissipation
asperities. The friction coefficient also depends on several airplane factors (loading, velocity, slip
when rubber is compressed and released by asperities. The friction coefficient also depends on
ratio, slip angle) [10–12], tire factors (tire type, inflation pressure, tread design, rubber composition)
several airplane factors (loading, velocity, slip ratio, slip angle) [10–12], tire factors (tire type, inflation
[13], runway surface conditions (roughness, dryness and wetness) [14] and also environmental
pressure, tread design, rubber composition) [13], runway surface conditions (roughness, dryness and
factors (weather conditions and contamination) [15,16].
wetness) [14] and also environmental factors (weather conditions and contamination) [15,16].

Figure 1. Forces
Figure 1. Forces and
and moments
moments definitions
definitions on
on aa tire.
tire.

Perssonstudied
Persson studiedtire tirerubber
rubber friction
friction in context
in the the context of roadof vehicle
road vehicle
tires and tires and
also thealso
role the role of
of surfaces
surfaces
in contactin[17–19].
contact He [17–19]. He developed
developed a theory aon theory on the influence
the influence of temperature
of temperature on the rubberon thefriction
rubber
friction coefficient
coefficient called “flash calledtemperature”
“flash temperature”[19]. He[19]. showed He showed
that rubber that friction
rubber depends
friction depends on the
on the sliding
sliding (memory
history history (memoryeffects), effects),
which iswhich crucial is for
crucial for an accurate
an accurate description description
of rubber of friction.
rubber friction.
For rubberFor
rubber sliding on a hard rough substrate, the history dependence
sliding on a hard rough substrate, the history dependence of the friction is mainly due to frictional of the friction is mainly due to
frictional
heating inheating in the rubber/surface
the rubber/surface contact
contact region. region.
Most solid Most solidhave
surfaces surfaces have a roughness
a roughness of many
of many different
different
orders orders of magnitude.
of magnitude. When calculating
When calculating the frictionthe friction
force, force, it istonecessary
it is necessary include the to viscoelastic
include the
viscoelastic deformations
deformations at all length
at all length scales. scales.dissipation
The energy The energyresults dissipation
in the results
localized in heating
the localized
of the heating
rubber.
of thethe
Since rubber. Since the
viscoelastic viscoelastic
properties propertiesmaterials
of rubber-like of rubber-like materials
are extremely are extremely
temperature- temperature-
dependent, it is
dependent,
necessary to itinclude
is necessary to include
the localized the localized
temperature temperature
increase increase
in the analysis. Atinvery
the low
analysis.
sliding Atvelocities,
very low
sliding
the velocities,increase
temperature the temperature increase
is negligible dueistonegligible due to heat
heat diffusion. diffusion.
However, for However,
velocities for velocities
in the order
in 0.01
of the order
m/s, of 0.01 m/s,
localized localized
heating does heating
indeeddoes playindeed
a role.play a role.
Persson Perssonthat
showed, showed, that in case,
in a typical a typical
the
case, the temperature increase results in a decrease of rubber friction
temperature increase results in a decrease of rubber friction with increasing sliding velocity (if the with increasing sliding velocity
(if the sliding
sliding velocityvelocity
is above is 0.01
above 0.01 m/s).
m/s).
In precedent
In precedent papers papers [20–22],
[20–22], FEM FEM models
models are are proposed
proposed to to simulate
simulate the the aircraft
aircraft tire
tire behavior
behavior in in
contact with the runway and coupled thermo-mechanical analysis
contact with the runway and coupled thermo-mechanical analysis procedures are discussed. The entire procedures are discussed. The
entire frictional
frictional work is work is converted
converted to heat.to heat.
The The contact/friction
contact/friction state
state is is governedbybyaavariable
governed variablefriction
friction
coefficient depending
coefficient depending on on the
the sliding
sliding velocity,
velocity, contact
contact pressure
pressure and and temperature.
temperature. The The present
present paper
paper
presents the numerical simulation of an aircraft tire in contact with a
presents the numerical simulation of an aircraft tire in contact with a rough surface, using a variable rough surface, using a variable
friction coefficient
friction coefficient dependent
dependent on on temperature
temperature and and contact
contact pressure.
pressure. Firstly,
Firstly, aa sliding
sliding facility
facility with
with
rubber block samples under sliding conditions is used, under different
rubber block samples under sliding conditions is used, under different fixed vertical pressures, with fixed vertical pressures, with
aa constant
constant sliding
sliding velocity.
velocity. The The friction
friction coefficient
coefficient was was determined
determined and and thethe thermal
thermal evolution
evolution of of the
the
rubber samples
rubber samples discussed.
discussed. Secondly, experimental tests were carried out in order order to to simulate
simulate the the
frictional heating phenomenon
frictional heating phenomenon developed in the tire tread, using an external heat
the tire tread, using an external heat source. In these source. In these
studies, experimental
studies, experimental parameters corresponding to the real parameters of an aircraft tire tire in
in rolling
rolling
conditions (vertical loading, velocity, inflation pressure and skidding angle) have been used. Two-Two-
conditions (vertical loading, velocity, inflation pressure and skidding angle) have been used. and
and three-dimensional
three-dimensional numericalnumerical simulations
simulations were conducted
were conducted for sliding
for sliding and thermal and thermal
diffusion. diffusion.
Finally,
aFinally, a three-dimensional
three-dimensional finite element
finite element model for model for atire
a rolling rolling tire at a of
at a velocity velocity of 37.79
37.79 knots knots
(19.44 (19.44
m/s) in
m/s) in a cornering mode was investigated using a variable friction coefficient dependent on
Lubricants 2016, 4, 29 3 of 14

a cornering mode was investigated using a variable friction coefficient dependent on temperature
and pressure. The thermal evolution of the tire rubber during this rolling phase was compared to
experimental data.

Rubber Block Frictional Heat

Tread rubber characteristics play a crucial role in tire force generation; they describe tread stiffness,
friction properties and heat generation. Energy loss and modulus vary, not only from one compound
to another, but also depending on stress frequency and on temperature. Tread rigidity is directly
related to the rubber shear modulus G”, as rubber becomes softer when its bulk temperature increases;
tread rigidity will depend on the tire temperature increase. Higher cornering stiffness is obtained at a
lower tire tread temperature [23]. Fevrier et al. demonstrate the mechanisms involved in the relative
slippage between the tire tread and runway. The first mechanism is the frequency excitation of the
material by the runway surface texture. The rubber is distorted when it comes into contact with rough
spots on the runway, thus leading to energy loss (hysteresis). The second mechanism is molecular
adhesion. As regards the energy balance, both hysteresis and adhesion result from the transformation
of mechanical energy in the contact zone. Thus, friction is not only a mechanical process but is also
related to the thermal evolution of the rubber, which means that a thermo-mechanical contact model is
essential for a reliable description of the frictional behavior.
Kainradl et al. [24] also studied the thermal evolution of the tire tread in a rolling phase.
They demonstrate that the tire tread temperature rise is due to frictional heating, which does not
significantly affect the temperature profiles within the tire carcass structure. However, these tread
temperature peaks probably have a significant influence on tread wear rates. It is well known that the
maximum friction level developed by a worn tire is shown to be more sensitive to variations in tread
temperature and velocity. It was observed that a tire in cornering or braking conditions at a high angle
produced molten rubber deposits on the runway surface and tread temperatures high enough to cause
the rubber to undergo changes in its chemical composition [3]. For all these reasons, a profound study
of tread rubber in skidding positions is primordial, in order to establish a dynamic friction coefficient
dependence on contact pressure, sliding velocity and temperature. In the literature, few experiments
have been realized to determine the temperature rise in the contact area between an aircraft tire rubber
and a rigid, rough runway [4,5].

2. Experimental and Numerical Studies: Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Study: Frictional Heating

The aim of this study is to identify tire tread behavior in a sliding situation. It was therefore
important to design an experiment that could provide necessary data for comparison with numerical
simulation. The experimental investigations were performed on the High Speed Linear Friction
Tester (HiLiTe), (Figure 2a) at the Institute of Dynamics and Vibration Research (IDS) at Leibniz
Universität Hannover, Germany. With this test rig, sliding friction and sticktion measurements can be
performed over a wide velocity range (0.1–10 m/s) and with vertical forces up to 1 kN. The ambient
temperature can be controlled between −20 ◦ C and +55 ◦ C. Typically, the sliding friction of tire tread
samples is tested on several surfaces, such as asphalt or concrete test tracks, and also on snow and
ice. Experiments at positive ambient temperatures can be carried out in dry, damp or wet conditions.
Whilst friction and vertical force are measured with standard equipment, additional test equipment
must be used to measure the sample temperature and contact temperature. The experiments for this
study were performed on a concrete test track, the rubber tread samples measured 20 × 20 mm on
the contact area and 10 mm in thickness. The sample was bonded onto the sample mounting plate
and fitted with a thermocouple 6 mm from the contact area, which was implanted into a borehole
and thermally connected by heat conductive paste, Figure 2b. The velocity profile is trapezoidal; it is
formed in a short acceleration phase, then a phase of constant velocity v = 4 m/s followed by a short
Lubricants 2016, 4, 29 4 of 14

deceleration phase. The overall track length is 2 m (Figure 2c). The experiments were realized at
◦ C. As well as the measurement of friction force, normal force, and the sample core temperature,
20Lubricants 2016, 4, 29 4 of 14
the temperature in the contact area was measured with an infrared camera, at the end of the track, see
Figure
Figure2b.2b.Simultaneously,
Simultaneously,aahigh
highspeed
speedcamera
camerawas
wasused
usedtotorecord
recordlateral
lateralimages
imagesofofthe
thedeformed
deformed
block while sliding.
block while sliding.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d) (e)
Figure2. 2.
Figure (a) (a)
HighHigh Speed
Speed LinearLinear
Tester Tester (HiLiTe);
(HiLiTe); (b) test
(b) test set-up set-up temperature
for contact for contact and
temperature and
deformation
deformation measurements; (c) test phases; (d,e) final sample shape after sliding phase on
measurements; (c) test phases; (d,e) final sample shape after sliding phase on concrete test track. concrete
test track.

Figure 2d,e present, respectively, the final shape and the profile of the rubber sample after
sliding. The rubber sample was subject to considerable wear; such a high level degradation could not
be achieved without taking into account a strong link between the heating history and wear, which
is a highly non-linear phenomenon. Another parameter to take into account is the split coefficient of
the heat generated by friction between the rubber, the sample and the track surface.
Lubricants 2016, 4, 29 5 of 14

Figure 2d,e present, respectively, the final shape and the profile of the rubber sample after sliding.
The rubber sample was subject to considerable wear; such a high level degradation could not be
achieved without taking into account a strong link between the heating history and wear, which is a
highly non-linear phenomenon. Another parameter to take into account is the split coefficient of the
heat generated
Lubricants by friction between the rubber, the sample and the track surface.
2016, 4, 29 5 of 14

2.2. Experimental Study: Simulated Frictional Heating of the Tire Tread

Treadby
byan
anExternal
ExternalHeat
HeatSource
Source
The main
mainobjective
objectiveofofthis test
this is to
test is determine
to determine the temperature
the temperatureevolution of theof
evolution tire tread,
the tire by means
tread, by
of a simple
means of a temperature increase experiment.
simple temperature Here the frictional
increase experiment. Here the heating of heating
frictional the tire tread
of theis tire
replaced
treadby is
an external
replaced byheat
an source,
externalafter
heatwhich
source, the after
thermal diffusion
which throughout
the thermal the tirethroughout
diffusion cross-sectiontheis tire
measured.
cross-
The experimental
section is measured. testThe
consists of increasing
experimental test the temperature
consists of the tire
of increasing the tread over a fixed
temperature of thetime,
tire using
tread
aover
heatasource (Figure
fixed time, 3b, zone
using a heat1) source
at a pre-determined
(Figure 3b, zone temperature. The temperature
1) at a pre-determined evolution was
temperature. The
measured
temperature simultaneously,
evolution wasatmeasured
the outersimultaneously,
surfaces ((zonesat1,the 3), outer
Figuresurfaces
3b), using two external
((zones sensors
1, 3), Figure 3b),
facing the tire tread (zone 1) and the groove (zone 3). The thermal evolution inside
using two external sensors facing the tire tread (zone 1) and the groove (zone 3). The thermal the tire structure was
also recorded
evolution ((zones
inside the 2, 4), structure
tire Figure 3b)was by means of an additional
also recorded ((zonestwo infrared
2, 4), Figure sensors
3b) by (Figure
means3a,oftop).an
The heat flow
additional twoisinfrared
vertical sensors
to the tire tread 3a,
(Figure surface.
top). The heat flow is vertical to the tire tread surface.

(a)

(b)
Figure 3.
Figure 3. (a)
(a) Heating
Heating setting;
setting; (b)
(b) tire
tire tread and sensors
tread and sensors positions,
positions, zone
zone (1)
(1) presents
presents thethe tire
tire tread
tread zone
zone
where the heating was applied, zone (2) presents the internal part of tire tread
where the heating was applied, zone (2) presents the internal part of tire tread where an infraredwhere an infrared
sensor was
sensor was installed,
installed,zone
zone(3)
(3)presents
presentsthe thegroove
groove area
area where
where anan external
external sensor
sensor is used
is used to measure
to measure the
the temperature,
temperature, zonezone (4) presents
(4) presents the the internal
internal partpart of the
of the groove
groove wherewhere
an an infrared
infrared sensor
sensor was was used
used to
to measure the thermal evolution.
measure the thermal evolution.

Figure 4 presents the temperature evolution of various tire tread zones. As can be observed, for
Figure 4 presents the temperature evolution of various tire tread zones. As can be observed, for
the thermal evolutions corresponding to the heated zone (zone (1), triangles), the time shifted
the thermal evolutions corresponding to the heated zone (zone (1), triangles), the time shifted increases
increases compared to the temperature inside the tire tread (zone (2)), and smaller values were noted
compared to the temperature inside the tire tread (zone (2)), and smaller values were noted (blue solid).
(blue solid). Concerning the grooves, the evolution profile appears very similar to that of the tread
Concerning the grooves, the evolution profile appears very similar to that of the tread (red solid).
(red solid). However, we can notice that, after the end of the heating, marked by the vertical line
(Figure 4), the groove temperature continues to rise for a short time before reaching a plateau. This
proves that the temperature is “stored” and “diffused” throughout the tire rubber and, at the same
time, that the rubber has a very low conductivity coefficient.
Lubricants 2016, 4, 29 6 of 14
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However, we can notice that, after the end of the heating, marked by the vertical line (Figure 4), the
groove temperature continues to rise for a short time before reaching a plateau. This proves that the
temperature is “stored” and “diffused” throughout the tire rubber and, at the same time, that the
rubber
Lubricantshas a very
2016, 4, 29 low conductivity coefficient. 6 of 14

Figure 4. Thermal evolution of tire tread zones for 60 °C of external heating.

2.3. Numerical Simulation/Heating of the Tire Tread

Figure 5 illustrates a comparison between the experimental measurements and the simulated
temperature evolution of the tire tread rubber (zone (2), Figure 3b) for an equivalent external heat
source. The numerical simulation was carried out using a numerical specimen identical to the
physical specimen.
Figure 4. Thermal evolution of tire tread zones for 60 ◦°C of external heating.
Figure 4. Thermal
A good correlation evolution
is obtained of tirethe
between tread zones for 60
simulated C of external
temperature ofheating.
the tire tread and that
actually measured. Figure 6 presents the internal thermal evolution of the rubber block observed
2.3. Numerical Simulation/Heating of the Tire Tread
2.3. Numerical
during slidingSimulation/Heating of theAs
(IDS test, Figure 2b). Tire
canTread
be observed, the core temperature increases during the
Figure
first Figure
instants5 illustrates
of sliding; aacomparison
plateau is betweenattended.
rapidly the experimental measurements
It can bemeasurements
concluded that and the simulated
the
5 illustrates a comparison between the experimental and thetemperature
simulated
temperature
increase of evolution
rubber of the tire
produced by tread rubber
sliding on a (zonesurface,
rough (2), Figure
or 3b)heat
by for an equivalent
diffusion, leadsexternal
to heat
a similar
temperature evolution of the tire tread rubber (zone (2), Figure 3b) for an equivalent external heat
source.
evolution The numerical
in the simulation
tire tread was
rubber (Figures carried out
5 and 6). using a numerical specimen identical to the
source. The numerical simulation was carried outWhatever the mechanism
using a numerical of heating,
specimen by friction
identical to the
physical
or by heat specimen.
diffusion, the thermal evolution of the rubber remains identical.
physical specimen.
A good correlation is obtained between the simulated temperature of the tire tread and that
actually measured. Figure 6 presents the internal thermal evolution of the rubber block observed
during sliding (IDS test, Figure 2b). As can be observed, the core temperature increases during the
first instants of sliding; a plateau is rapidly attended. It can be concluded that the temperature
increase of rubber produced by sliding on a rough surface, or by heat diffusion, leads to a similar
evolution in the tire tread rubber (Figures 5 and 6). Whatever the mechanism of heating, by friction
or by heat diffusion, the thermal evolution of the rubber remains identical.

Figure5.5.Comparison
Figure Comparison between experimental
between and and
experimental numerical simulation,
numerical heatingheating
simulation, of tire tread by tread
of tire external
by
heat source,
external LMA
heat data.
source, LMA data.

A good correlation is obtained between the simulated temperature of the tire tread and that
actually measured. Figure 6 presents the internal thermal evolution of the rubber block observed
during sliding (IDS test, Figure 2b). As can be observed, the core temperature increases during the first
instants of sliding; a plateau is rapidly attended. It can be concluded that the temperature increase
Figureproduced
of rubber 5. Comparison between
by sliding on aexperimental and or
rough surface, numerical
by heat simulation, heating
diffusion, leads to of tire tread
a similar by
evolution
external heat source, LMA data.
in the tire tread rubber (Figures 5 and 6). Whatever the mechanism of heating, by friction or by heat
diffusion, the thermal evolution of the rubber remains identical.
Lubricants 2016, 4, 29 7 of 14
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Figure 6. Internal temperature evolution of a rubber block in a sliding test, IDS test, Hannover.
Figure 6. Internal temperature evolution of a rubber block in a sliding test, IDS test, Hannover.
2.4. Numerical Simulation of a Sliding Rubber Block
2.4. Numerical Simulation of a Sliding Rubber Block
The aim of
Figure this study
6. Internal is to establish
temperature theofsimulation
evolution procedure
a rubber block for test,
in a sliding the IDS
frictional behavior of the
test, Hannover.
The aim of
tire tread this study
rubber. is to establish
The complexity the simulation
of this approach is relatedprocedure for the frictional
to the thermo-mechanical behavior of the
characteristics
2.4.
of Numerical
rubber, its Simulation
non-linear of a Sliding
viscoelastic Rubber Block
behavior, and also to the stability
tire tread rubber. The complexity of this approach is related to the thermo-mechanical characteristics of numerical simulations at
high
of rubber,Thelocalized
its aim deformations.
non-linear The
viscoelastic
of this study numerical
behavior,
is to establish simulations have
and also procedure
the simulation been developed
to the stability
for the of taking
numerical
frictional into account
behavior the
simulations
of the at
high
high tire geometrical
localized
tread rubber. deformations
deformations. The using
The complexity ABAQUS
numerical
of this as aisfinite
simulations
approach element
have
related been
to the code with a friction
developed
thermo-mechanical takingcoefficient, and the
into account
characteristics
viscoelastic parameters
non-lineardetermined experimentally. The hyper-elastic behavior of rubber is based on
high of rubber, its
geometrical deformations viscoelastic behavior, as
using ABAQUS and also
a finite toelement
the stability
codeofwith numerical
a frictionsimulations at and
coefficient,
the Mooney-Rivlin
high localized model [25,26].
deformations. The This model
numerical is widely used
simulations have in tiredeveloped
been modeling [27–29].
taking A macroscopic
into account the
viscoelastic parameters determined experimentally. The hyper-elastic behavior of rubber is based on
approach
high is adopted
geometrical in all simulations,
deformations using which means thatelement
neithercode the roughness of the track surface
the Mooney-Rivlin model [25,26]. This ABAQUS
model as
iswas a finite
widely used with a friction
in tire modeling coefficient,
[27–29]. and
A macroscopic
viscoelastic parameters determined experimentally. The hyper-elastic behavior of rubber is based ona
nor the molecular structure of rubber chains taken into account. The rubber is considered as
approach is adopted
homogenous, in alland
isotropic simulations,
incompressible which means that neither the roughness of the track surface
material.
the Mooney-Rivlin model [25,26]. This model is widely used in tire modeling [27–29]. A macroscopic
nor the molecular
A first structure of rubber chains was takenisinto account. ThisThe simulation
rubber is considered on as a
approach is two-dimensional finite element
adopted in all simulations, which simulation
means that investigated.
neither the roughness of the trackis based
surface
homogenous,
the assumption
nor isotropic
the molecular a and
planeincompressible
of structure strain state in
of rubber chainsmaterial.
the cross-section
was taken into of the rubberThe
account. block; coupled
rubber temperature-
is considered as a
displacement
A first plane
two-dimensional strain elements
finite
homogenous, isotropic and incompressible material. (CPE4RHT,
element four-node
simulation is bilinear displacement
investigated. This and temperature,
simulation is based
on thereduced integration
assumption with hourglass control, hybrid with constant pressure)
A first two-dimensional finite element simulation is investigated. This simulation is basedcoupled
of a plane strain state in the cross-section of thewere applied.
rubber Figure
block; 7a
on
presents the
temperature-displacement rubber sample
the assumption of a planeplane sliding
strainstrainon a concrete
state inelements track. The
(CPE4RHT,
the cross-section FE simulation
of the four-node is
rubber block; performed
bilinear in two
coupleddisplacement steps:
temperature- and
during the firstplane
displacement step astrain
constant pressure
elements of 2.5 MPa is appliedbilinear
to the top of the rubber block by means
temperature, reduced integration with (CPE4RHT, four-node
hourglass control, hybrid with displacement and
constant pressure) temperature,
were applied.
of a rigid
reduced plate.
integrationIn the second
with step,
hourglass the block
control, is moved
hybrid with
with a constant
constant sliding
pressure) velocity
were of 4
applied. m/s. Figure
Figure 7a in
Figure 7a presents the rubber sample sliding on a concrete track. The FE simulation is performed
7b shows
presents the
the numerical
rubber sampleshape after
sliding sliding.
on a Figure
concrete 8c,d,
track. present,
The FE respectively,
simulation is the shape
performed of
in the
two rubber
steps:
two steps:
sampleduring
at the the offirst step a constant pressure of 2.5test. MPa is applied to the top of the rubber block
during the firstend
step afirst test-run
constant and the
pressure ofexperimental
2.5 MPa is applied to the top of the rubber block by means
by means of a rigid plate. In the second step, the block is moved with a constant sliding velocity of
of a rigid plate. In the second step, the block is moved with a constant sliding velocity of 4 m/s. Figure
4 m/s. Figure 7b shows the numerical shape after sliding. Figure 8c,d, present, respectively, the shape
7b shows the numerical shape after sliding. Figure 8c,d, present, respectively, the shape of the rubber
of thesample
rubberatsample
the end at of the
firstend
test-runof first
andtest-run and the test.
the experimental experimental test.

(a)

(a)

Figure 7. Cont.
Lubricants 2016, 4, 29 8 of 14
Lubricants 2016, 4, 29 8 of 14
Lubricants 2016, 4, 29 8 of 14

(b)
(b)
Figure 7. (a) The 2D numerical specimen; (b) specimen shape after after
sliding, Von Mises’s stress
Figure
Figure 7.7. (a)(a)
TheThe
2D 2D numerical
numerical specimen;
specimen; (b) specimen
(b) specimen shapeshape
after sliding,sliding, Von Mises’s
Von Mises’s stress
distribution.
stress distribution.
distribution.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(c) (d)
(c) (d)
Figure 8. (a) Numerical specimen, rubber sample shape with initial eroded zone; (b) typical lateral
Figure 8. (a) Numerical specimen, rubber sample shape with initial eroded zone; (b) typical lateral
Figure (a) Numerical
view of8.deformed, wornspecimen,
sample form;rubber
(c) sample shape with
rubber sample finalinitial
shape;eroded zone;test
(d) rubber (b)sample
typical during
lateral
view
view of
of deformed,
deformed, worn
worn sample
sample form;
form; (c)
(c) rubber
rubber sample
sample final
final shape;
shape; (d)
(d) rubber
rubber test
test sample
sample during
during
sliding at the liner friction tester.
sliding
sliding atat the
the liner
liner friction
friction tester.
tester.
Figure 8a presents a full 2D image of the eroded initial shape of the rubber sample corresponding
Figure 8a presents a full 2D image of the eroded initial shape of the rubber sample corresponding
to theFigure 8a presents
experimental a full 2D
specimen image 8c).
(Figure of the eroded
Figure 8b initial
showsshape of the rubber
the numerical sample
results withcorresponding
respect to the
to the experimental specimen (Figure 8c). Figure 8b shows the numerical results with respect to the
to the experimental specimen (Figure 8c). Figure 8b shows the numerical results with
same rubber sample, while taking into account the final eroded shape of the specimen by means respect to the
of
same rubber sample, while taking into account the final eroded shape of the specimen by means of
same rubberinitial
an “eroded sample, whileIntaking
shape”. intothe
this case, account the
rubber finaliseroded
block loadedshape of the
with 2.5 MPaspecimen by means
and sliding of
at 4 m/s.
an “eroded initial shape”. In this case, the rubber block is loaded with 2.5 MPa and sliding at 4 m/s.
This deformed shape is in good correlation with the rubber block tested using the Hannover facility
This deformed shape is in good correlation with the rubber block tested using the Hannover facility
(Figure 8d).
(Figure 8d).
Lubricants 2016, 4, 29 9 of 14

an “eroded initial shape”. In this case, the rubber block is loaded with 2.5 MPa and sliding at 4 m/s.
This deformed shape is in good correlation with the rubber block tested using the Hannover facility
Lubricants 2016, 4, 29 9 of 14
(Figure 8d).
Figure
Figure 99 presents
presents aa full
full 3D
3D numerical
numerical simulation
simulation for
for aa rubber
rubber block
block loaded
loaded with
with 2.5
2.5 MPa
MPa and
and
sliding on a deformable concrete track at a fixed velocity of 4 m/s. Coupled temperature-displacement
sliding on a deformable concrete track at a fixed velocity of 4 m/s. Coupled temperature-displacement
elements
elements (C3D8RHT,
(C3D8RHT, eight-node
eight-node tri-linear
tri-linear displacement
displacement and
and temperature,
temperature, reduced
reduced integration
integration with
with
hourglass control, hybrid with constant pressure) were used in this
hourglass control, hybrid with constant pressure) were used in this simulation. simulation.

Figure 9.
Figure 9. The
The 3D
3D view
view of
of aa rubber
rubber block
block on
on aa runway
runway track,
track, thermal
thermal evolution of the
evolution of the contact zone, the
contact zone, the
temperatures are presented in °C
◦ (NT11).
temperatures are presented in C (NT11).

As already mentioned, the numerical simulation of a sliding rubber sample demonstrates the
As already mentioned, the numerical simulation of a sliding rubber sample demonstrates the
same tendencies as the friction rig results. Figure 10a presents the profile of an experimental specimen
same tendencies as the friction rig results. Figure 10a presents the profile of an experimental specimen
of a rubber sample observed after the first sliding step. The thermal evolution of the contact zone of
of a rubber sample observed after the first sliding step. The thermal evolution of the contact zone of the
the rubber sample was measured using an infrared camera (Figure 2b), and the temperature of each
rubber sample was measured using an infrared camera (Figure 2b), and the temperature of each area of
area of the contact zone is shown in Figure 10b. The numerical simulation presented in Figure 10d,
the contact zone is shown in Figure 10b. The numerical simulation presented in Figure 10d, shows the
shows the temperature variations between 170 °C and 195 °C (orange code) in the upper part of the
temperature variations between 170 ◦ C and 195 ◦ C (orange code) in the upper part of the contact zone
contact zone which can also be observed on the experimental block (orange patch, Figure 10b).
which can also be observed on the experimental block (orange patch, Figure 10b). However, a very
However, a very high temperature was noted at the edge of the numerical rubber block (Figure 10b,
high temperature was noted at the edge of the numerical rubber block (Figure 10b, red zone); it appears
red zone); it appears to reveal the first abrasion zone. The sliding sample is subject to several
to reveal the first abrasion zone. The sliding sample is subject to several mechanical and thermal
mechanical and thermal mechanisms: the heating of the sliding surface leads to wear. The contact
mechanisms:
rubber layer of the heating
the rubberofsample
the sliding
wearssurface
out and leads to wear.
a new The contact
undamaged surface rubber
comeslayer
into of the rubber
contact. This
sample wears out and a new undamaged surface comes into contact. This new surface
new surface undergoes a temperature rise until wear appears again and thus the process of repeated undergoes a
temperature rise until wear appears again and thus the process of repeated (heating/wearing)
(heating/wearing) leads to the final eroded shape shown in Figure 10a. The numerical simulation leads to
the finalshown
results eroded inshape
Figureshown
10c doinnot
Figure
take 10a. The numerical
into account simulation
this erosion resultsas
mechanism, shown in Figure 10c
the temperature of
do not take
the leading into
edge account
rises to this
1800 erosion
°C. As mechanism,
previously as the
mentioned, temperature
the of
experimental the leading
test shows edge
a rises
very to
high
1800 ◦ C. As previously mentioned, the experimental test shows a very high level of abrasion and this
level of abrasion and this phenomenon needs to be taken into consideration. Within the ABAQUS
phenomenon needs to
code [30], a method be taken
could into consideration.
be adopted, based on a newWithin the ABAQUS
modified geometrycode [30],mesh)
(new a method could
for each be
step
adopted, based on a new modified geometry (new
of sliding. This method will be discussed in a future study.mesh) for each step of sliding. This method will be
discussed
Frominthese
a future study.studies, it can be concluded that pressure and temperature have a
present
considerable influence on the aircraft tire wear phenomenon which needs to be taken into account in
future simulations. It must also be mentioned that a specific mesh could be used in the case of a
constant wear ratio and a constant number of elements, and the rubber block could be divided into
sub- zones, each zone having its own heating history.
Lubricants 2016, 4, 29 10 of 14
Lubricants 2016, 4, 29 10 of 14

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure
Figure 10.
10. (a)
(a) Experimental
Experimental specimen,
specimen, aa rubber
rubber sample
sample shape
shape after
after the
the sliding
sliding step;
step; (b)
(b) experimental
experimental
measurement,
measurement, thermal evolution of a rubber sample/contact zone at the end of the sliding step
thermal evolution of a rubber sample/contact zone at the end of the sliding step (in
(in °C);
◦ C);
(c) numerical specimen, rubber sample shape after first sliding; (d) numerical simulation
(c) numerical specimen, rubber sample shape after first sliding; (d) numerical simulation typical typical
lateral view of
lateral view ofthe
thedeformed
deformedspecimen’s
specimen’s final
final shape
shape appearance,
appearance, thermal
thermal evolution
evolution in theincontact
the contact
zone,
zone, the temperatures
the temperatures are presented
are presented in °C (NT11).
in ◦ C (NT11).

3. Finite Element Model of a Rolling Tire

From these present studies, it can be concluded that pressure and temperature have a considerable
influence on theTire
FEM of a Rolling aircraft
Usingtire wear phenomenon
a Variable which needs to be taken into account in future
Friction Coefficient
simulations. It must also be mentioned that a specific mesh could be used in the case of a constant
wearIn a precedent
ratio and a constantstudy, a purely
number mechanical
of elements, and thefinite element
rubber analysis
block could of a rolling
be divided into sub-tirezones,
was
investigated
each zone having[22]. The model
its own was able
heating to predict the cornering behavior of an aircraft tire in contact
history.
with a flat rigid body. The Coulomb friction was modeled using a stiffness method [12] that permits
3. Finite
some Element
relative motionModel
of theofsurfaces.
a Rolling Tire
In this section, a thermo-mechanical model was proposed in order to predict the friction
FEM of a Rolling
coefficient μ, the Tire Using a Variable
self-aligning torque Friction
Mz and Coefficient
the thermal evolution of a rolling tire. A classical rolling
(CR) Inmethod
a precedent study, a purely mechanicalwas
based on the Lagrangian formulation usedelement
finite along with a variable
analysis of afriction
rollingcoefficient
tire was
μ (P,T) dependent
investigated on the
[22]. The modelcontact
waspressure and temperature.
able to predict the cornering Thebehavior
contact aspect is modeled
of an aircraft tire inincontact
a soft-
contact manner using exponential pressure-overclosure regularization, where the
with a flat rigid body. The Coulomb friction was modeled using a stiffness method [12] that permits clearance C 0 and

the
some contact pressure
relative motionatofzerothe clearance
surfaces. λ0 are defined, based on a numerical sensitivity study. A Prony
model Inwas used fora the
this section, viscoelastic behavior
thermo-mechanical modelof theproposed
was rubber. Concerning the friction
in order to predict coefficient,
the friction the
coefficient
IDS facility (High Speed Linear Friction Tester, Figure 2b) was used once more
µ, the self-aligning torque Mz and the thermal evolution of a rolling tire. A classical rolling (CR)in order to identify
the dependence
method based onof thethe friction coefficient
Lagrangian formulation onwas
temperature
used alongandwithpressure.
a variableThe experiments
friction coefficientfor this
µ (P,T)
study
dependentwere on
performed
the contacton pressure
an asphaltandtesttemperature.
track, and rubber tread samples
The contact aspect ismeasuring
modeled in20a ×soft-contact
20 mm on
the contact area and 10 mm in thickness were used. Experimental results are shown in Figure 11
which presents the variation of the friction coefficient as a function of the ambient temperatures of
Lubricants 2016, 4, 29 11 of 14

manner using exponential pressure-overclosure regularization, where the clearance C0 and the contact
pressure at zero clearance λ0 are defined, based on a numerical sensitivity study. A Prony model
was used for the viscoelastic behavior of the rubber. Concerning the friction coefficient, the IDS
facility (High Speed Linear Friction Tester, Figure 2b) was used once more in order to identify the
dependence of the friction coefficient on temperature and pressure. The experiments for this study
Lubricants 2016, 4, 29 11 of 14
Lubricants
were 2016, 4, 29
performed on an asphalt test track, and rubber tread samples measuring 20 × 20 mm on11the of 14
contact
the testarea andfor
track, 10 different
mm in thickness were used.
given contact Experimental
pressures resultsto
(corresponding are shown
the in Figure applied
real pressures 11 whichon
the
presentstest track, for
the variation different
of the given contact pressures (corresponding to the real pressures applied on
the aircraft tire). As can be friction
noted, forcoefficient as a function
a given contact of the
pressure, theambient temperatures
temperature increase of the test
results in a
the
track, aircraft tire).
for different As can be noted,
given contact for
pressures a given contact pressure, the temperature increase results
aircraft a
in
decrease in the friction coefficient values.(corresponding to the the
Figure 12 illustrates realvariation
pressuresofapplied on thecoefficient
the friction
decrease
tire). in the friction coefficient values. Figure 12 illustrates the variation of the friction coefficient
as aAs can be of
function noted, for a given
the contact contact
pressure forpressure,
differentthe temperature
given increase results
ambient temperatures ofin a decrease
the test track.inHere,
the
as a
friction function
coefficientof the contact
values. pressure
Figure 12the for different
illustrates given ambient temperatures of the test track. Here,
for a given contact temperature, frictionthe variationdecreases
coefficient of the frictionwith coefficient
the increase as aoffunction of
the contact
forcontact
the a given contactfortemperature,
pressure different theambient
given frictiontemperatures
coefficient decreases
of the test with the
track. increase
Here, for a of thecontact
given contact
pressure. These variations of the friction coefficient were taken into account and applied in the
pressure. These
temperature, variations
the friction of thedecreases
coefficient friction with
coefficient were of
the increase taken into account
the contact pressure. and applied
These in the
variations
numerical simulations.
ofnumerical
the friction simulations.
coefficient were taken into account and applied in the numerical simulations.

Figure 11. IDSexperimental

experimental results,variation
variation of frictioncoefficient
coefficient as functionofofthe
the ambient
Figure11.11.IDS
Figure IDS experimentalresults,results, variationofoffriction
friction coefficientasasfunction
function of theambient
ambient
temperature
temperature of
ofof the
the test
test track,
track, for
forfor different
different given
given contact
contact pressures.
pressures.
temperature the test track, different given contact pressures.

Figure
Figure12.12.IDS
IDSexperimental
experimentalresults,
results,variation
variationofoffriction
frictioncoefficient
coefficientasasfunction
functionofofcontact
contactpressure
pressurefor
for
Figure 12. IDS experimental results, variation of friction coefficient as function of contact pressure for
different given
different ambient
given temperatures.
ambient temperatures.
different given ambient temperatures.

AAAcornering
cornering tire loaded at vertical force F, zrunning
, runningatat a velocity
ofof 37.79 knots (19.44 m/s)andanda a
corneringtire
tireloaded atat
loaded vertical force
vertical FzF
force a velocity 37.79 knots (19.44 m/s)
z, running at a velocity of 37.79 knots (19.44 m/s) and a
fixed skiddingangle,
fixed angle, is presented.TheThe temperatureofofthe the tiretread
tread increasessignificantly
significantly aftera afew
few
fixedskidding
skidding angle,isispresented.
presented. Thetemperature
temperature of thetire tire treadincreases
increases significantlyafter
after a few
seconds of cornering, and the rubber reaches an external high temperature which is close to the
seconds of cornering, and the rubber reaches an external high temperature which is close to the
critical temperature at which the rubber is deposited on the concrete surface [3]. An experimental test
critical temperature at which the rubber is deposited on the concrete surface [3]. An experimental test
was realized on an aircraft tire, and the thermal evolution of the contact zone of the aircraft tire tread
was realized on an aircraft tire, and the thermal evolution of the contact zone of the aircraft tire tread
was recorded during both rolling and skidding phases using an infrared camera (Figure 13a). Figure
was recorded during both rolling and skidding phases using an infrared camera (Figure 13a). Figure
13b shows the experimental data of the thermal evolution of the contact zone in the cornering
13b shows the experimental data of the thermal evolution of the contact zone in the cornering
Lubricants 2016, 4, 29 12 of 14

seconds of cornering, and the rubber reaches an external high temperature which is close to the critical
temperature at which the rubber is deposited on the concrete surface [3]. An experimental test was
realized on an aircraft tire, and the thermal evolution of the contact zone of the aircraft tire tread was
recorded during both rolling and skidding phases using an infrared camera (Figure 13a). Figure 13b
shows the experimental data of the thermal evolution of the contact zone in the cornering conditions
of an aircraft tire under load, running at a velocity of 37.79 knots and for a given slip angle β1 for a
given time (t ). The blue solid presents the three stages of the skidding test. In the first stage, the12
Lubricants 2016,64, 29
tire is
of 14
◦ ◦ ◦
skidded from 0 to β1 . In the second stage, the tire is kept rolling at β1 for a given time, and in the
last
and stage,
in the the
lasttire is moved
stage, the tirefrom the skidding
is moved from theposition
skidding(at β1 ◦ ) to(at
position theβ1initial position
°) to the initial (at 0◦ ). The
position (at red
0°).
line (Figure 13b,d) reveals the heating of the tire tread after a few seconds of skidding,
The red line (Figure 13b,d) reveals the heating of the tire tread after a few seconds of skidding, duringduring the first
stage of the
the first skidding
stage test.
of the skidding test.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 13.
Figure 13. (a)
(a)Experimental
Experimentalmeasurement;
measurement; (b)(b) experimental
experimental data,
data, thermal
thermal evolution
evolution of theofcontact
the contact
zone
zone during
during the skidding
the skidding test for atest for skidding
given a given angle
skidding angle
β1 ; (c) β1; (c) simulation,
numerical numerical thermal
simulation, thermal
evolution of
evolution of the contact zone of the tire during a cornering stage (the temperatures
the contact zone of the tire during a cornering stage (the temperatures are presented in C (TEMP); are presented
◦ in
°C (TEMP); (d) thermal evolution of the contact zone during the first seconds of skidding
(d) thermal evolution of the contact zone during the first seconds of skidding (first stage of skidding (first stage
of skidding
test), test), comparison
comparison between experimental
between experimental test andsimulation.
test and numerical numerical simulation.

Figure 13d presents the thermal evolution in contact zone of tire tread during the first seconds
Figure 13d presents the thermal evolution in contact zone of tire tread during the first seconds of
of skidding (between t0 and t1 seconds). As can be noted, the numerical simulation tends to predict
skidding (between t0 and t1 seconds). As can be noted, the numerical simulation tends to predict the
the maximum temperature of the tire tread after a few seconds of rolling in skidding mode (first stage
maximum temperature of the tire tread after a few seconds of rolling in skidding mode (first stage of
of the skidding test). Even if the temperature of the contact zone increases to 140 °C, the experimental
the skidding test). Even if the temperature of the contact zone increases to 140 ◦ C, the experimental
data shows a different tendency for the initial gradient. That difference could be related to the rolling
data shows a different tendency for the initial gradient. That difference could be related to the rolling
test conditions, to the thermal conductivity of the runway surface and to the inelastic deformation,
one of the most important mechanisms which leads to self-heating. Further investigations must be
carried out in order to obtain the same evolution of the temperature observed experimentally.

4. Conclusions
In this paper, a numerical simulation of an aircraft tire in contact with a rough surface, using a
Lubricants 2016, 4, 29 13 of 14

test conditions, to the thermal conductivity of the runway surface and to the inelastic deformation, one
of the most important mechanisms which leads to self-heating. Further investigations must be carried
out in order to obtain the same evolution of the temperature observed experimentally.

4. Conclusions
In this paper, a numerical simulation of an aircraft tire in contact with a rough surface, using
a variable friction coefficient depending on temperature and contact pressure, is presented. Firstly,
a sliding facility was used in order to evaluate this dependence of the friction coefficient. The thermal
evolution of rubber block samples under the sliding condition is also discussed. Additional
experimental tests were realized in order to simulate the frictional heating phenomenon developed in
the tire tread using an external heat source. In these studies, all experimental parameters were chosen,
being similar to the real parameters of aircraft tires in rolling and skidding conditions (vertical loading,
velocity, inflation pressure and skidding angle). Both frictional heating and temperature diffusion were
compared to numerical 2D and 3D simulations and similar temperature prediction could be obtained.
The final shapes of the rubber samples at the end of the experiment sliding procedures clearly show a
high-level wear which needs be taken into consideration in future simulations.
A 3D finite element model for a rolling tire in the cornering phase was investigated using a
variable friction coefficient dependent on temperature and contact pressure. The numerical simulation
tended to predict the temperature of the tire tread after a few seconds of rolling in skidding position;
however, further investigations must be carried out in order to obtain the evolution of the temperature
observed experimentally.

Author Contributions: Hagen Lind and Matthias Wangenheim, from the Institute of Dynamics and Vibration
Research (IDS), Leibniz Universität Hannover, performed the experiments concerning the determination of the
friction coefficient and the frictional heating of the tire tread rubber; Iulian Rosu and Hélène L. Elias-Birembaux
carried out the numerical and experimental simulations and analyzed the data. All authors were involved in the
preparation of the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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(CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).