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Airplane Design Manual - Teichmann
Airplane Design Manual - Teichmann
Design
Manual
FREDERICK K^TEICHMANN
FOURTH EDITION
TL
G7/.2
BT
4.1
cop. 2.
Associated Companies
Toronto
This book grew out of notes prepared for airplane design courses at the
York University more than twenty years ago. The field of airplane design
has undergone enormous changes in these years and will continue to do so.
student.
to each of the various fields, it is hoped that the student may be stimulated
design concept.
This book has been designed to aid both the teacher and student of
Frederick K. TeichmaHn
vii
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viii
and supersonic speeds with aircraft, a hope seemingly very remote only a
the smallest detail. The student may not find all the needed answers in
the new edition but the way to his desired goal is indicated. It is up to
him to make the best use of material at hand, either in this book or col-
lateral reading.
new sketches done by Messrs. Dong, Waxman, and Wood, his former
students.
Frederick K. Teichmann
This book has been written to fill what appears to the author to be a
sign, with the needs of the student, the young engineer, the draftsman and
stress analysis and other aspects of airplane design have been covered many
beginning the design of a new machine, and carrying on the work system-
atically. From time to time notes have been prepared for student use
ix
In view of the rapid growth and complexity of the subject, it is too much
to hope that the entire field has been adequately covered; still teaching
dents alike.
Office and the great engineering societies, even though an attempt has
possible.
The author wishes to thank the following companies (among others) for
permission to use illustrations: The Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Co., Pioneer
matic Tool Co., The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co., The B. F. Goodrich
Rubber Co., The Firestone Tire & Rubber Co., Bendix Products Corpora-
Thanks are also due to Mr. Robert Boyer and Mr. Leonard Mihalov-
sky, N.Y.U.'37, who kindly permitted the use of their class designs, and
sign in 1924, in a form which has stood the test of time, for many valuable
Frederick K. Teichmann
June, 1939
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Contents
Prefaces
Power Plant
Performance Requirements
Step-by-Step Procedure .
Nomenclature
References
The Biplane
The Sesquiplane
Special-Purpose Airplanes
Performance
Landing-Gear Retraction .
Structure
Special Features
Empirical Data
Airplane Data
Horizontal Flight
Gliding Flight
The Dive
The Climb
Range
Structural Considerations
Recapitulation
Airfoil Construction
Laminar-Flow Airfoils .
Compressible-Flow Airfoils
xi
xii AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL
Load Factor 50
Airplane Categories 57
Reference Axes 59
Sheet 67
Tubing 68
Extruded Shapes 68
Forgings 68
Castings 70
Airframe Fabrication 71
Forming 72
Magnesium Alloys 74
Castings 74
Forgings 74
Extrusions 74
Sheet 74
Steel 74
Titanium Alloys 75
Design Philosophies 81
Margin of Safety 81
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Maintenance Requirements 82
Fool-Proof Operation 82
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Safety 82
Structural Behavior . . 84
Stiffeners or Stringers 86
Panel Sizes 89
Equivalent Structure 93
Cut-Outs '94
Fittings 97
Determining Value of R 99
Sandwich Materials 99
Flooring 100
Miscellaneous 103
Beading 105
Stiffeners 105
Recapitulations 128
Ballast 169
Canopies 183
Seating 183
Exits 186
Parachutes 188
Controls 188
Location 194
Grouping 194
Vision 215
Windows 216
Lighting .218
Furnishings 218
Flooring 219
Toilets 219
Refreshments 220
Calculations 230
Location 264
Firewall 272
Pumps 279
Tanks 279
CONTENTS xvii
Tanks 281
Rockets .298
Dihedral 317
Ailerons 341
Tread 375
Definitions 382
Construction 394
Location 395
Sweepback 400
CONTENTS xix
Dihedral 401
Area 401
Construction 401
Planform .401
Clearances 403
Location 405
Area 407
Planform 408
Sweepback 408
Pulleys 414
Cables 414
Fairleads 415
Stops 415
Tabs 422
Hinges 422
Controls 427
Windows 447
Flooring 449
Range 468
Landing 473
Range 476
Index 479
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Procedure in Design
No task can be intelligently executed unless a definite goal has been set
and a line of attack or orderly form of procedure has been adopted. There
may be different ways of obtaining the same objective, but mistakes and
unnecessary work will be avoided if a definite plan is made before any real
work starts.
The responsibilities of the designer are many. Not only must he meet
plane that is economical and safe. For example, it is claimed that two
thirds of the responsibility for aircraft accident prevention lies within the
ilance in checking all phases of the design and in keeping abreast of all
plane, or a large flying boat? The first thing to be done is to write down
a set of such definite specifications that any designer who receives them
may be able to design an airplane which meets the original design pro-
family car. The term "family car" immediately sets one specification:
racing car. The price that the buyer can meet will set another specifica-
for example, the type of airplane it may be. The airplane to be designed
3
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4
be placed halfway between the top and bottom of the fuselage, so that the
The same variables apply to a biplane. The two wings may not have
the same areas, or the same planform, or the same airfoil. There may be
large forward or positive stagger of the upper wing relative to the lower,
and perhaps more dihedral for one wing than for the other. The com-
binations are almost infinite especially when one considers that changes
of other variables.
The variables just noted apply only to the wing. Consider the fuselage.
fuselage.
The landing gear also offers enormous latitude in design. It may em-
ploy a landing gear having two wheels forward with a tail wheel rearward;
or the reverse order with a front or nose wheel and two wheels slightly
gear may have a through-axle of the type used during the early period of
be nonretractable or retractable.
These are just a few indications of what the design trend might be.
Familiarity with different types of airplanes will help the potential designer
in determining the type best suited to a specific duty. The designer will
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POWER PLANT
However, a brief discussion of the place the power plant takes in the origi-
nal specifications may not be amiss here. In many cases, operating com-
PROCEDURE IN DESIGN
panies of aircraft may specify the type and number of engines—either be-
ing equipment.
engines will be loath to use turboprop engines, for example, since its
The reasons for choosing a certain engine may be many, and the section
obtain one engine or two engines delivering the same total horsepower.
The payload includes all load from which revenue is obtained. It in-
cludes passengers, mail, baggage, and express. The crew includes pilot,
co-pilot, mechanics, navigators, radio men, stewards, and any other em-
equipment or disposable load, as the case may be. This consists of guns,
must be made for these; therefore, these items have a definite bearing on
The gross weight of the airplane is largely dependent upon the require-
ments for payload and crew. It should be quite obvious that if a crew of
three (a pilot, a co-pilot and a radio man, for example) is required, some
provision must be made for it, and such provision will affect the size of
the cockpit as well as the fuselage and eventually the gross weight. Like-
wise, provision for mail and express will be entirely different from provi-
The larger the aircraft becomes, the larger the crew is likely to be.
gained by looking at the size of crew required. In the same way, the
number of passengers carried has a direct bearing on the size of the fuse-
lage and the gross weight: the greater the number of passengers to be car-
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ried, the larger and wider and higher the cabin, and therefore the fuselage
will be larger. Not only does the increased number of passengers increase
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the weight, but the structure will also weigh more because of increased size.
Actually, the gross weight of the airplane can be estimated if the weight
of the payload, crew, fuel, and oil are known since an analysis of a large
two weights.
6
airplane is to carry because these are the items for which the designer has
PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
Unless the airplane is designed for private use, the performance require-
ments are set by the ultimate purchaser. It takes but little thought to
realize that the keen competition among American airlines requires the
may be desirable because of the smaller horsepower and less fuel required
high service ceiling in order to clear the mountains, whereas a low service
The performance required for the airplane will have a direct bearing on
the number, type, and horsepower of the engines, as well as the type and
design of wing, fuselage, and perhaps landing gear. The ultimate criterion
of a good airplane is its performance in relation to the load carried and the
conditions to be met.
STEP-BY-STEP PROCEDURE
The foregoing discussion deals with specifications which are only part
a new design is contemplated until the final drawing leaves the drawing
steps of the plan may not always be clear-cut, and sometimes several
3. Power plant survey for the selection of the likely engine or engines
possible solutions and to present a framework on which the work that fol-
proper relation to each other for purposes of design, stability, and effec-
tiveness.
(d) Fuselage.
view conception.
bility calculations.
ments.
15. Revised structural drawings with added information for the prepa-
16. Check all parts of the design and revise where necessary.
More familiarity with the problem of airplane design will often suggest
alternative procedures.
because a number of men may be employed on the project, but even so the
the proposed design is made so that many design studies may be made on
NOMENCLATURE
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narily, it would be assumed that the student is familiar with the names of
all the parts of the airplane; certainly he should be reasonably well in-
structural details. Figure 1-1 will be useful for reference and in establish-
REFERENCES
in Washington, D. C.
all the research that may be brought to bear on the design will be particu-
larly fruitful.
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CHAPTER II
Types of Airplanes
the characteristics of each type before deciding definitely on any one type.
the advantages and disadvantages indicated for the various types have to
In some cases the advantages, when properly considered, are more impor-
tant than any possible disadvantage. In many cases, the general "eye
appeal" is also a deciding factor in the selection of the final design. Any
THE BIPLANE
Historically the multibay biplane was favored because the art of aero-
dynamics had not yet progressed to the point where the thick airfoil was
favored, much less visualized. Economical and light design indicated the
truss as the most convenient type of structure, although the multibay lift
truss eventually gave way to the single-bay lift truss. In a few cases, even
the bracing between the upper and lower wing became more and more sim-
plified so that either only the interplane strut remained or none at all.
The biplane lift truss makes for efficient structural design, small over-all
Even though the braced biplane may permit use of thinner and lower
drag airfoils, still the resistance offered by the additional bracing and in-
10
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TYPES OF AIRPLANES
11
2. Varying decalage, that is, the upper wing at a different angle of in-
Figure I1-1. A typical biplane is shown. The crossed single lines represent the
lift and landing wires. The over-all dimensions of the airplane are smaller than for
the monoplane and there are more design variables to consider. Generally, the biplane
has more parasite and interference drag than a monoplane designed for the same purpose
the more variations the design has, the more expensive it is likely to be.
THE SESQUIPLANE
A biplane that has a lower wing considerably smaller than the upper
is called a sesquiplane. The reverse order in the size of the two wings
has also been used. Such a design may be resorted to in order to provide
crease the tread of the wheels. Bracing between wings may be employed.
where the high wing will be out of the way of underbrush and other
obstructions.
have been built, they may be considered as curiosities rather than as sound
The design that became popular after the biplane was the externally
wing and thereby reduces the bending moments sufficiently to make for a
foil employed on a biplane, still offers less resistance and permits reason-
The struts are attached (as all external bracing should be) by a single
bolt at each end (with the head of the bolt facing forward), so that the
moments and shear on the wing structure proper but induce only axial
arrangement permits a simplified fitting design at the apex of the V. The arrangements
of the struts may be varied. Such bracing permits use of thinner airfoils and efficient
structural configurations.
the tail where the effect of propeller interference and slip stream do not affect the
jury struts are interposed between the wing and the lift strut, just below
the upper end of the lift strut. The juncture of the jury and the lift strut
is a hinge or pin joint, and the upper end of the jury strut is also a pin-
The chord loads are applied to the internal drag structure of the wing
The lift struts may be placed parallel to each other in the most common
form a V is often done to eliminate one fitting and perhaps to offer better
The V may be so arranged also that the apex of the V is at the rear-
strut fitting instead of the front-strut fitting. There are also other pos-
sible variations with the struts both carried farther forward to a point of
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TYPES OF AIRPLANES 13
Fiqure II-4. A low-wing monoplane with a twin vertical tail surface arrangement
which may be used to reduce the over-all height of the airplane; or, to operate more
effectively in the slip stream of a twin-engine design; or, to avoid the "blanketing"
effect of the fuselage. Twin vertical tail surfaces may help to increase the "apparent"
Figure II-5. A midwing design with a jet-engine installation. The dihedral in-
corporated in the horizontal tail surfaces installation brings these surfaces into a more
uniform downwash distribution across the span. The air scoops of the jet engines are
Fiqube II-6. A so-called butterfly tail combines the functions of the vertical and
horizontal tail surfaces in this midwing monoplane, thereby simplifying the empennage
structure.
Fiqube II-7. The inverted gull wing designed to raise the propeller axis of the
centrally located engine while still bringing the wing down to permit a landing gear
with short members suitable for retraction. Acute angles are also avoided at the inter-
section of the wing with the fuselage, thus eliminating need for fillets. The dotted lines
show the position of the wing when partially folded for stowage purposes.
The cross sections of these lift struts are usually symmetrical airfoils of
both lift struts in an airfoil in order to add to the lift, but such additional
v especially useful in landing. Vision upward and toward the sides is, of
course, impeded.
It is difficult to obtain a wide tread for the landing gear unless a long
type of design because the wheels cannot easily be retracted into wells
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retracted into the wings because the struts would have to be retracted as
well.
is made easier in the high-wing design since ground clearance with de-
TYPES OF AIRPLANES
15
gines fail.
visibility.
fleeted or extended flap does not become one of the primary design con-
siderations.
As far as wing locations on the fuselage are considered, the high wing is
aercdynamically superior, for it has both greater lift and less aerodynamic
resistance than if the same wing were placed at the bottom of the fuselage.
namically better because of the absence of lift struts (see Figure 11-13), the
Struts may be carried from the landing gear to the wing to serve merely
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the open cabane is interposed between the fuselage and the wing. Such
vision forward for the pilot, especially if he happens to be seated quite far
back, is desired.
Open cockpit airplanes do not have the general all-weather utility that
enclosed cockpits have and so are seldom seen, although there is a place
Fig. 11-15
Fig. 11-17
Fig. 11-16
Fig. 11-18
Figure 11-15. A cargo airplane with twin booms supporting the tail surfaces high
Figure 11-16. A twin fuselage monoplane which makes use of twin-engine nacelles
and twin booms. It also suggests the possibility of coupling two monoplanes. Such
Figure 11-17. A twin fuselage design with a special compartment for personnel.
Figure 11-18. A monoplane with an unusually wide fuselage of airfoil cross section
designed to obtain certain flying wing advantages with more or less conventional air-
plane design.
plane. The design is excellent for short landing-gear structures, and also
toward the sides is excellent, but poor down at the sides. It is often
Struts may be replaced by wires but this requires a set above and below
the wing. In some racing designs for low-horsepower engines, such de-
signs have been used since the use of thin airfoils would offset, to some
degree, the resistance of the wires which offer less resistance than struts
nance, and, therefore, are not considered favorably by the private flyer.
should not form too acute an angle at the intersection with the top or bot-
tom surface of the wing since it not only offers more aerodynamic re-
sistance when so located, but also is likely to affect adversely the airflow
17
over the wing and may, therefore, affect the longitudinal control and sta-
offered by the juncture of the wing and the fuselage, filleting is resorted to
wing.
A gull-wing monoplane is one that has the root section of the wing
inclined at an angle to the fuselage so that the outer panels of the wing
are raised above the fuselage. (See Figure II-7 for example.)
The gull wing eliminates acute angles of intersection between the wing
and the fuselage and thus helps to reduce the parasite resistance. How-
ever, the design has some structural difficulties in that the construction
plane. In the case of multi-engine designs, when used for seaplanes and
For the low-wing monoplane, the inverted gull wing permits the fuselage
vide propeller clearance with the ground. This solution also has the
bers in the fuselage. Such members interfere with the internal arrange-
ments. This design may also be braced externally, but because the
shallow angle between external struts and the wing causes large axial
loads in the spars, such bracing is usually not considered very desirable.
SPECIAL-PURPOSE AIRPLANES
short take-off and landing runs. Such aircraft are known as VTOL (for
vertical take-off and landing) and STOL (short take-off and landing).
VTOL aircraft must get off the ground without any roll and clear a 50
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foot obstacle in 250 feet. STOL aircraft are allowed ground roll, but
must be able to clear a 50 foot obstacle 500 feet from the starting point.
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bination of helicopter rotors and normal wings, (2) tiltable wings with
The discussion thus far has been primarily with reference to the lift truss
choosing the type of airplane. However, the discussion has been general.
The student should not overlook the specific considerations entering in the
choice and in the design of the power plant, the landing gear, the fuselage
structure, the interior arrangements, and the wing. Each of these may
design should be listed and then carefully considered with reference to per-
tinent parts of the airplane. Some of these factors will now be considered.
Performance
answer.
high maximum lift coefficient, or both. The lift coefficient may be con-
Landing-Gear Retraction
sign offers the best solution. The struts are shorter, the mechanisms sim-
landing gear caused by some mechanical difficulty, the low wing offers the
best protection.
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Structure
^ Some types of structures are better adapted to one kind of airplane than
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small airplane than for a very large one. A fabric covering may be satis-
TYPES OF AIRPLANES
19
factory for externally braced wings and for wings of airplanes whose top
Special Features
To help in deciding what type is best suited for your design, it is well to
list the special features the airplane may have, and then study them in the
Engines
Landing gear
Fuselage
Wing
Tail surfaces
Tab controls
structure, power, and all other items that may be useful as reference
same category may then be averaged to give empirical values for de-
Name of Company:
Name of Type:
Price:
1. Power Plant
Starter:
Design of exhaust:
Fuel, gallons:.—
Location of tanks: -
Propeller—Make:
Material:
Type:
Diameter:
Number of blades:
Angular range:
2. Wing1
Airfoil section—Root:
Midspan:
Tip:
Span, b:
Chord—Root, Cr\
'If biplane statistics are to be listed, repeat these entries for lower wing.
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TYPES OF AIRPLANES 21
Tip, CT: p
Dihedral:
Sweepback:
Incidence—Root:
Midspan:'
Tip:
Rear:
3. Tail surfaces
4. Passenger accommodations
Dimensions of cabin:
Finish:
Aisle width:
Aisle height:
Windows (type):
Heating:
Ventilation:
Lighting:
Baggage accommodation:
Toilets:
5. Pilot's cockpit
Releasable controls:
Angles of vision—Upward:
Downward:
Sideward:
Windshield:
Arrangement of seats:
Instrument board:
Night flying—radio:.
Direction finding:
Special equipment:
7. Angles
23
Angle in side elevation between vertical through axle and line connect-
Angle in front elevation between vertical and line joining the center of
gravity and the point of contact with the ground at the outer wheel:
Angle between the ground and a line from the point of tangency of the
wheel with the ground to the wing tip on the same side of the plane
Angle between the ground and a line joining the point of contact with
the ground of the deflected tail skid to the tip of the horizontal tail
surfaces:
Climb in fpm:
9. Miscellaneous
of airplane loaded:
Maneuvering:
Landing:.
Special Conditions:.
10. Weights
Payload (lb):.—
Span, b:
Length, L:
Height, H:
Tread, T:
12. Ratios
or
power and wing loadings versus gross weight; ratio of weight empty to gross
weight versus gross weight; ratio of control surface area to wing area versus
wing loading. From such graphs, the designer may select for his own de-
sign the information that will help him in developing the general details of
made.
Figure 11-19. A design for a hypothetical 1,350 mph plane, prepared at NACA's
horizontal flight when sufficient altitude has been reached. The landing gear, consisting
of four casters, is located at the tips of the delta wing and fins. A contra-rotating
propeller is used to eliminate engine torque effects upon the flight characteristics at
take-off. The static thrust of the power plant has to be greater than the weight of the
Figure 11-21. A jet-powered flying wing design. The flaps act in the dual capacity
combined in function, they are called "elevans." The air inlet is located in the leading
Figure 11-22. A supersonic airplane. Note the wing fences used to prevent the
drifting of the boundary layer spanwise. Note also the application of the "area-rule"
EMPIRICAL DATA
The preceding Airplane Data Sheet has been used to list data on cur-
rent airplanes, and this information has been used to calculate the various
ratios which form part of the empirical data useful in projecting a new
design.
weight estimate and subsequent values for areas and dimensions necessary
AIRPLANE DATA
Tables II-1 to II-4 list important data for a number of airplanes which
may derive his own empirical data by determining the average wing load-
ings, power loadings, and ratios of control surface areas to wing areas
which fall within each single category of airplane. Such averages are usu-
ally obtained for the same horsepower range: for example, for airplanes
Airplane identification
Power plant
Rated
At
Propeller
Fuel
Ref.
No. of
No.
hp
altitude
diameter,
capacity
no.
Typef
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seats
of engines
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each, P
(ft.)
D(in.)
(gal.)
CLM
65
SL
72
15
CLM
65
SL
72
23
CLM
85
SL
74
22
CLM
2
TYPES OF AIRPLANES
27
Dimensions
Landing gear
Wings*
Ref.
Span,
Length,
Height,
Wheel
Cov-
Hull or
no.
Type*
size
Spar
Ribs
ering
fuselage*
35'
21' 6"
9' 1"
Fx
6.00 X 6
WldStF
36'
20' 10"
9' 1"
Fx
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6.00 X 6
W
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WldStF
28' 8"
20'
7' 4"
FxTri
—
MSemiMo
33'
22'
8' 6"
FxTri
6.00 X 6
MSemiMo
30'
20' 9"
5' 11"
FxTri
6.00 X 6
A
28
Performance
High
Cruising
Stalling
Normal
speed,
At
speed,
At
speed,
Climb
Service
Ref.
range
mph,
altitude
mph,
altitude
(mph)
(fpm)
ceiling
no.
(miles)
(ft)
Vcr
(ft)
V.
(ft)
270
100
SL
90
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SL
38
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500
10,000
420
100
SL
90
SL
38
500
10,000
400
118
SL
108
SL
49
610
11,000
500
125
SL
115
SL
50
750
14,000
500
CHAPTER
Airfoil Selection
Figure III-JL shows the forces acting on the airplane along any flight
path through space in still air. The line of action of the relative wind is
along the flight path opposite to the direction of motion of the airplane.
relative wind, the following equations result for the summation of forces,
For Sy = 0,
For = 0,
For 2Me.„. = 0,
29
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AIRFOIL SELECTION
31
Also,
a — angle of attack; angle included between the line of flight and
cos a, = 1.
D = drag, in pounds;
e; = speed in feet per second along the flight path of the airplane;
and
sidered equal to zero (for example, even for a = 16°, sin a is only 0.17),
Lw + L• - W = 0. (la)
Usually the load on the horizontal tail surfaces is also small compared with
so that
-4
y2pcLs
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(4a)'
Minimum speed is then fixed by Cl*., for a given wing loading, W/S.
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The higher the wing loading for a given Cl«„, the greater the minimum
or stalling speed. For all practical purposes this stalling speed is con-
sidered the landing speed. If the stalling speed is fixed and if the gross
weight of the airplane is fixed as well, then that airplane which had the
foils. However, if lift-increase devices are used, then the maximum lift
coefficient of the basic airfoil is not so important since any airfoil with the
horsepower available..
Pa = 77BHP; (5a)
Pa = Pr (5b)
or,
This relationship can be obtained from equation (2), for, again assuming
- T + Dp + Dw = 0, (2a)
°r' T = DP + Dw (2b)
where r) is the efficiency of the propeller and BHP is the brake horsepower
of the engine delivered to the propeller at the given airplane speed, and
Pr = (DP + IWJL,
but
Dw = yiPv2cDs
Dp = y2Pv2cDrs,
33
Then,
or, \
and for any given lift coefficient the speed v can be determined from equa-
tion (3), the corresponding Cd of the wing will be known and the Cd, for
available is a certain value, it is obvious that the maximum speed that can
be obtained for a given airplane (whose Cd, is fixed) is one whose wing air-
Case 2. Gliding Flight. Again, assuming that the lift on the horizon-
tal tail surfaces is small and the angle (a + i) small, but that 0 is not un-
cot 0 - ^. (8a)
assumed constant for any angle of attack, the angle of glide /? will be
flattest for that airplane whose L/D for the airfoil alone is the largest.
where R is the radius of the circle, and H the altitude from which the
glide takes place, is largest for the largest value of cot 13. The airfoils
- T + Dp + Dw - W = 0
Dt = W
where
DP + DW = Dt!
or
WCDJ5 = W,
from which
/W
v V HpCdJS'
The maximum speed will then be obtained in the dive, unless the drag
pulled off the airplane by the "suction" pressure. The leading edge of
the wing would then be subjected to enormous pressure that would tend
to buckle it. Also, the highest load factor in flight is encountered when
pulling out of a dive. The higher the diving speed, the higher the load
Case 4. The Climb. In the case of the climb, equation (2), as derived
angle and the equation in question becomes, upon making the same as-
sumptions as to a and i,
T - Dt = W sin 0. (11)
But, sin /3 = a/v where v is the velocity along the flight path and a is
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the vertical component of this velocity, or the rate of climb in feet per
second.
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(10)
AIRFOIL SELECTION
35
ciency and BHP is the brake horsepower of the engine. Dtv/550 is the
Rearranging terms
550(Pa - PT)
a= W'
W cos 0 = Lw = y2pv?SCL
or
(lib)
4.
y2pscL {10)
Pr = (Dw + DP)(»/550),
of Dwv, but
and since
so that
or
Dwv
cD
Clw'
CD
Clw
efficient" for the airfoil and is calculated for those angles of attack in the
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region where the minimum drag coefficient Cj> and the maximum L/D of
Case 5. Range. One of the simpler formulas for determining the range
dt 375tj 375(L/D)i7'
4*to*.S (13a)
where
L Cl Cl
D CD, Cd + Cdf
It will be noted that, all other things being equal, the higher the value of
the L/D, the longer the range. Therefore, if the parasite resistance of the
airplane is constant, the maximum value of the L/D = Cl/Cd of the airfoil
would be of interest.
This formula can be made to apply to jet engines by dropping the term
The slope of the lift curve, dCiJda, is one of the more important quan-
airplane.
The angle at which zero lift curve occurs is also important since the
The center of pressure movement over the normal flying range, between
the angle at which the minimum drag coefficients occur and the angle at
which the maximum lift coefficient occurs, is usually of interest since the
greater the movement the greater the load that will fall on the front spar
at high angle of attack, with very little load on the rear spar; the condi-
Some data may not include the center of pressure but may give the mo-
CP = a - ^
CV (14)
AIRFOIL SELECTION
37
v.
"I
©
16
*.
ft
"I
4 +.020
00
-.020
ae
420-
0=
~2°— | | I I I | | I I | I
0 20 40 60 80 100
cL
CP.
L-
4 8 12 16 20
Anqle of attack
(in degrees)
1.4 o
1.2 \ .24
00
10 $.20
0.8
16
25
0.6
.12
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35
0.4
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.08
45
0.2
.04
ft 2
rag eoeffieiem
1:
<» v.
, ft
-J Vi
leading edge,
center, and
Thus, for small values of Cm., the center of pressure will not vary much
STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
A racing airplane, for example, will have an entirely different wing from a
transport airplane.
ness ratio of at least 18 per cent for the root section. The larger the aspect
ratio, the greater the thickness ratio of the root section should be. It is
not desirable to use the same thickness ratio from root to tip, but to de-
ness ratio of at least 12 per cent for the root section. Again, the larger the
aspect ratio for the wing, the greater must be the thickness ratio of the
root section. The wing should be decreased linearly to about 6 per cent
per cent and use the same airfoil from root to tip.
The student should refer to Chapter XVII, Design of the Wing, for
further information.
Recapitulation
i When the thickness ratio for the airfoil has been tentatively established,
Care should be taken when two airfoils are selected to choose two from
the same general family, since it may be difficult otherwise to avoid serious
face for one airfoil and a convex lower surface for another when used for a
All comparisons should be made preferably for airfoils tested at the same
Reynolds or Mach numbers, in the same wind tunnel, and for the same
standard aspect ratio of infinity; but since the wing used for the design
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AIRFOIL SELECTION
41
of the formula
Ci}
where Cj> is the total drag coefficient for the airfoil used, while Cd, is the
profile drag, independent of the aspect ratio and constant for the airfoil.
€..-%. . CM)
the characteristics for aspect ratio 6 are known, the following formula may
be derived:
= (16)
57.3 Cl/1
where aK and a6 are in degrees and the known characteristics are for aspect
ratio 6. If the known characteristics are for infinite aspect ratio, then 6
is replaced by oo and l/oo becomes equal to zero. The lift coefficient, the
corrected angle of attack. Table III-2 has been set up to expedite the
When an airfoil section used for the tip of a wing is different from that
tip airfoils.
At the present time, much of the airfoil data such as the lift, drag, and
moment coefficients, the angle of attack, and the center of pressure, are
similar coefficients obtained or given for airfoils of finite aspect ratio, the
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42
coefficients are designated with lower-case letters (cj, ca, Cm..,., etc.) for
the infinite aspect ratio case and the upper-case letters (Cl, Cd, Cm...., Cd„
bution. However, for stress analysis purposes, and for more refined calcu-
(the latter especially for wings equipped with flaps) should be carefully
calculated.
To obtain the necessary data for preliminary design purposes, the fol-
The pertinent data of use at this stage are the variation of the lift and
drag coefficients with the angle of attack, and the moment coefficient re-
pointed out elsewhere, the mean geometric chord may be taken as the
A wing having no aerodynamic twist2 would have its section angles for
zero lift arranged so that all sections would have no lift when the root sec-
tion was at zero lift. If aerodynamic twist were not zero, then the angles
of zero lift for the various sections spanwise would not be the same as for
the root. The root section is usually selected for reference. In order to
obtain its position when the lift coefficient of the wing is zero, it will be
The section angles corresponding to the section lift coefficients will then
The equation of the lift curve (Cl versus a) at low values of the lift co-
efficient is
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age of the section lift coefficients, for the tip and root airfoils,
* For definition of this term, see under Airfoil Construction in this chapter.
ZCiCdy = 0.
(17)
(18)
AIRFOIL SELECTION
43
c*lo — the angle of zero lift for the finite aspect-ratio wing; or may be
to the average for the root and tip airfoil; or may be determined
for the mean geometric chord assuming a linear variation span wise
aR = + (18a)
where R is the aspect ratio of the wing and the other constants account for
planform and wing-tip corrections. These corrections vary for each type
of planform and wing tip, but the values given are sufficiently accurate
The maximum lift coefficient is not so easy to predict for the finite
aspect-ratio wing, but it may be assumed to be about the same as for in-
per cent.
Ci}
where Cb0 is the average spanwise of the section drag coefficients Cd, or,
of the section drag coefficients of the tip and root airfoils. To make the
calculated values agree with experiment, the factor (10.5 — 0.3i?) has
been introduced to allow for planform variation and for tip effects.
The moment coefficient about the aerodynamic center of the mean aero-
inches);
in inches;
dy = the span, in inches (usually one inch) of the section under con-
sideration;
be used, in which case the moment coefficients are about the quarter-point
of the chord.
Table III-3.
Section characteristics
Root section
Tip section
(1)
(2)
C,
(3)
Cd
(4)
aio
(5)
Ci
(6)
(7)
Cl
(8)
(9)
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KCl
(10)
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(11)
(12)
KlC,?
(13)
CD
-4°
-6°
Cdq
OR
Cl1
-2°
-4°
0°
-2°
2°
0°
4°
2°
6°
4°
8°
6°
10°
8°
12°
10°
14°
12°
16°
14°
Airfoil
AIRFOIL SELECTION
45
Table III-3 has been set up to illustrate the type of calculations required
for a wing having the wing-tip airfoil set at minus two degrees with refer-
ence to the root airfoil in order to obtain zero aerodynamic twist (assum-
by adding values of column 9 to aLo. The angle ckb is referred to the root
airfoil in the calculations indicated, that is aa = (ttio) root sectionp The lift
give the lift curve for the wing of finite aspect ratio R. Column 12 lists
the values of the drag coefficients of the wing obtained by adding the
quent reports should be consulted for airfoil data useful for transonic and
Table III-4.
and other aerodynamic bodies that may be attached to the wing. Such
desired.
When the wing employs a different airfoil at the tip than at the root, it
would then be connected by straight lines so that the ordinate for the
AIRFOIL CONSTRUCTION
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(22)
(22a)
46
airfoil at station y.
It is necessary to calculate the ordinate for each station along the chord
since the same relationship does not necessarily exist for all the stations
In a number of NACA technical notes (see TN 1032 and 1033) the plan-
ratio moving at an angle of sideslip, the pressure distribution over the wing
to the leading edge. From this fact it is further deduced that the pressure
greater than the Mach angle (the angle that the plane waves make with
would be V cos /J. If V cos /3 is less than the sound velocity Vc, then the
The section characteristics for the speeds where M% = [(V cos j8)/Fc]J
is less than 1 (that is, the lift, drag, and moment coefficients obtained for
low speeds) can be corrected to apply for speeds of V of the aircraft. The
ti .
VI - M2
a=
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Vl - M2
to give the new slope of the lift curve. The subscript 0 refers to the sub-
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sonic tests.
change in the thickness and the camber. The new equivalent "thickness"
is
-" aajSas jp ađo[s '.tu = treisuj jp e00ojs .'g
'»OTO = «*
p00bj ^pađs« 00j wj«s !V0VN J° sauajuioqvj sjaij tefiuvj %v mu s^sa? HV «
%O
s00qs
O8
9f9
2OTs
90000
9O00
2Ol
90000
99'00
W20
OO-
2O0
pO
2OO
WO
fOO
00Ol
00OTs
8SZ
JO
%O
s0000
O0
*O9
0000
00T
OO
9O9
OOT
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000
0
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OO
OO9T
O00
20000
f00
00 OT
*TOT
OT9
9f9
0000
00OT
JO
%0Z
s0000
00
O00
Of-OT
*8*T
OOOT
2O8
WW
9OT0
92pOT
90OZ
OY\\
9*"T0
Op
8fT0
0
48
I to
Vl - M2'
For a cambered airfoil, the camber changes by the same ratio 1/Vl — M2.
The pitching moment coefficient Cma.c also changes by the same ratio.
may be approximated for small angles of attack from subsonic data as in-
C = 4a
'Vm2 - 1
and
4a2
Cd =
VM2 - 1
Laminar-Flow Airfoils
the airfoil, then the drag coefficients of the airfoil would be lower than for
slipstream.
The commonly used laminar-flow airfoils have been the NACA 24 series
(NACA 2409, 2412, etc.), the NACA 44 series (NACA 4409, 4415, 4418),
and the NACA 230 series (NACA 23009, 23015, etc.). For an excellent
compendium of airfoil data see NACA Report No. 824 entitled "Summary
of Airfoil Data."
Compressible-Flow Airfoils
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local speeds of the airflow over the airfoil from exceeding the local speed
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of sound. These airfoils are the NACA 16 series (NACA 16-009, 16-109,
16-209, etc.). The mean camber lines of these airfoils were designed to
AIRFOIL SELECTION 49
The commonly used airfoils (NACA 24009, for example) had their maxi-
mum ordinate at about 30 per cent of the chord, whereas the NACA
16-009 had its maximum thickness at about 50 per cent of the chord.
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CHAPTER IV
The forces that normally act on the airplane—lift, thrust, drag, and
forces are not of such magnitude that the structure would have to be
an airplane used for acrobatics will encounter greater loads than one
of the nature and magnitude of such forces since the greater the forces
encountered, the greater the weight of the structure. It is not the pur-
the complete load determination required for such an analysis, but some
LOAD FACTOR
There are various ways of defining the load factor. It is the ratio of
the applied load to the weight of the airplane. More technically, it may
tomary to speak of the load factor as the number of <7's, where g refers to
of limit and ultimate loads. Limit loads are the maximum loads antici-
pated in service. Ultimate loads are equal to the limit loads multiplied
50
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EXTERNAL LOADS ON AN AIRPLANE IN FLIGHT 51
assumed that steady flight conditions prevailed just before the particular
that some forces, such as thrust, will not have changed during the very
short time the critical condition is assumed to act. By the same token,
the speed of the aircraft will not have changed radically during the history
Theoretically, the worst load condition should occur when the airplane
airplane would change its angle of attack from one at which the lift co-
efficient was practically zero to an angle of attack where the lift coefficient
l = w = y2PvKin cLmaz s,
d = w = y2Pv^cDmins.
speed would not have diminished and the maximum lift coefficient could
be attained. The lift on the airplane under this condition may be ex-
pressed as:
U = nW = y2Pv? cLmax s.
From these three relationships, it can be deduced that the load factor n
L1 CLmaz
n = t — —
L V% mi„ Cd min
By assuming possible values for CLmax and Cx>mi„, we can gain some idea
of what magnitude such a load factor might have if other conditions did
not obtain. For example, 1.8 is a reasonable assumption for the value of
Cl max, and .025 is possible for the value of Cflm,„; then the load factor
» = S = 720
However, the value is obviously fantastic. In the first place, the pilot
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would probably not survive; and if the aircraft were designed for such a
It is desirable to have a stick load that tends to resist the pilot's attempts
The system of forces and moments acting on the airplane when coming
Another flight situation that may produce extreme loads on the air-
which means there is also an increase in the lift coefficient and therefore
l = w = yfat cL s
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EXTERNAL LOADS ON AN AIRPLANE IN FLIGHT 53
just before the gust. Since even a vertical gust of about 50 per cent of
the aircraft speed would cause only a change of about 12 per cent in the
HyH
Figure IV-2. Velocity and angle relationships at the time an airplane encounters
But since
C-W,
L y2psv*
11/ i / W i i pmuv
n = 1 + m- Ty-sr> = 1 +
MpSv* a 1 2(W/S)
Since the gust encountered is seldom sharp-edged (i.e., the gust in-
and since the aircraft is a flexible rather than a rigid structure, the gust
KmuV
n = 1 ±
575 (W/S)
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54 AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL
1.467p _ J_
2 575'
1.4
1.2
1.0
tO.8
^ 0.6
(a
0.4
0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Since for any given design, the slope of the lift curve is determined once
and for all upon selection of the airfoil and the aspect ratio, the wing
n * 1 + Ln
- / f KUVSm
575W
-/
1
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1
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1
EXTERNAL LOADS ON AN AIRPLANE IN FLIGHT 55
excessive load factors, the airplane would either have to avoid severe
The relative intensities and the altitudes at which gusts have been
Velocity of gust, in
Altitude limit,
in feet
Line Squalls
and Thunderstorms
40 to 120
Obstructional
Interferences
10 to 30
varies with
type of
obstruction
Convection
Currents
5 to 30
4000
These gusts are usually vertical and may act either up or down, although
Load factors are usually presented in an empirical form, but the student
should know the bases for the determination of these factors. In order
flight. For this purpose, airplanes used for flight tests are equipped with
Restraining
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spring
Smoked glass
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target
This recorder keeps a record of the velocity and the acceleration, and
calibrated grid (see Figure IV-5) is placed over the smoked-glass record
velocities. When removed from the recorder, the smoke film is fixed
Figure IV-5. A sketch of the calibration grid placed over the smoked-glass target.
The full scale deflection is of the order of three quarters of an inch. The horizontal
scale is in miles per hour; the vertical is in number of g'a or load factor.
This V-g recorder is usually placed at the center of gravity of the air-
not horizontally. The horizontal and vertical axes here referred to are
be applied in the theoretical formula evolved for the gust condition, for
various parameters such as. power loading, wing loading, or gross weight.
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EXTERNAL LOADS ON AN AIRPLANE IN FLIGHT 57
AIRPLANE CATEGORIES
Not every airplane must be designed for the same conditions since not
all airplanes are likely to be subjected to the same maneuvers. For the
limited acrobatic maneuvers such as steep turns, spins, stalls, lazy eights,
ver unless flight tests indicate certain limitations. The specified load
specified category.
between 12 and 24 pounds per horsepower, provided the value of the load
n = 1 + An
_ [ 32,000 1 / [ 3.25 1
For the other categories, the maneuvering load factors are specified
as follows:
XT 1 Ol 1 24000
Normal n = 2.1 +
W + 10,000
but n need not be greater than 3.8, and shall not be less than 2.5;
Utility n = 4.4;
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Acrobatic n = 6.0.
The gust velocities of ±30 feet per second are specified for speeds up
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to cruising speed, and ±15 feet per second for speeds up to the design
dive speed.
58
-I
-2 1
^4QV 80 120^160
in mph
Maneuver Gust
- Combined
Figure IV-6. A typical envelope for an airplane in the utility category. The con-
ditions indicated by the small circle are the ones usually investigated. In the illustration
The loads calculated for the maneuvering and gust load factors are
The flight envelope (V-n and V-g diagram are alternate names) estab-
lishes the relationships of limit load factors and airplane speeds. (See
obtained in experimental flight tests from the record on the target plate
of the accelerometer.
While the limit load factor may be the same for several speeds and the
that not only the magnitude of the applied forces, but their distribution
c,
Figure IV-7. Aerodynamic coefficients (forces) referred from the wind axes to the
geometric axis.
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EXTERNAL LOADS ON AN AIRPLANE IN FLIGHT 59
will affect the design of some part of the airplane structure. It is con-
ceivable that the front spar of the wing might be designed for one load
factor when the flaps, for example, are neutral, but the rear spar might
be designed for another but a lower load factor when the flaps are de-
flected. Again, while some flight loads may design no part of the wing,
design loads.
REFERENCE AXES
"wind axes" where the line of action of the relative wind usually repre-
sents the abscissa. For the stress analyst, whose work concerns the
1. Cl
-.6
-.4
-.2
.2
.4
.6
2.2
2. a Ro
3. Aa = ^ K Cl
5. CoiorRo
16. Cm.
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K = - ir = W when Ro = 00
the chord line, the thrust line, an axis of symmetry, or some other, it is
using the chord line as the abscissa of the new set of geometry axes,
Cn = Cl cos a + Cd sin a,
and
tions may be carried out in tabular form, as in Table IV-1, and presented
It should be noted that except for low angles of attack, the chord force
is towards the leading edge, not the reverse. This does not mean that
the local pressures, as at the nose of the airfoil, are negative, for such is
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62
= qCrfS,
where ni is the specified vertical component of the limit load factor for
2. nxlW = qCJS,
where nxl is the horizontal component of the limit load factor. Cc cor-
responds to the same angle of attack as the Cn value above, so that when
4. n3W
is the tail balancing load and can be determined for the particular force
system.
are the components of the inertia forces required to satisfy the equilibrium
SF = 0 and SX = 0.
Since the forces may act in various directions and may have any magni-
substitution of the known or specified values with the proper sign (plus
or negative as the case may be), the unknowns may then be accordingly
noted that some assumptions have been made. These may be explained
as follows:
1. The drag of the tail surfaces, the fuselage, etc., is usually considered
negligible for smaller airplanes, but some allowances should be made for
The term n is called a load factor, for which the specific definitions are:
The load factor or acceleration factor n is then the ratio of a load to the
load in question represents the net external load acting on the airplane
The limit load is a load (or load factor, or pressure) that, assumed
tion. The factors wi and nxl are usually designated as the components
The factors n2 and nxi are the components of the inertia load factor.
The factor n3 is known as the net tail load factor or tail balancing load.
The discussions so far have dealt primarily with flight loads. There
are many conditions, other than maneuvering or gust, that may impose
Materials of Construction
Many structural materials have been used for building airplanes. Early
designs were built up primarily of wood elements with steel fittings and
wires, and the whole covered with doped fabric. It was not long, how-
ever, before tubular steel was used for the truss-type fuselage and landing
gears. The wing construction, however, was made of wood and fabric.
not very economical, and it also became difficult to get the material in the
alloy sheet, was a natural evolution and is the most common form of con-
struction today.
wing with wooden spars, aluminum alloy ribs, steel wire drag bracing, all
enveloped in a doped fabric covering to give the structure the final airfoil
type, with possibly wooden former strips to fair the lines, and the whole
The larger the airplane becomes, the more likely that all the structure,
the wing, fuselage, and tail surfaces, is composed of aluminum alloy sheet
and extrusions.
Another material that may be extensively used, especially for very large
date.
Wood, in the form of plywood, has been used for gliders and for air-
64
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MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
65
perature, bacteria, moisture, and the like have not encouraged extensive
resins and impregnated fibers have been built and test flown. Although
these materials have certain merits, the wide use of a material depends
largely upon:
3. Cost.
ture, etc.
Stainless steels are suitable for exhaust stacks, heating units, firewalls,
per cent, the balance being other metals normally present, mainly iron
ever, having a tensile strength of about 12,000 pounds per square inch in
its soft or annealed state. The pure metal, therefore, does not have the
adding small amounts of one or more other metals to the aluminum. The
resulting alloys are less easily formed and, with some exceptions, they
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Like copper, brass, steel, and other metals, aluminum becomes stronger
hardness depends on the amount of cold work done, some of the wrought
some of the aluminum alloys. With but minor exceptions, the aluminum
alloys used for structural parts in aircraft are those which can be heat
Wrought alloys are distinguished from cast alloys by the letter "S" fol-
said to be in the "RT" temper. Although this further rolling reduces the
elongation and workability, 24S and Alclad 24S in the "RT" temper are
Type
Description
Temper
designation
Example
Annealed condition
24S-0
W*
61S-W
Heat-
treatable
alloys
Wrought
24S-T
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RT
24S-RT
Cast
cated by number
T4, T6,
etc.
195-T4
195-T6
Annealed condition
3S-0
Nonheat-
Wrought
#H Y2H.
%H
53S-KH
treatable
alloys
working
2&-H
Cast
No temper designation
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
67
Sheet
alloy sheet, used for the outer covering or skin and for various other struc-
tural parts. Since most of this sheet is subject to high stresses under some
(Since the war, most new designs are making use of 75S.) Nonstructural
parts are sometimes made from the alloys that are not heat-treated or
in the form of Alclad sheet. This material has a high-strength core cov-
ered on each side with a coating of relatively pure aluminum which has a
high resistance to corrosion. This coating protects the core in two ways.
It not only covers most of the core and prevents contact with corrosive
agents, but also protects the core electrolytically. This electrolytic pro-
tection is given to the cut edges, to areas where the coating is abraded
Annealed coiled sheet is used for blanking out small parts which are
Thickness
(in.)
61S-T
24S
O and T
Alclad 24S
OandT
Alclad 75S
O and T
0.012
0.016
24 X
36 X
120
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144
36 X 144
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0.020
36 X
144
36 X
144
36 X 144
0.025
36 X 144
48 X
144
48 X
144
36 X 144
0.032
48 X 144
48 X
144
48 X
144
48 X 144
0.040
48 X 144
48 X
144
48 X
144
48 X 144
0.051
48 X 144
48 X
144
68
Tubing
Tubing is used in aircraft construction for fuel, oil, and other liquid lines;
Extruded Shapes
structural usefulness. The alloy 14S, which has been used extensively
for several years in forgings, has lately become available for extrusions in
are significantly stronger than those of 24S alloy, which has been most ex-
(Again, new designs are making use of 75S, which is the strongest alumi-
num alloy available.) Extruded shapes not requiring high strength are
These last two alloys are used in the "as-extruded" condition which is very
B&S
Thickness,
Range of dimension,
Sheet Gage
in inches
in inches
28-21
.012-.028
Vs-IH
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20-18
.032-.040
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V2-VA
17-16
.045-.051
1 -3
Vs-2
15-14
.057-.064
13-12
.072-.081
1^-4
1 -3
11-10
.091-.102
2 -5
2 -3^
nesses
Forgings
airframe, but they serve a most important function as structural and other
fittings in addition to their well-known uses for making engine parts and
propeller blades. Most forgings are made in dies on hammers, but some
69
structure.
Extruded sections
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Figure V-l. Typical formed, drawn, and extruded sections used in the aircraft
70
are pressed rather than struck. These are called press forgings. The
latter require less "draft" than hammer forgings and permit somewhat
closer tolerances. Many forgings are made from alloy A51S-T, whereas
75S-T forgings are also available, and are being used in several new de-
signs.
Castings
Aluminum castings are more extensively used in the airplane engine and
and properties required, such castings are produced by one of three basic
since this will distribute the die costs over a large number of units, and at
the same time reduce machining costs because of closer tolerances and
better finish.
Any shape which can be forged can also be produced as a casting. While
ings. Many castings are furnished "as-cast," but some alloys are heat-
The products in the group known as "Wire, Rod, and Bar" find their
chined from rod or bar, usually 24S-T or 75S-T. Other uses include
The most widely used rivet alloy is A17S-T. Joints requiring higher
Nuts, bolts, screws, and various special screw-machine products for air-
craft use are made almost exclusively from 24S-T and 17S-T.
therefore call for any of the standard parts simply by listing the AN
number on his drawing, rather than having to detail each feature of the
part.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
71
AN bolts are coded for length by inches and eighths of an inch, and for
diameter by sixteenths of an inch. For all lengths below one inch, the
single figure means the number of eighths; above one inch, the firsi num-
ber of two digits indicates the number of inches and the second di^it the
number of eighths.
aluminum alloy
diameter in sixteenths
When the letters DD are omitted, the bolt is made of heat-treated nickel
Example: Rivet
AN 426 D 6 — 14
alloy used
smaller than 34-inch diameter are not used in the primary structure of
an airplane.
to bearing and shear rather than tension; and pinned connections, whether
rivet, bolt, or other devices, should be designed to fail in shear of the pin.
AIRFRAME FABRICATION
normally employed for other metals. The details of methods, tools, and
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Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google
72
dies depend on the particular alloy and temper, the quantity of identical
have been the result of conditions peculiar to the industry itself, not to the
field. However, the quantities involved in the aircraft industry have not.
these presses.
sheets of metal into the sizes and shapes required for the individual parts
ting.
operated) for making straight cuts; roll shears for curves; male and female
sheared edges with a minimum of burr, the cutting edges must be smooth
and sharp and set with a clearance equal to about 7 per cent to 10 per cent
of the thickness of the metal being cut. The use of metal dies and rubber
pads for blanking sheet metal was very popular in the aircraft industry
before the present war because the tool cost was low and the small quanti-
ties did not justify the cost of male and female blanking dies.
Two types of cutting are used for sheet stock; sawing and milling (or
routing). Band saws are sometimes used for cutting stacks of sheet-metal
blanks, and of course, both band and circular saws are used for miscella-
neous work on sheet and extruded sections. High blade speeds (5000 feet
per minute for band saws and 10,000 feet per minute for circular saws) are
desirable for best results. Saw teeth should be fairly coarse with a slight
set.and front rake. A more recent method for cutting stacks of sheet-
a template clamped to the work and cuts a path all around the blanks
equal in width to the diameter of the cutter. This method leaves the
edges of the blanks in a smoother condition than when the metal is sawed.
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The versatility of these machines and the speed with which templates for
new or altered shapes can be provided have made routing the standard
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Forming
general, the equipment consists of basic machines that are fitted with spe-
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
73
cial tools or dies for each part they are to process. Thus a double-action
blankholders. The cost of such tools for large parts led the industry to
Single-action presses, usually hydraulic when large in size, are used ex-
tensively. The large hydraulic presses are usually fitted with a rubber
pad on the ram, both for blanking and forming. Because there is no tend-
ency to "iron" or draw out wrinkles when metal is formed over the edge
common practice to notch the flange and also to provide flutes or scallops
in the flange to use up the excess metal. Parts formed by this method
usually have a more or less flat surface surrounded by a flange (as, for
ical presses equipped with metal dies are used for a number of forming
Drop hammers, using zinc or zinc alloy dies and lead punches cast in the
die cavity, are very extensively used. Many of the parts produced in this
a large number of parts is required to justify the higher cost of steel dies.
Sheet panels for wing tips, fins, and control surfaces as well as fairings and
Sheet panels having very slight double curvature are sometimes formed
over the form and is clamped along two opposite edges. The form is then
raised so that the sheet becomes tight over the higher parts. Further
motion of the form stretches the tight parts until the panel fits the form
at all points.
Apron brakes, folders, cornice presses, rolls, and draw-benches are used
in making the endless variety of parts requiring bends that are not curved.
These include corrugated sheet and sheet molding for structural uses in
the airframe. This equipment and its operation is typical of that used by
aluminum.
work is done by skilled power-hammer men who form sheet panels to ob-
tain the necessary curvature or crown. Other parts are made by ham-
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mering over or into various wood forms. Even in production work where
tools have been provided, some hand straightening and adjusting may be
MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
Castings
Magnesium alloy castings are used where light weight, high strength,
such parts as nose pieces on aircraft engines, fittings, wheel flanges, pis
Forgings
housings, rocker arm supports, door and aileron hinges, engine mountings,
Extrusions
Sheet
Magnesium sheet and plate have been used for such parts as aircraft
wings, wing tips, ailerons, fairings, fuel and oil tanks, cases, floor plates,
STEEL
The steel numbering system commonly used in the United States is that
steels, which make it possible to use numerals on shop drawings and blueprints
numbers. The first digit indicates the type to which the steel belongs; thus
indicates a carbon steel; "2-" a nickel steel and "3-" a nickel chromium steel.
In the case of the simple alloy steels the second digit generally indicates the ap-
proximate percentage of the predominant alloying element. Usually the last two
1 per cent. Thus "2340" indicates a nickel steel of approximately 3 per cent
nickel (3.25 to 3.75) and 0.40 per cent carbon (0.35 to 0.45); and "71360" indicates
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a tungsten steel of about 13 per cent tungsten (12 to 15) and 0.60 per cent carbon
(0.50 to 0.70).
steel by varying the second and third digits of the number. An instance of such
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76
There are many items which the airframe designer does not design, but
design office has the detailed dimensions, weights, and other specifications
the items that may be treated in this manner are large ones such as engines,
propellers, radio and radar equipment, wheels, tires, and seats, and also
Table V-5.
I II
FINISH
APPLICATIONS
Cowling
Columns
Spars
Radiators
Fuel Tanks
Oil Tanks
Shear Webs
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Fuselage Covering
Wing Radiator
Water Tanks
Tail Surfaces
Bomb Racks
Bomb Shackles
Bomb Chutes
Window Guides
Struts
Stainless steels.
I II
FINISH
APPLICATIONS
Columns
Corrugation
Struts
Wing Cover
77
S.A.E.
Bearings, Roller
ment
Clevises.
Clevis Pins
ing
Strut Ends
Bushings
Nuts
Pins.
Racks, Bomb.
Rivets
4615
3312
52100
3140
4140
2335
X-3140
2330
1035
2330
X-4130
4640
X-4130
2330
X-4130
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X-4340
X-4130
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1025
2330
3140
6150
4140
2330
X-4130
2315
2340
3250
4620
52100
X-4340
3140
Screws.
1120
2330
3140
6150
1095
4140
X-4130
Rudder:
Terminals 2330
Commercial
designation
Available
form
Gas
weld
28 (MH)
3S (HH)
Tubing
Sheet
Yes
Yes
Electrical conduit.
3S (HH)
3S (HH)
Bar
Tube
Yes
Yes
tigue strength.
24S (0)
248 (T)
248 (T)
248 (T)
Sheet
Sheet
Bar
Tube
No
No
No
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No
carried in stock.
52S (MH)
52S (HH)
528 (0)
Sheet
Care
Care
Care
Bar
Tube
43 (Alcoa)
220 (Alcoa)
Casting
Casting
Casting
Casting
Yes
No
No
Yes
Table V-7. (Continued). Useful structural applications of nonferrous and ferrous alloys.
Commercial
designation
Available
form
Gas
weld
SAE 1095
Sheet
Wire
No
No
SAE 2330
Bar
No
SAE X-4130
Sheet
Bar
Yes
Yes
Tubing
Yes
ized.
SAE 4140
Bar
Yes
Yes
Forging
SAE 4340
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Bar
No
inches in thickness.
SAE 6150
Bar
No
No
Wire
18-8 (Annealed)
Sheet
Sheet
No
No
and boxes.
18-8 (Annealed)
18-8 (Annealed)
Tube
Bar
No
No
treated.
Inconel
Sheet
80
Birmingham
Wire Gauge
U. S. Standard
(all tubing)
Steel Sheet
in inches
Sheet, in inches
in inches
.120*
.114*
.125*
.109
.102
.109
.095*
.091*
.094*
.083*
.081*
.078*
.072
.072*
.070*
.065*
.064*
.063*
.058*
.057
.056
.049*
.051*
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.050*
.042*
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.045
.044
.035*
.040*
.038*
.032*
.030
.034
.028*
.032*
.031*
.025
.028
.025
.022*
.025*
.022*
.020
.020*
.019
.018
.018
.017
.016
.016*
.016*
.014
.014
.014
(Note: On all materials, decimal equivalents of common fractions are generally used
There are many guiding principles in design that are equally applicable
to the design of the wing and the design of the fuselage. The student has
There have been further additions made to his store of technical knowl-
edge through various courses preparing him for his first attempt at a
view all of the aspects of detail design, but rather to point out some
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
Margin of Safety
maximum load or stress a member can withstand without failing and the
of safety may not always mean the lightest member, as the illustration in
would be satisfactory; yet, the one with the slightly higher margin of
81
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82 AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL
Table VT-1. Allowable torsional moment for SAE X 4130 steel tubes for length0
diameter.
L/D* Ratio = 20
Tube
Weight
Allowable
sise
lbs/100 in.
moment
\% x .049
7.42
IH x .065
9.05
IH x .095
9.76
*L = Length; D = Diameter
Maintenance Requirements
the loads imposed upon it; but if it failed to stand up for more than 100
Fool-Proof Operation
age that may result from any deviation from correct operating procedure.
characteristics.
other words, should one member of a complex structure fail, some other
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member would be called upon to carry the load. Such design does not
always require a 100 per cent margin of safety, but entails a certain type
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Safety
satisfactory, for most purposes, to have only one access to a cabin, but
83
electrical system; a foreign object falling into some mechanism and hinder-
terminant. One does not say that one structure is stronger than another,
but rather that one design is more efficient than another, meaning that
the material has been used more effectively. This efficiency refers not
the principle of the "one-horse shay"—each part fails at the same time.
bility of the skin occurs simultaneously with the primary and secondary
Figure VI-1. Typical tensile stress-strain diagrams: (A) Material having a definite
yield point (such as plain low carbon steels); (B) Materials not having a definite yield
point (such as aluminum alloys-high carbon, alloy, and cold worked steels); (C) Alumi-
The strength properties of the most commonly used materials and ele-
Printing Office.
desirable to know the yield and the ultimate strength of materials, since
the basic allowable stress of a material should not exceed the yield. How-
ever, since the yield value is sometimes arbitrarily defined, the ultimate
example,
for example,
Jy = safety factor = 1,
The allowable stresses may vary from the mechanical properties of the
(1) for obtaining the optimum efficiency of the structure as to its allowable
load and strength-weight ratio, and (2) for designing the structure so
tions and materials employed, for the stresses caused by the limit loads
must not exceed the allowable stress of the material. In order to avoid
permanent sets, the applied stress must fall below the yield point of the
material.
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and much thin material, it is important to understand not only the types
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Eallowable
STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR
DETAIL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
85
Structural
Sectisn
Compression Bending
Efficient as a column
Heavier than
round tube.
Equivalent
round tube.
to
Relatively efficient
closed.
axis.
Equivalent
round tube.
to
Compares with
closed.
Torsion
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<100.
About equivalent
to a round tube.
Equivalent
round tube.
to a
Compares with
closed.
eral deflection.
unsupported.
ported. If unsup-
ported, inefficient
Somewhat ineffici-
ent in torsion.
Relatively inefficient
unless supported.
unsupported.
86
the material, (2) resistance to primary instability failure, and (3) re-
STEFFENERS OR STRINGERS
The cross sections of the structural members by which sheet panels are
members given in Figure VI-2. It will be noted that closed sections are
generally best, open symmetrical sections are next in line, and open un-
The effect of local supports and of the addition of a lip to a free edge is
ing or bolting. The analysis is based upon the assumption that the
panels supported or free along the edges parallel to the direction of the
1.0
b „i, b
i j±t±L
5.2 4.3
5.9
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supported without lip; between simply and freely supported with lip; rivet line offers
87
frame or rib spacings. After obtaining such data, the next step would
the basis of crushing strength (defined as the end point of column curves,
of the section for a range of L/p values from 20 to 50, where L is the
^ =======a
Schematic representation
clamped edges
Figure VI-4. Behavior of sheet under compression for different edge conditions.
Simply supported
edges
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88
weight with an open section, in spite of the fact that it can carry a lower
allowable stress.
conditions is given in Figure VI-4, which also shows the possible deflec-
surface, the behavior would be similar. While at first it would seem that
lightest structure, this is not always the case, since the rigid supports may
tion when under compressive stress. (A) The torsionally flexible stringers rotate and
carry the attached thin sheet with them. The stringers in this case are considered to
offer only simple support for the sheet between the stringers. (B) The torsionally stiff
longitudinal stringers and shear webs prevent rotation and offer clamped edge conditions
for the sheet covering. (C) The torsionally rigid longitudinal stringers rotate only
slightly and thus offer a condition between the simple and clamped edge conditions.
(D) The sheet, considerably thicker relative to the integrally incorporated longitudinal
stringers, takes over. The stringers, in this case, tend to reduce the spanwise undulation
optimum design. Even then, other factors, such as fabrication and pro-
thought to be optimum.
PANEL SIZES
The metal covering not only serves to give the aerodynamic form to the
under normal air pressure as this would materially add to the aerodynamic
means of determining not only the panel sizes, but also the spacing of
Figure VI-6. Chart for determining proportions of unsupported sheet covering for
fatigue cracking. R is the radius of curvature in inches. If the ratio of panel length
to panel width is greater than 3, either the panel width should be reduced from the
values obtained from the chart or the thickness of the sheet should be increased.
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90
Figure VI-7. Chart for determining proportions of unsupported sheet covering for
fatigue cracking. R is the radius of curvature in inches. If the ratio of panel length
to panel width is greater than 3, either the panel width should be reduced from the
values obtained from the chart or the thickness of the panel sheet should be increased.
frames, ribs, stringers, or other supports. Figures VI-6 and VI-7 repre-
stress analysis may indicate a change in the skin thickness, this does not
the utility category, a skin thickness of not less than .025 inches for
bending moments are likely to occur, as at the root of the wing or the
variation of the coefficient K with variations in panel size and edge con-
ditions, reveals that the ratio of the two sides of a rectangular panel should
shear. However, while this is true from a strength point of view, having
many stringers, frames, or other supports may not always be best from
91
2345
Figure VT-8. Envelope of values of K in the formula given on the chart. The
following conditions are represented: (1) ends and sides of panels clamped; (2) ends
simply supported, sides clamped; (3) ends clamped, sides simply supported; (4) ends
and sides simply supported; (5) ends simply supported, one side free, one side clamped;
(6) ends simply supported, one side free, one side simply supported. The values at the
right of the chart are the asymptotic values for each of the six conditions.
111
- n . tu
r 11 j i
I u,00^—.——-,m
) ii U\
p*
( \\[ (
11
.n T
1,s
F-A
scr
h a â–
K$
10
9\
234567
Figure VT-9. Graph for determining critical shear stress factor K,; a and 6 are
between adjacent skin supports, whether ribs, stringers, spars, or other supports.
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92
stant. A ratio of the sides of about 3 would seem reasonable for most
Figure VI-10. The solid line in the top illustration represents the distribution of
the compressive stress on a reinforced panel after the sheet has buckled. The equivalent
stress distribution used for calculation on the basis of "effective widths" of the sheet is
the sheet will tend to buckle at a lower stress level than the stringer, and
line depicts the stress distribution chordwise at the time the C-stringers
shown by the dotted lines in the above figure. The extent of this uni-
formula:
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DETAIL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 93
edge
.»W2*j»Wl»0
edge
Li
<—H
Li-
edge
»»2| "2
"2 | "2
"2 | "2
-*
Jedge
Freej
-1
lu
u-
Fiodbe VI-11. The effective widths, u,i and tc2, are measured from the rivet center
line.
It will be noted from Figure VI-11 that the stringer or stiffener re-
quiring two rows of rivets makes more of the skin effective than does the
closed section with the skin is itself a more effective compression member.
However, the greater cost of two rivet rows must be0 0 considered against
Unless the proportion of the load carried by the effective skin is ap-
EQUIVALENT STRUCTURE
cross section is not the center of gravity, for less material is effective on
(o)
(b)
Figure VI-12. (A) A typical sheet-stringer construction; (B) the equivalent effec-
tiveness under compression. The solid line represents the shear elements, and the
parallel to the metal sheet covering but is only slightly restrained in the
inertia for that axis to resist any buckling tendencies. The effect of this
CUT-OUTS
(see Figure VI-13) indicates that high local stresses occur at the corners
of the cut-out, and that the structural elements ahead and behind the
cut-out are not carrying any stress unless some distortion takes place
loose fits and requirements for emergency operation prevent this from
Figure VI-13. Hydraulic analogy may offer an insight into the likely stress dis-
tribution around a cut-out. In the hydraulic analogy shown above, the obstruction in
the channel could represent a window in the side of a fuselage. The greatest stress con-
centration is at the corners. The flow ahead and behind the obstruction is practically
95
Ui.
Figure VI-14.
jected to tension.
true that pressure on them is transmitted, but the installation and the
material of the windows are such that they are not thought of as pro-
loads imposed upon it, provision must be made for reinforcements such
inch diameters. The selection of the diameter size depends upon many
the loads to be transmitted, and the size of rivet pattern possible. For
corners, and doubler plates help to redistribute the stresses. The arrows indicate the
(a) (b)
Figure VI-16. Two possible treatments of cut-outs such as windows, doors, and
access holes. (A) is appropriate for a section subjected to relatively high shear and
compression loads. Doubler plates or increased skin thickness may be added where
the stress would otherwise be high. (B) is suitable, for example, near the neutral axis
of a fuselage where the stress is low. The frame around the cut-out may be subject to
induced loads.
the detail design has progressed far enough to allow a study of the effect
Bolted joints are used where the thickness of the plates or material to
clearance between adjacent pins (whether rivet or bolt) so that the tools
used to upset the rivet head or to tighten the nut on the bolt clear all
adjacent interferences.
[! ^
!A1
'a'J
it
6d
!00<M-
!! c
-2d
>
Figure VI-17. Rivet patterns. Spacing for single and double rows expressed in
97
The spacing of the rivets attaching the skin to the stiffener may often
the stiffener and skin may carry (if buckling of any element determines
the upper design criterion) since buckling of the skin between rivets is
likely to occur first. The plastic buckling stress of the compressive skin
3.62 E•
'(P/O2
If the allowable stress should be considered too low, then obviously the
designer may change the value by either increasing the skin thickness or
FITTINGS
structure (landing gear members, engine mount supports, wing spars, tail
surface spars) to another (the fuselage or the wing), require a special study
of methods of transferring the loads. This must be taken not only from
the point of view of stresses incurred, but also from the standpoint of
secondary effects that may result from slight misalignments, initial buck-
web or fuselage skin because of the instability of the thin sheet and the
to consider the pin or pins to be used for joining the two or more members
together. After the selection of the pin or bolt, the necessary dimensions
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simplest fitting of this type would involve one pin subjected to double
Figure VI-18. Illustration of a spar fitting. The steps are introduced to avoid
sudden changes in cross section. A tapered tang could be used but spot-facing would
depending upon the method of connecting members in other parts of the same structure.
An internal wrenching bolt may be used for the tension splice shown in bottom figure
at the right.
Figure VI-20. Principal dimensions of a fitting lug. The dimension W should not
be less than 2R-d. Where the shank behind the bolt hole is long, additional calculations
should be made for bending stresses, especially those that may be introduced by eccen-
99
VI-1, and
P = 2<F*,
where Ft* is allowable bearing stress of the plate. Select nearest stand-
ard thickness.
P = (2R - d)tFty.
P = 2xtF„
where F, is the allowable shear stress of the plate and where x may be
assumed equal to R.
SANDWICH MATERIALS
This material serves primarily to give added support to the metal sheet
and thus increase the allowable stress that the material may take, whether
(See Figure VI-21.) When this type of core is employed, the sandwich
therefore lends itself to flooring or any purpose where normal loads are
likely to be high.
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100
Figure VI-21. One form of sandwich construction is illustrated here. The core is
a honeycomb made of metal, fiber, or plastic. Such construction is used for flooring,
bonding the faces to the core, the extensive tooling required by the compli-
FLOORING
a type of structure that is rather rigid to the load normally applied to the
surface. For that reason, the cross section of the structure must have a
For such a plate, it is obvious that steel would have approximately one
third of the deflection that aluminum alloy would have, in the ratio of
Eal. alloy/E^ai ,
but would weigh approximately three times more (in the ratio of specific
the thickness of the material used was increased, the deflections would
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DETAIL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
101
(a)
'U U U U LT^1
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Figure VI-22. Cross sections of several types of flooring are illustrated: (A) an
plate; (D) a corrugated sheet attached to a flat sheet on one side or to a flat sheet on
both sides; (E) a built-up section for a heavily loaded floor; (F) relatively closely-spaced
vary as the cube of the thickness and thereby accomplish more. Chang-
ing the dimension b would be helpful, provided that the transverse supports
wl4
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102
Obviously, the greater the moment of inertia of the cross section, the
The requirement for floor loading depends in large part upon the type
more pounds per square foot is common; for concentrated loads, the
weight of a passenger over a square foot area may be assumed. For con-
weight of the passenger over an area of one square inch would be ap-
propriate.
THERMAL PROBLEMS
through the medium of air passing through the radiator through which
the liquid was circulated or, more directly, by using the circulating air to
thermal problem is an ever-present one in any heat engine, and the engi-
0l I I I I I I I
extrusions at elevated temperatures. Not only is the strength less, but the creep char-
producing conditions: (A) utilizes relatively closely spaced corrugated webs useful for
both heat dissipation and rigidity; (B) utilizes rigid trusses whose members serve to
drain the heat from the surface and function as a heat sink. In both figures, the top
rary heat sink may be provided by the use of a large mass of material with
relatively high heat absorption. Since the time cycle of heating is short,
a considerable period may elapse afterwards for the cooling of the heat
sink.
to 2000° F.
such as titanium alloys (Figure VI-23 shows some typical strength charac-
meeting this new challenge. Figure VI-24 shows some possible solutions.
MISCELLANEOUS
x^5=
iff
»j
\N If
iV III
J/ V
♦1 if
1—«-
.J
F=2ru
A 4d
mm. mm.
j mm. B00B
Figure VI-25. Edge distances for lightening holes. All bend radii are at least
three times the thickness of the material (St). The dimension d is the diameter of the
rivet used to attach a member having lightening holes to another. The lip around the
~* A—>J
<—A—»»
\,
ft
he—A-
h-A-H
.. V5i
clearances sections less than .036"; A = Ad for thicknesses between .036" and .081".
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DETAIL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
105
Lightening Holes
around the hole, or (2) to provide a passageway for control systems, wir-
ing, tubing, and the like, or (3) to provide an access to another portion
of an interior.
Stiffeners
large flat sheet to increase its shear carrying ability and to reduce or
member and a heavier structural member. The section could represent the chord
member of a tension field spar or a heavy beam in a fuselage, with the stiffener
Beading
min. min.
Tension
Hardness
Shear
Fatigue
Alloy
and
temper
Yield
strength
Elongation
Brinell,
500-kg,
Endur-
Ultimate
strength,
lb/in.»
Shearing
strength,
lb/in.»
(set
0.2%),
lb/in.1
Sheet
specimen
Round
specimen
load
10-mm
ance
limit,
lb/in.J
(X in.
thick)
(H in.
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diam.)
ball
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2S-0
5,000
13,000
14,000
17,000
21,000
13,000
15,000
17,000
20,000
24,000
35
12
45
25
20
17
15
23
28
32
38
44
9,500
10,000
11,000
12,000
13,000
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Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google
Table V00-00. Mechanical Ooserties of aluminum alloy.
2.0000-
3.000
5O000
3O000
i. 9,000,000000 0 000,000,000 »
5O000
3O000
00,000
8O000
Heat-treated by user
00.0000-
2.000
58,000
3O000
00000
00,000 1 58,000
3O000 3O000
i 0 0 p7000 0 00000
3O000
8O000
0.000-
00.000
00,000
3O000
i0 0 K00r
3O000
00,000
0.250-
0.0099
92,000
38,000
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92,000
38,000
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3O000
93,000
0.0 -
0.2009
9O000
38,000
9O000
38,000
3O000
36,000
<.0
58,000
3O000
Primar•
Oecond
58,000
3O000
Primar
Oecond
3O000
8O000
2.0000-
3.000
5O000
38,000
5O000
38,000
3O000
800,000
Heat-t00ated by user
DETAIL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 109
Table VI-5. Shear and tensile strengths of steel rivets, bolts and pins.
Low
Heat-treated steel
Material
carbon
steel
Standard AN bolts
sq. in.
55
100
125
125
sq. in.
35
65
75
75
AN Std. bolt
Diameter
designation
of rivet,
Tension, lb
bolt or pin,
in pounds
(in thread)
in inches
—
He
107
199
230
—
%
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242
449
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518
—
—
.112
345
640
739
—
—
430
798
920
—
—
.138
523
972
1,122
—
—
671
1,247
1,438
—
—
.164
739
1,372
1,584
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DETAIL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 111
Out^
Weight,
side
Wall
Radius
Weight,
pounds
di-
thick-
Cross-
of
Moment
Section
pounds
100
ame-
ness
sectional
gyra-
of inertia,
modulus
D/t
100
inches,
ter
in
area,
tion,
/, tn»
I/r, in'
ratio
inches,
steel
alumi-
in
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inches
sq. in.
Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google
inches
num
inches
alloy
.022
.01576
.0810
.000103
.000825
11.38
.45
.16
.028
.01953
.0791
.000122
.000978
8.93
.55
.20
.028
.03053
.1231
.000462
.002466
13.39
.86
.31
.035
112 AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL
Out^
Weight,
side
Wall
Radius
Weight,
pounds
di-
thick-
Cross-
of
Moment
Section
pounds
100
ame-
ness
sectional
gyra-
tion,
of inertia,
modulus,
D/t
100
inches,
ter
in
area,
/, in'
I/r, ,'„•
ratio
inches,
alumi-
in
inches
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sq. in.
inches
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steel
num
inches
alloy
VA
.035
.2023
.6507
.08565
.09136
53.60
5.73
2.04
.049
.2811
.6458
.11720
.12500
38.25
7.95
2.84
.058
.3311
.6427
.13677
.14589
32.30
9.38
3.35
.005
.3696
CHAPTER VII
The Three-View
the front view or front elevation, and the side view or side elevation. It
corresponds to the photographs that might be taken of the top, front, and
After the designer has his set of specifications, he makes a few sketches
of what he believes his final design should look like. It helps bim to visu-
alize arrangements more readily and it forms the basis of his detailed
design and no further three-view is then made until the design has been
the design, and to record particular features of exceptional nature that the
designer has in mind. However, the first design on which such work as
the weight estimate and balance diagram can be based is the preliminary
three-view.
tional design—the data obtained from existing airplanes are the best
guides in proportioning the new project, and the new or uninitiated de-
signer should avoid "radical" or new designs until he has first worked
design always hold, and there is no better way to understand them than by
The outline which follows shows how standard data on existing airplanes
113
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114
£
Figure VII-1. This illustrates how certain available data may be assembled in prep-
aration for the initial three-view. A represents the over-all length required for the
propeller hub, engine, engine accessories, etc., with sufficient clearance allowed for the
removal of the rearmost accessory; B the distance allowed for the pilot's cabin; C
the length of the cabin of about 30 (AT + 1) inches, where N represents the number of
rows of seats athwartship, and 30 inches the distance allowed between rows; D, equal
to about one-third over-all length, is the approximate location of the center of gravity
of the complete airplane in rear of the nose; E is equal to 2.5 to 3.0 times the mean
geometric chord length of the wing; F is allowance for desired headroom in cabin; G is
allowance for depth of the front-wing spar; L is the over-all length of the fuselage with
Figure VII-1.)
chapters on these subjects should be carefully studied before going too far
with the preliminary sketch, and chapters on wing design, landing gear,
sembled easily, provided the specifications for the airplane have been given
(a) A first guess of the probable gross weight may be made, if the type
and number of engines are specified, from the engine power P which, mul-
FOR THREE-VIEW
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THE THREE-VIEW
115
Wing Data
Area S, sq ft
Aspect ratio, R
Span 6, ft
Root airfoil
Tip airfoil
Aileron chord C, ft
Over-all span 6 -
Over-all dimensions
Over-all height H ~
Wheel tread, T
Over-all length L
Tail Surfaces
Stabilizer area S,
[continued
* All obtained from averages of these same ratios compiled for existing airplanes of
similar type.
116 AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL
Fin area S/
Rudder area Sr
Angles
Angle in side elevation between vertical through axle and line connecting
center of gravity, and line joining the center of gravity and the point
tiplied by the average of power loading W/P for existing airplanes, will
(b) The gross weight of the proposed design may be calculated by de-
(d) If a design exists which meets the new specifications, then all the
(a) The average ratios of wing loading are based upon the gross weight
and the actual wing area, which does not include that covered by the
fuselage.
The wing area may be determined if the wing loading is assumed from
S = WX^
W . •
(b) If the airfoil has been selected so that its characteristics are known,
THE THREE-VIEW
117
and if the landing speed has been either specified or assumed, then the area
be taken;
If different airfoils are used along the span, a weighted average may be
used unless actual wind-tunnel tests on the particular wing are available.
span of the wing since it is a convenient reference dimension and also has
aspect ratio R. Usually it has a value not less than 6, although aspect
ratios of 14 have been used for special purpose airplanes. Aspect ratios
D (span)2 b2.
It = —: = -fj)
wing area b
where the wing area here includes that area of the wing blanketed by the
fuselage, whereas in the calculation of the wing loading W/S, the actual
wing area was used for the value of S. An approximation of the wing area,
suming a likely root chord for the wing and a likely width of the fuselage.
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62 = RS or 6 = V~RS. Tr
118
With the wing area decided upon and the aspect fatio determined, a
is easy. If the planform is tapered, the tip chord may vary from to
then other items relating to the planform may be decided upon, such as
plane of symmetry of the airplane, (b) the trailing edge should be per-
pendicular to the longitudinal plane of symmetry, (c) the front spar (which
Usually the mean geometric chord (MGC) is used, since it is more easily
calculated. Discussion of these two terms and how the values and loca-
25 per cent of the MGC. It is desirable, therefore, to know the size and
Once the 25 per cent point of the MGC has been located, it is easy to
locate the tail post of the airplane since it is usually 2Yi to 3 times the
Then, from the average of the ratios of length to span (L/b) for existing
airplanes, the over-all length of the airplane can be found since the span
of the wing was calculated in Step 3. The length of the new design is
Measuring a distance forward from the tail post equal to L, less an allow-
ance of 1 or 2 feet for the elevator chord, will locate the approximate posi-
where
L is to be determined,
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119
sidered. The diameter of the propeller to be used for each engine can be
clearance between the propeller tip and the side of the fuselage should be
allowed. If the nose of the fuselage is later faired even more, a greater
clearance will usually result, but this would not be undesirable. The
centerline of each engine would then be located outboard from the side of
Figure VII-2A. The top view of a three-view drawing of the airplane; 6» and 6„
represent span dimensions of horizontal tail surfaces and ailerons, respectively; other
dimensions that could be shown are length, L, and location of mean aerodynamic
fuselage, a distance equal to [(D/2) + 2] inches. The fore and aft po-
ahead or 5 degrees behind at the center of rotation, should not cut through
the pilot as far forward as possible in the nose of the fuselage will locate
Once the propeller has been located, the rest of the engine nacelle can
be sketched in easily.
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120
* Propeller clearance, d
the length of the airplane; d, the propeller clearance. The over-all height of the air-
plane, the distance between front and rear wheels, as well as the angle of incidence of
the root chord, and the position of the mean aerodynamic chord could also be shown
in this view.
The hinge line of the horizontal tail surfaces is usually located close to
the tail post. The approximate area of the horizontal tail surfaces may
wing area (that is, Sh/S) and since the wing area has already been deter-
The top view of the airplane can be completed by sketching in the miss-
ing lines. The width and length of that portion of the fuselage containing
personnel can be obtained from consideration of the data given for seating
the span; B, the wheel tread; C, the dihedral angle. The dihedral angle of the tail
surfaces and the propeller diameter could also be indicated in this drawing.
B
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THE THREE-VIEW
121
The top view furnishes the necessary information as far as lengths are
The wheels are chosen on the basis of the static load placed on them,
and their placement in relation to the fuselage and the wing can be ob-
Most of the essential dimensions are now determined so that the front
when the airplane is in the horizontal or level landing position with the
shock absorbers and tires deflected as they would be under the normal
gross weight of the airplane. For all normal considerations, the shock
travel and the tires about one-quarter of their normal travel. Proper
allowance must be made for the configuration of the landing gear when
the members are so disposed that the deflection of the shock absorber may
to allow more than 9 inches of clearance for the propeller since this will
The elevators should clear the ground by at least 2 or 3 inches when the
For the location of the various parts such as the wing, tail surfaces and
plane, the center of gravity is from 2 to 6 inches below the thrust line; for
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three-view.
122
ENGINEERING STUDIES
While the thumb-nail, three-view sketch will convey the type of air-
systems, and the like should be carefully laid out because the wing design
and location of items incorporated within the wing, or attached to it. Not
only the wing but also the preliminary kinematic layout of the retractable
landing gear must be studied carefully. When copies are made of exist-
ing designs, the problem is not a difficult one, but a new conception re-
quires much attention to the details of operation and how they affect the
whole.
ment of the wings to the fuselage may be very important, and the internal
loads are being transferred from one part of the structure to the other.
The fuselage structure affects window spacing, for example, and window
internal view is desirable even before the side view of the airplane is
sketched up.
Different types of lift-increase devices will affect the position of the wing
with relation to the fuselage. If the wing is placed at the bottom of the
devices.
ing gear, power plant, and other pertinent chapters may also be helpful
in crystallizing ideas.
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FINAL THREE-VIEW
The final three-view is based upon more accurate information than the
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preliminary three-view since the weight estimate has been more accurately
determined and the final balance diagram has been completed. Both the
balance diagram and the final three-view depend in some degree on the
structural layout of the wing, landing gear, and fuselage, but once these
THE THREE-VIEW
123
difficulties in structural arrangements and the like have been ironed out,
It may be found that the balance diagram has made changes in the fol-
lowing:
1. Planform of the wing, perhaps because the spar intersected the fuse-
tions.
ments.
Only after all points have been considered should the final three-view
Unless the beginner is copying an existing design, the first data that he
will need to begin his design after he has been given or has written his own
airplane. For on this gross weight will depend the wing area required to
GENERAL PROCEDURE
Once the wing area has been determined, the length of the fuselage and
the areas of the horizontal and vertical tail surfaces can be obtained, since
fuselages, tail surfaces, and even the landing-gear tread, in terms of the
span and area of the wing. Subsequent aerodynamic studies and wind-
exactly.
When the length of the fuselage is known, its weight can be estimated;
likewise, if the areas of the tail surfaces are known, their weight may be
When an approximate figure for the gross weight has been decided upon,
the size and weights of the landing gear may be found, and so more and
more data accumulate until the structural weight of the complete airplane
ments will finally give a weight estimate. When each part has been built
rate.
whole, and every bit of information that can be gleaned from the specifi-
124
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PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATE 125
order to be able to estimate within a very few pounds what the gross weight
of the airplane is likely to be, as well as what type of wing design is likely
those data.
if the airplane should weigh more than estimated, the performance might
on the fuel load which, in turn, will cut down the range.
The question may well be asked: "Why cut down on the payload or fuel
load if the airplane is overweight; isn't the airplane better if it carries more
load than that for which it was originally designed?" No, that is not the
case. In any given design, such items as the payload, crew, fuel and oil
are fixed in weight; that is, they have been set by the original specification
cases the result is that the airplane will cost more to construct, and the
that load. Any increase in weight will mean also, since the wing area
cannot be changed, that the airplane will have to land faster. The faster
the landing speed, the harder it may be for the pilot to handle the airplane.
Too high a gross weight for the given wing area, airfoil section, and power
will also mean that the airplane will have to travel faster and longer along
the ground before it can take off. Unless the runways of the airport are
long enough, the airplane may not be able to take off at all. Also, the
heavier the airplane is for the given wing area and the horsepower of the
and take off quickly enough, overloading must be reduced in some way.
The only way left to do this after the airplane has been built is to cut down
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landing gear (taking just one part of the airplane for illustration) is de-
126
however, when the airplane is finally built, that it is found to weigh 11,000
pounds. Not all of this addition in weight may be due to improper struc-
tural design, perhaps, for the designer may have also decided to double
the mail or express load after the design was started. The landing gear,
pounds instead of 10,000 pounds, so that if the airplane does weigh more
design.
weight by more than 2 or 3 per cent. When an entirely new type of air-
plane is being designed, the final gross weight may be very much larger
250,000 pounds, for example, may weigh well in excess of the allowable
3 per cent, but suppose ten or twelve of these large airplanes were built
in a series and flown extensively for a few years so that all its character-
istics were known. Then the next designer to build an airplane of similar
size would have some data available and his design would meet the origi-
nal specification far more closely than the first prototype did.
The weight estimate goes through a series of trials until the added re-
culations. The weight estimate does not become really "final" until the
ESTIMATED WEIGHTS
per unit of wing area, to gas tanks per gallon capacity, to landing gear as
percentage of gross weight, etc. In such cases the weights are said to be
Generated on 2012-05-30 01:49 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015000500895
estimated and their accuracy depends upon the knowledge gained from
previous designs.
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CALCULATED WEIGHTS
and areas of parts after the design has been sufficiently developed so that
definite sizes can be determined. Such calculated weights are used for
PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATE
127
subsequent weight estimation and for setting up the final weight table and
ACTUAL WEIGHTS
weights previously arrived at. Very often this procedure helps in discov-
are far out of line, to redesign the part or assembly in order to get closer
ALTERNATE LOADS
or different fuel and oil loads with accompanying varying cargo. In such
The gross weight, before a more detailed weight breakdown has been
One method is to determine the probable gross weight on the basis of the
power loading since the specifications for the design usually state a rated
, ,. gross weight W.
then assuming a value for the power loading, and knowing the total rated
engine horsepower, a reasonable figure for the gross weight may be ob-
tained.
for the
1. Power plant,
3. Combustible load,
These four items constitute from 65 to 70 per cent of the gross weight,
or in equation form
gross weight = 0 7
Therefore, a second gross weight can be obtained, and then the difference
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between the gross weight thus calculated and these four items will give the
It is necessary to figure a likely value for the gross weight of the air-
3. The size and weight of the tail surfaces (once the wing area is tenta-
tively determined, the area of tail surfaces are likewise tentatively deter-
mined),
4. Fuselage length.
Manufacturers' ratings for wheels, tires, shock absorbers, and the like
are in terms of the static weight on these parts. Therefore, if the gross
weight of the airplane has been calculated, the static weight per wheel is
then one-half the gross weight of the airplane. The static weight on the
tail wheel varies from one-tenth to one-twelfth the gross weight of the
airplane. For these static weights, the sizes of the wheels and tires can
Once the wing area has been calculated tentatively, a tentative span
length can be set, and since the fuselage length varies from 60 to 70 per
cent of the span, the fuselage dimensions can be worked out readily. Just
RECAPITULATIONS
After the structural weights have been listed, the weights are totaled to
give another gross weight which may vary considerably from the previous
change the wing and tail surface area and therefore the weights of these
items. The weight of the landing gear usually remains the same since the
These corrections in the structural weight are continued with every new
total for the gross weight caused by these corrections until the changes are
the worksheet which follows. This form is shown in its preliminary stage.
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components are more easily weighed, and often a very detailed weight esti-
Power Plant
Starters.
Generators
Engine instruments
Engine controls
Fuel pumps
Scoops
Switches
Thermocouples
Deflectors .
Cowlings
Fire walls
Engine mounts
Exhaust manifolds
Fuel tanks
Fuel system
Oil tanks
Oil system
Miscellaneous
Combustible load
Gasoline ........
Oil ill:.
Crew
Navigator
Radioman
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Mechanic
Stewardess
Total crew
Payload
Express
Total payload
Flooring .
Batteries
Instruments
Lighting .
Radio equipment
Upholstery
Flares
Soundproofing
First aid
Refreshments.
Miscellaneous
Structure
Wing group
Wing panels
Ailerons
Flaps.
Flap controls
Spoilers
Spoiler controls
Fillets
Struts
Miscellaneous
Empennage group .
Elevators
Stabilizers
Rudders
Fins —
Struts
Control systems
Static balances
Body group
Doors
Windows
Fillets
Wheels
Tires
Brakes
Additional struts
Retracting mechanism
Cowlings .
Tail wheel
Tail tire
Retracting mechanisms
Total
sometimes present a problem, but in most cases their weights are negli-
gible with respect to the whole, so that little difference will be caused if
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wing (if the landing gear is to be retracted in it). If so, an attempt should
the wing.
When stubs of wings or tail surfaces are built integrally with the fuse-
lage the weights of such items should be included with the wings or tail
surfaces since it is obvious that the purposes which these parts serve should
132
ascertain the weights of such parts. One of the reasons for trying to keep
tion are introduced, the weights of component parts of the airplane may
1. Wing loading W/S: The higher the wing loading, the greater the
shear and bending moments, and therefore the more material required to
2. Aspect ratio R: The greater the aspect ratio for a given wing area,
the greater the span, and therefore the greater the bending moments;
with the aspect ratio factor, is the span loading W/b (the gross weight di-
vided by the span) since obviously the greater the span loading, the greater
airfoil used: Since the bending stress ft, = My/I, the maximum stress is
one-half the depth of the wing section; I varies as the third power of the
depth so that the stress would vary inversely, all other factors being equal,
as the square of the depth of the wing; therefore, the smaller the depth,
the greater the stress so that more material would be required in order that
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for the material used: If one material has three-fourths the allowable ulti-
mate stress, Fu, of another, then four-thirds of the one material, a 33J^ per
cent increase, would be needed for the one over the other.
6. Limit load factor n for which the wing was designed: It should be
PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATE
133
obvious that the greater the load factor, the greater the loads imposed,
counteracted by the inertia loads: If the weight of the gas tanks, engine
nacelles, bomb loads, and other items of equipment are distributed over
the span, the resultant loads in flight could be reduced materially. How-
ever, it might mean that landing conditions could become critical in the
design of the wing. For future reference, the mass distribution of the
8. Taper ratio, Ctip/Croot = Ct/Cr, since the greater the taper ratio, for
the same aspect ratio and area of the wing, the more load would be con-
centrated near the root of the wing, and therefore the smaller the bending
moment.
proaching that of sound, employ large angles of sweepback for the wing
with the result that large torsional moments are introduced. Any struc-
pression for the wing weight similar to the one that follows:
many wings as possible where the various parameters were sufficiently dif-
impress the student with the fact that there are many variables having an
into the use of any formulas which would have to be restricted to certain
types of wings. The following factors also have some bearing on the wing
weight.
spar (perhaps of wood) wings were commonly employed. These were fol-
or possibly,
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134
spars followed. As the wing and span loadings increased, more metal
wich construction (wherein two thin metal faces with a soft core of organic
or synthetic material) and thick metal plates for skin with longitudinal
ribs and no longitudinal spars are being employed. The changes have
brought about the transfer of material from spars to the covering, and
from fabric to plywood, to thin sheet metal, to thick plate, and to sand-
wich construction affect the wing weight since certain portions of the wing,
weight by virtue of their control systems; they increase the torsional and
used when such lift-increase devices are used, yet the weight contributed
by such devices depends upon, among others, the following factors: their
size, conditions under which they operate, variation caused in local pres-
wing and wing-control surface anti-icing and de-icing systems very often
can be allocated directly to these systems, there are certain items which
weights.
will affect the wing weight: Sometimes these can be accounted for sepa-
rately and allocated against the items causing the additional weight.
5. Type and size of lateral control surfaces: Normally, when the con-
ventional aileron is used, its area is considered part of the wing area. If
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verable military airplanes have used the device of making the outer wing-
the airplane encounters loads greater than that for which the major portion
of the airplane has been designed. While this stratagem is useful for
points are necessary for inspection and maintenance purposes, the struc-
stresses with respect to the structural material used for transfer of shearing
material provided to maintain the shape, or to cut off one section from
12. Actual size of the aircraft: Relatively small airplanes (for example,
When the aircraft reaches a size outside the immediate knowledge of the
more difficult since certain parts of the structure may not increase in weight
at the same rate as another part. For this reason any final formula
where w', w", w'", ..., etc., represent weights of different portions of the
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for weight estimation. If those are lacking, or if they are suspect, then
and then building the airplane upon such assumptions, subject to any
corrections that later stress analysis may reveal and basing subsequent
totype.
while to examine a few of the factors pertinent to the fuselage. The fol-
the fuselage. The greater this ratio, or the larger the diameter, the more
material involved.
ally the parameter used is the ratio of the fuselage length to wing span, or
L/b.
and the center of pressure of the tail surfaces: The parameter of interest
here would be the ratio of the tail length Lt to the mean aerodynamic
that the loads on the horizontal tail surfaces are large so that the trans-
verse shear may be greater than when the tail length is relatively large.
ally means that the aircraft has to be designed for a number of flight
conditions and usually calls for increased weight: The center of gravity
5. Design load factors for both flight and landing conditions: No one
load factor or condition is usually critical for the entire fuselage so that a
ratio oiv)//L where w/ is the fuselage weight and L the fuselage length.
PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATE
137
the order
However, there are other factors which would make necessary the
braced wing, and if the latter, whether the wing is fixed or pinned at the
fuselage.
As for the wing, the weight of the fuselage can be broken down into
component parts, but here again, some estimate must first be made of the
weight, to proceed with the more detailed design. It is only after the more
detailed design has progressed to a certain point that it is possible to get the
can be revised.
this discussion will apply primarily to the vertical and horizontal tail sur-
faces although some of the factors concerning them apply with equal force
1. Aspect ratio R.
3. The ratio of the aerodynamic balance area <S», ahead of the hinge
or SJSC.
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unit weight of the tail surfaces or Wc/Sc where Wc represents the weight
7. Tail length Lt of the airplane, since the farther back, in terms of the
mean aerodynamic chord C, the tail surfaces are from the center of gravity
Such a formula could be broken down separately for the fixed and mov-
The landing gear, perhaps more than any other structural assembly
with the exception of the power plant group, consists of a number of units
whose weight is not determined by the airplane designer so that the struc-
they are designed to meet the conditions for which they are used.
Wheels, brakes, tires, and to some degree, the shock absorber, are de-
of gross weights. In the main, they are designed for a given gross weight
the manufacturers by rating them according to the static weight they are
supposed to carry.
2. Loads applied to the structure which depend upon the type of land-
type;
type, etc.;
5. Materials used.
3. Position with relation to the fuselage or the leading edge of the wing,
disconnect features.
catalogs.
theoretical approaches.
The aircraft designer has little control over the weight of such items
The fabricated portion of the airplane may not amount to more than
15 to 35% of the gross weight. Even if the designer were able to devise
structures having weight differences of 40%, the final result would affect
the gross weight not more than about 10%. Nevertheless, he should
make every attempt to obtain the lightest structure possible, and his
here. The student may choose the ones he deems appropriate or use
Wing Weight
1. One formula for wing-weight estimation which may be used for air-
Ww = ^ (0.18756 + 53.50),
value),
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140
gross weight W„ is itself an estimate at this stage; the load factor n is a
function of the aircraft weight and its performance (both still in their
formative stages); the span 6 of the wing is a function of the gross weight
aspect ratio is known. The indications, therefore, are that any complex
pounds:
pounds:
5. For gross weights between 70,000 and 150,000 pounds for commercial
airplanes:
pounds:
C = chord in inches,
141
10. Metal wings internally braced, with flaps and retracting mechanism:
2.6 to 4.6 lb per sq ft, with the higher value for wings incorporating high-
the usual flaps and ailerons (either or both of which may have dual func-
tions), are incorporated into the trailing edge of the wing. The weights
of these wings tend to average on the high side per square foot compared
13. Ww = 0.00591 -
Tail Surfaces
WR = J^(S, + 340);
WB = ^(S* + 340);
Wf = Jb(s" + 490);
Ws = OS*+ 475);
where WR, We, Wf, Ws represent the weights of the rudder, elevator,
fin, and stabilizer, respectively, and ST, S„ Sf, S„ S„ Sh represent the areas
of the rudder, elevator, fin, stabilizer, vertical tail surfaces, and horizontal
w- - H - tsSst] w-
5. For military aircraft between 10,000 and 35,000 pounds gross weight:
w„-[am
w..
L 100,000.
6. For military aircraft between 35,000 and 70,000 pounds gross weight:
W..
100.000J
7. For military aircraft between 70,000 and 90,000 pounds gross weight:
weight:
Fuselage Weight
be estimated in terms of the gross weight is given here for airplanes weigh-
F 12
Such a formula is perhaps too simple, since it would indicate that the
fuselage weight for all airplanes is a little more than eight per cent of the
gross weight of the airplane. However, the value obtained is useful for
a first approximation.
2. Welded tubular type: 0.70 to 1.80 lb per in. of length. The length
of the fuselage is considered to be the distance from the fire wall to the
tail post.
dimensions in feet.
frames.
6. For commercial aircraft between 1,500 and 5,000 pounds gross weight:
WF = .205 Wg - 140.
pounds:
WF = .073 W„.
.004 w;
WF = .0853 -
100,000J
4«
Landing Gear
Where there are several landing-gear assemblies (for example, a nose wheel
The static weight per wheel and tire is one half of the gross weight. The
static weight per tail wheel is from one tenth to one twelfth of the gross
weight. For tricycle landing gear, assume one sixth to one eighth on the
front wheel, the remainder on the rear wheel. With the static load
rating known, the required wheel size and corresponding weight may be
determined.
weight:
w» = [06°— mM w*
W = 10 + 00010 Wg.
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PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATE 145
A check on the calculation of the weights for the wing, tail surfaces,
fuselage, and landing gear may be made with the aid of the following
formulas:
pounds:
pounds:
.12 W„
WST =
.36
100,000j
w* = [0032 - mki\w-
7. For jet aircraft, the structural weight is about the same, being only
about Yi percent less. The above estimates may therefore be used for
foot, the weight empty, and the structural (or airframe) weight may be
estimated as follows:
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146
(a)
.054 - 0.003 4r W,
9i
(b)
WST
178 w {W
Weight Empty
power plant, and fixed equipment may be gained by comparing the total
with the values obtained for the weight empty from the appropriate
Engine Nacelles
gas turbines, and similar power plants, the data on weights of the power-
plant housing in the airplane are still too meager to permit the derivation
(a) For aircraft weighing between 20,000 and 60,000 pounds, having
2 or 4 engine nacelles:
(b) For aircraft weighing between 60,000 and 150,000 pounds, having
4, 6, or 8 engine nacelles:
WB = &*Wg - 450.
W„ = 2 (WM)«*.
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PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATE
147
3. For jet installations, the weight of the power plant plus the nacelles
gross weight.
Fuel Weight
usually given in terms of the number of pounds per horsepower per hour.
operating regime of the engine, but for weight calculations, the specific
cruising speed is usually 2/3 of the rated power rating. The following
Oil Weight
= 32-40 lb.
5. Exhaust manifolds:
Qutside
diam. (in.)
Wall
thickness,
min. (in.)
Purpose
Fuel to be delivered
(a)
Up to 60 gal/hr
0.040
(b)
Up to 30 gal/hr
From 30 to 60 gal/hr
0.032
0.040
drains
(c)
(d)
Primer tubing
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0.032
(e)
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Vents
0.032
100 4.50
100-350 6.65
350-450 8.00
450-550 9.50
550 up 12.10 up
w" = [lâ„¢-wmw-]w-
13. For military airplanes of gross weights between 20,000 and 60,000
pounds:
14. For military airplanes of gross weights between 60,000 and 140,000
pounds:
w»'[M7-v&w']w';
15. For military airplanes of gross weights between 140,000 and 300,000
pounds:
w" = [â„¢-mmw-]w*
Gross Weight
per horsepower.
3. Private airplanes with single jet units, operating at speeds less than
500 miles per hour, have thrust loadings (W/T) of between 3.5 to 6.25
000 and 700 miles per hour, have thrust loadings (W/T) of between 2.5
about 650 miles per hour, have weight-thrust ratios of between 3.5 and 3.85.
around 650 miles per hour, have weight-thrust ratios of between 4 and
5.75.
per hour or greater, whether utilizing one or two jet units, have had
Miscellaneous Weights
Weights of equipment will vary with type and quantity. See Table
Propeller Weights
Item
Weight
(lb)
Item
Weight
(lb)
passenger 2.5
passenger 40.0
Berth equipment:
Bedsheet 0.5
Blanket 2.7
Mattress 4.8
Pillow 1.8
Pillowcase 0.2
Table 4.0
(quantity in parentheses):
(1) 0.7
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seat) 24.5
Wicker 14.4
son) 170
Curtain 1.25
Cylinders, Oxygen
Item Weight
(ft)
Flashlight 1.75
passenger) 0.5-10
Machete 2.5
Parachutes
pad 21.0
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Over-
U-ft
size
Pack Type
Canopy
Canopy
Seat (fixed)
20H
2iy2
23 H
Back (fixed)
18
20
Item Weight
(lb)
able) 19 21
Chest 20 22
Pump:
Table VIII-3.
Size tire
and wheel
Max
static
load
(lb)
Infl
press
(lbs
per
in.)
Wt in pounds•
subject to
change with-
out notice
Tire
only
Reg
tube
Dimensions (in.)
Over-
all
diam
Sec-
tion
diam
Static
loaded
radius
Landing-Wheel Tires
30x5
1,600
30
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17.0
2.6
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29.76
5.01
13.7
12.0
26x6
3,750
90
21.4
2.8
25.53
6.53
11.4
8.9
26x6
3,750
63
26.6
2.8
25.62
6.56
11.4
9.3
30x7
4,700
90
28.6
3.8
29.19
7.70
13.0
9.9
PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATE 153
Wt in pounds,
subject to
Size tire
and wheel
Max
static
load0
Ob)
Infl
press
(lbs
change with-
out notice
Dimensions (in.)
per
Over-
all
diam
Sec-
tion
diam
Static
loaded
radius
Flat
tire
radius
in.)
Tire
only
Reg
tube
19x6.80—10
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1,600
55
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12.4
2.4
19.38
6.76
8;7
7.1
22x7.25—11.50
2,000
55
14.5
3.2
22.08
7.29
9.8
7.8
26x9.00—13
3,750
50
30.3
4.2
25.92
8.85
11.6
9.2
30x10.50—15
5,000
50
46.2
6.3
29.98
10.30
154
1,125 106
1,620 180
1,965 200
2,425 230
2,880 260
3,610 313
4,210 363
4,910 397
5,680 417
6,560 437
Weight (lb)
Actuating Cylinders: .
Working
Length (in.)
Extended Retracted
47 28 1,000 28
57 31 1.000 5
49 21.75 1,100 13
32 18 1,500 4.75
17 12 1,000 5.25
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Accumulators:
The balance diagram shows the location of the centers of gravity of the
tical datum planes which may fall outside the drawing of the airplane
chosen that all moment arms are of the same sign. For use in the field,
however, the balance diagram is redrawn to show the location of the cen-
ters of gravity with reference to a point (usually the leading edge of the
GENERAL PROCEDURE
Along with the balance diagram, there is a balance table listing all the
items contained in the weight estimate, with their weights and center of
lations for various possible centers of gravity for the complete airplane
are included.
while in flight. For example, the fuel and oil are being used up at a con-
stant rate and, therefore, some of the weight disappears so that the center
of gravity may change. Another case may occur when the balance is cor-
rect with the passenger cabin filled. What happens when there are no
passengers, or only a few? Suppose again, that there are only a few pas-
sengers in a large cabin and when the flight starts, they sit in the forward
load" (although rightly the crew is included ordinarily in the term) have
155
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156
lation diagram, and therefore the fuselage becomes the first object in air-
plane design since it normally houses all the items that may change in
the nose of the fuselage, the procedure in obtaining a likely balance dia-
gram is to draw the engine and engine accessories accurately to scale, then
the firewall, then the pilot's cockpit, then the passenger cabin, in the order
in which they normally occur. They are arranged according to the de-
the kitchen, bedrooms, bathrooms, and the like to provide the maximum
cockpit, and the passenger cabin will affect the length of the fuselage, its
After the interior arrangements have been placed more or less as they
are wanted, a preliminary investigation is made to find out how much the
center of gravity of the fuselage and its contents vary when a certain num-
ber of passengers are removed. It may be found that because of first dic-
tates for passenger comfort, too much space has been allotted between
seats so that when the rear seats of the cabin are empty the center of
gravity is too far forward; or the reverse is true when the front passenger
seats are empty. Thus the seats should be a little closer so that having a
fort and finds that giving too much fore and aft room makes for poor bal-
ing too much height for the passengers may increase the cross-sectional
The top view is usually left to the last, unless the passenger accommo-
It is usually wise not to give too much space for the engine compartment,
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the pilot's cockpit, or the passenger cabin. Especially in the first solution
tage of many small factors instead of a few large ones. To the uninitiated,
the balance diagram may seem simple, but it is really the crux of the entire
design. If the rules laid down subsequently in this chapter are obeyed,
157
accuracy.
The center of gravity location along the chord of the wing determines
the pitching moments of the airplane. In order to get the airplane to trim
on the wing are counterbalanced by the pitching moments of the tail sur-
faces. The pitching moments produced by the fuselage usually play but
a small part.
shown in the figure given in Chapter III, Airfoil Selection. The resultant
of the parasite resistance, which includes the drag of the tail surfaces, is
The pitching moments about the center of gravity may then be expressed
as follows:
where cos at has been considered equal to 1, sin at negligible, and the drag
q =y*pv\
center,
158
Cm.*. =
Lw —
Da =
DP =
Ma.c. =
Me.,. =
Lt
gravity,
qCLS,
qCDS,
qCD,S,
qCM„.cs,
qCLjSt,
J Fig. III-l.
See
To account for the fact that the air velocity over the tail surfaces may
0.8
^04
.I
§
6-0.4
ac-<~
-y
1+
*1
â– 'i<
e
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^+1
\
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• —r
^+05
N\
0.5
Complete N
Wing nlane*^
airplane
\^
-4e
8*
12' 16°
Figure IX-1. Wing pitching moments—the effect of moving the center of gravity
along a line parallel to the wing chord and through the aerodynamic center.
THE BALANCE DIAGRAM
159
The pitching moments due to the aerodynamic forces on the wing alone
have been calculated for a number of center of gravity locations and have
been plotted in Figures IX-1 and IX-2. It will be noted that moving the
center of gravity longitudinally along the chord has a greater effect upon
to the chord.
slope and angle of trim for the pitching moment curves for the complete
and for the wing alone represents the pitching moments that would have
Since the pitching moments of the horizontal tail surfaces are propor-
tional to XtCjJSt, it can be seen immediately that the larger the tail mo-
ment required, the larger either the tail length x2C should be, or the
greater the horizontal tail area St should be, or the combination of both.
Further, the slope of the pitching moment curve is a function of the slope
12'
16* 20°
Figure IX-2. Wing pitching moments—the effect of moving the center of gravity
dd/da of the lift curve of the tail surfaces. This slope is determined by
the aspect ratio of the tail surfaces and the larger the aspect ratio, the
Practical Solution
In order to obtain the right degree of stability with the necessary amoun t
the aerodynamic center of the wing as possible while the horizontal tail
surfaces are placed from to 3 times the mean aerodynamic chord be-
Since the airplane has to carry a variable payload from time to time, it
the given design by calculating the pitching moments for the complete
If the center of gravity is moved ahead of its design position, the air-
plane will be more stable, but will trim with the same horizontal tail sur-
plane will be less stable and, with the same tail surface configuration, will
dition.
The general rule is that the center of gravity of the completed airplane
should not change more than 10 to 14 per cent of the mean geometric
chord of the wing between the fully loaded condition and a condition
that for an airplane weighing 10,000 pounds, fully loaded, which has a
mean geometric chord of 100 inches, the movement for a condition less
than fully loaded should not be more than 8 inches. When the fuselage
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and its contents are considered alone (as they would be in preliminary
calculations) this movement for the same airplane may be greater, say
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For preliminary design, an eight per cent travel in the center of gravity
movement is used. If the airplane were highly stable for the fully-loaded
condition, then an eight per cent movement forward would increase the
THE BALANCE DIAGRAM
161
had the minimum stability for the loaded condition, then an eight per
after the balance diagram and the general configuration have been set.
After detailed static longitudinal calculations have been made for the
fully loaded airplane, some restrictions can be set on the movement of the
Starting with the fuselage and its contents, each item from the nose of
When the fuselage and its contents are located, the center of gravity of
the fuselage and its contents are determined. In the calculations to de-
cide upon the center of gravity, the horizontal and vertical tail surfaces
To determine the center of gravity, two datum lines are chosen: one
tangent to the foremost point on the airplane for the. horizontal arms of
the individual items; another, usually the ground line, for the vertical
arms. It is desirable to choose these datum lines so that the arms are all
gravity of the whole group is located where the designer wants it. Figure
The calculations should be set up in the form of a table, listing all items
included in the fuselage and its contents. Table IX-1 has been set up
located at about the same spot and determine the center of gravity of the
(1)
.(2)
Distance
(3)
(4)
Distance
(5)
from
vertical
datum
from
horizontal
datum
Weight
in lb
Horizontal
moment
Vertical
moment
Item
•
2. Engine
^Starter
X Hotspot
/ST^Oiltank
9. Oil
11. Pilot
12. Co-pilot
14. Controls
^STTwo seats
,29^ Lighting
^ Fuel tanks
37. Fuel
163
164
Column 2 = H
wings, it is usually desirable to treat the engines with the fuselage as a unit,
since the fore and aft position of the engines is determined by the location
the fuselage. The supporting structure making up the engine nacelle will
then be 00constructed later when the wing has been placed in its correct
position.
is that the wing planf orm and spar locations may undergo several revisions
in order to get suitable attachment points for the spars at the fuselage that
will not interfere with any internal arrangements. With each spar loca-
tion or wing planform, however, the original position of the engines re-
gravity of the complete airplane, but any wing planform having the same
length and location of the mean aerodynamic chord may be used. (See
Figure IX-4.) The terms mean geometric chord and mean aerodynamic
gravity location requirements for the complete airplane or, more likely,
because the pilot and the primary-control units (excluding cables and
control rods) should be so located that none lies in the region between the
plane of rotation of the propeller and the surface generated by a line pass-
It is usually easier to treat next the wing and the landing gear as a unit.
Since both the wing and the landing-gear positions are critical with refer-
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with a final center of gravity location. Figure IX-5 shows the complete
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tion of the propeller. The vertical position will have to be assumed. For
this assumption be found later to be a few inches off, it will usually not
vertical drawn through the center of gravity will intersect the ground line
at the point of tangency of the wheel with the ground. Thus the wheel
is located.
The quarter point of the mean aerodynamic chord of the wing falls di-
rectly below (in the case of a low-wing monoplane) or directly above (in
Table IX-2.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Weight,
Vertical
Vertical
No.
Item designation
arm, y
moment, Wy
Wing
w,
Vi
wiVi
w,
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2/2
3
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w,
2/3
W,y,
Landing-gear struts
wt
2/«
Wl + Wt + W, +
Table IX-3.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Weight,
Horizontal
Horizontal
No.
Item designation
arm, x
moment, Wx
Wing
Wl
Xl
WlXl
wt
Xt
THE BALANCE DIAGRAM
167
moment arms of the wing and landing-gear groups. The numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4 refer
When these calculations are finished, the group may be located on the
and its contents. Its horizontal movement is known and may be found
from Table IX-1, considering all except the last four items. The 2 indi-
cates the center of gravity of the wing and landing-gear group which has
just been determined. Its distance d behind the quarter point on the
d = X - \iC.
The final position of the center of gravity of the complete airplane must
be in the plane y-y through the quarter point just mentioned. Let:
Since the horizontal moment of the complete airplane equals the sum of
Wtd
*= FT*
ered with the wing and landing-gear group in these calculations instead of
with the fuselage group, it would be possible for the center of gravity of
the group (wing, engines, fuel tanks, landing gear, etc.) to fall ahead of the
Before proceeding with the final form of the balance diagram, check the
1. Depressed elevator.
2. Depressed flap.
3. Propeller.
Also check the distance between the tail post and the center of gravity
in terms of the mean geometric chord. All weight items appearing in the
When the balance diagram has been made in its final form, the balance
SUPPLEMENTARY CALCULATIONS
169
half behind the center of gravity for the fully loaded position. A greater
locations of the center of gravity show that the airplane has sufficient
stability.
such as passengers, baggage, fuel (but excluding the pilot in these calcu-
provided.
BALLAST
following provisions:
(a) Ballast should not be used for this purpose in aircraft having a
cargo.
(c) The place or places for carrying ballast should be properly de-
(d) The loading schedule which accompanies each license issued for
mental regulations.
The centers of gravity of, the individual items may be determined by in-
The following list will give some indication of the procedure to be fol-
lowed.
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Propeller
Engine
Accessories
At centerline
Given by manufacturer
Estimate
170
30-35% of chord
If the wing is assumed to weigh the same per square foot from root to
tip, and if the center of gravity of each chord is located from 25 to 40 per
cent behind the leading edge, the center of gravity of the entire wing
would be at 25 or 40 per cent of the mean geometric chord, as the case may
be. Its vertical position may be assumed halfway between the top and
bottom camber at the mean chord, taking into account the location of the
Fuel tanks, filled with fuel, of irregular cross section from one end to
the other may be resolved into a series of volumes whose centers of gravity
gravity of the complete unit. The center of gravity of the empty tank,
unless more accurate data are available, may be assumed to coincide with
an object with which one is not familiar and for which there is no pertinent
information at hand. That would be the time to use some extra imagina-
the location of the center of gravity of the bare fuselage structure? A good
located at the center. The center of gravity of the fuselage must then
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lie ahead rather than behind the midpoint, unless some unusual condition
exists. The larger cross section ahead of the midpoint, the greater con-
centration of load, and the many more complexities of the structure caused
by windows and doors all indicate a center of gravity at about the mid-
point of this front half section alone, or at 25% of the total length. The
center of gravity of the complete fuselage structure would then lie some-
171
While such an approach assumes that the structure has some degree of
the like, a more careful and precise determination of the center of gravity
can be made.
are not serious. Suppose, for example, that the center of gravity of an
item weighing 50 pounds was wrongly located by two inches, making for
airplane was 2000 pounds, then the center of gravity location would be off
the center of gravity of the individual items may be more serious, how-
ever, when the local effects under dynamic conditions are considered.
possible, but the absence of such data, especially for non-critical items,
The Cockpit
The cockpit may be considered the most vital part of the airplane, for
in it all functions of the airplane and its power plant are coordinated and
All control systems terminate in the cockpit; all operational and navi-
gational instruments are located here; all decisions regarding the flight of
the airplane, with the very few exceptions when the airplane is about to
take off and land, are determined here. As the airplane grows larger, the
Since the pilot and his aides, such as the co-pilot or the navigational
officer or some other member of the crew, spend their entire time on a
flight in the cockpit, it is absolutely necessary that every means for com-
vision, and a host of other odds and ends which contribute to the efficiency
and well-being of the crew, be carefully planned and arranged. Too often
may find that he has not been given enough leg room or enough headroom
position. Or, he may find that his vision forward, sideward, upward, and
downward is very poor so that when he takes off from an airport or wants
to land, he must guess instead of being able to see how or where he is tak-
Another difficulty may be that the instruments are not arranged prop-
erly: that he cannot quickly see the instruments which he needs to guide
him in the proper operation of the engines and in the proper execution of
In some cases minor faults may be corrected to suit the flying personnel
172
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THE COCKPIT
173
signed.
Naturally, the thought arises: Why not standardize the cockpit in its
possible to standardize cockpit design wholly until all the parts and equip-
data not measured before. Or, new equipment is designed that will take
care of some additional functions, but which may not wholly replace other
lighten the burdens of the operating personnel, but their placement may
reasons:
(1) Student confidence builder. With instructor alongside, student can be more
(2) Ease of instruction. Instructor can observe student at all times, be "ahead" of
The general arrangement of instruments and controls are such that, with the student
sitting on left side, the instructor on the right, the navigation and flight instruments are
positioned on student's side, the engine instruments above throttle pedestal. The radio
controls are in front of the instructor, but are within reach of the student.
Positioned on the left, on student's side, are navigational and flight instruments
including directional and altitude indicators, altimeter, turn and slip, rate of climb and
airspeed indicators, course indicator (omni), and clock. Engine instruments, set over
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the center quadrant, include tachometers, exhaust temperature indicators, fuel flow
indicators, oil pressure gages, loadmeters, accelerometer and fuel quantity indicator.
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In front of the instructor, on the right but within reach of student, are radio controls,
circuit breaker and instrument panel, a.c. fuses, plus airspeed and turn and slip indicators
and altimeter.
Controls are easily accessible from either side of cockpit. Stick grips and throttle
quadrants are fighter type. Four throttles are provided, two for each quadrant.
Throttle movement mechanically actuates each engine fuel control by means of push-
positioning of either set of throttles from idle to cut-off. There is no de-icing equipment,
but an engine ice-warning light, on instrument panel, will illuminate when ice forms over
and instructor are located on lower left and right side of instrument panel.
The trainer incorporates a simple cockpit check. Airplane can be started on its own
battery or external starter. Six to 10 starts can be made on former. Standard starting
procedure is: Battery and inverter on, fuel pump on, open fuel shut-off valve for left
engine, push up on starter switch and hold at 5% rpm, push up on ignition switch and
hold, bring throttle forward to idle, release starter and ignition switches at 22% rpm
Engine will idle at 35%. Same procedure is used to start right engine.
Power steering is activated by button on stick, and slight rudder pressure steers air-
plane neatly and quickly. Nose wheel will steer on free swivel to 50 deg. Large
Before take-off there are two safety pins for the student to pull and one for the instruc-
tor. One of the pins is for canopy jettison and one for student's ejection seat. The
instructor's pin is for his ejection seat. Before aircraft is entered, ground crew removes
a fourth jettison pin for canopy behind and beyond reach of pilots.
A "hot" mike, geared to the helmet, enables instructor and student to talk—without
button pushing—from time electrical power is turned on until engines are shut down.
Since the pilot is the most important item in the design of his headquar-
placed in various postures to see whether the pilot's seat is far enough up
from the floor, that the legs are not outstretched too far for comfort, and
that the control stick or wheel is not too far ahead so that it is awkward
then there should be at least enough room above his head so that he can
lean forward or back, or raise himself up slightly from the seat without
Once the pilot has been comfortably seated—and it is desirable that his
legs make an angle of not greater than 45 degrees with the floor to assure
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ward, upward, downward, and sideward vision. When this has been done,
the windshield may be located. It should not be too far forward since the
ceiling will come too far ahead of the pilot and interfere with his line of
vision. Likewise, the windshield should not be curved in more than two
175
a few required features may well be made here. All switches and controls
ivhich the pilot must operate should be located as close to him as possible
pilot's ability to operate the airplane properly at any time and especially
located in front of him. Others are slightly out of his prevailing line of
direct vision.
When the arrangements for distances and clearances have been settled
above and below the pilot, as well as behind and ahead of him, some atten-
and an appreciable allowance made for the aisle between the two. These
allowances often determine the width of the fuselage unless the airplane is
very large. The result is that designers tend to skimp on width allowances
because the greater the width, the greater the eventual effect upon the
will be enormous as far as the comfort of the pilot is concerned and will
In new designs it is usually the custom to lay out the pilot's cockpit on
nailed, bolted, or screwed together. In the mockup, a man may sit in the
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
The following items must be considered in the design and study of ar-
7. Brake systems.
9. Automatic-pilot equipment.
11. Lighting.
vision.
The cockpit and primary control units, excluding cables and control
rods, should be so located with respect to the propellers that the pilot or
controls are not in the region between the plane of rotation of any propeller
and the surface generated by a line passing through the center of the pro-
peller hub and making an angle of 5 degrees forward or tfft of the plane of
Unless the airplane carries less than five passengers, the pilot or pilots
cockpit from the cabin is permitted, but passage through the cockpit
When the pilot is entirely separated from the passengers, suitable means
for communication between the pilot or pilots and the passengers should
be provided.
and the passengers above 18,000 feet altitude, or when operations are for
rain are deflected across the opening when the windshields are open.
avoided.
177
For best vision, the windshield should be placed vertically although this
ing windshield which tends to keep the streamline shape of the fuselage
is the best.
be made to retract into the fuselage just after take-off. This could be
in the nose of the fuselage where, due to the enormous size, flat panes in-
serted in the surface hardly affect the smooth contour of the streamlined
body.
easily in flight. Unless the windshields are such that rain, snow, or ice
will not stick to the surface and impede vision, they should be arranged so
that the air stream and snow or rain are deflected across the opening.
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178
shield is retracted.
Figure X-5. This windshield arrangement provides better visibility for the pilot,
but offers greater aerodynamic resistance than any of the previous solutions shown.
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179
Figure X-6. A typical nose-treatment for high-speed aircraft. Note the careful
streamlining of the windshield into the fuselage lines. The use of a periscope for the
landing operation has been proposed, with radar serving for the other situations of visual
observation. The nose section can be constructed in the form of a jettisonable capsule,
Figure X-7. A pilot's canopy that hinges at the rear and is held up by a hydraulic-
of the three lugs on each side, through which pins are passed. All connections can be
released in time for the ejection of the pilot with his seat.
Windshields fronting on the sides of the cabin may be kept free of ice by
safety-glass pane in front and a J^-inch transparent plastic rear pane with
a J^-inch air space separating the two. Air, heated to 170° F, from the
reflections and glare which might interfere with the pilot's vision, particu-
larly at night.
By means of Figure X-9, the thickness of the glass for the windshield
P = 21,000 fl/Af
where P = unit pressure in pounds per square inch (or square foot)
Characteristics of Glass
Fahrenheit.
Modulus of rup- 3,500 lb per in.2 Weight 3.29 lb per ft2 (M inch
ture thickness)
All the windows in the windshield should be made to open quickly, and
be removable, if desired. The glass should not lie too flat. An angle be-
tween 0 and 45 degrees between the vertical and plane of the glass when
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the airplane is horizontal is recommended. If the glass lies too flat, dis-
tortion of vision or undesirable reflections from the sky above may result.
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The thickness of the glass depends upon the type and size of plane.
visibility of 17° or00more over the nose can be obtained, whereas the other
type of airplane permits as little as 3° and seldom more than 5°.
with an inversion of the normal brightness direction. The sky and the
clouds at or near the earth's surface are normally brighter than the ter-
rain. Thus, at high altitude the pilot is covered with a black sky, while
the haze and clouds in the atmosphere below him are extremely bright.
Human beings are designed with eyes recessed under the frontal region of
the skull and with eyebrows superimposed. This is to protect the eyes
Unobstructed forward vision for the pilot under all conditions is most
desirable. For easy landing, it should be possible to see the wheels at the
vision forward.
Figure X-10. The closer the obstruction to the eye, the greater the angle subtended
The twin-engine designs can usually provide for excellent vision forward
cylinders.
A wing with sweepback usually does not permit as good a view of the
much of a "blind spot" when located relatively far from the pilot's eyes.
windows are relatively close to the pilot's face. The type of windshield
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that slopes rearward from top to bottom (Figure X-5) does not afford
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THE COCKPIT
183
much vision upward or sideways since the pilot is required to seat himself
Canopies
SEATING
vertically, as well as fore and aft, and angularly. The back of the seat
The seat should be provided with arms, so designed that the inside arm
can be swung out of the way when getting in or out of the seat.
struments; where this is not possible, the left-hand seat should be favored.
This is known as the first pilot's seat, and the right-hand one is termed
When a wheel control is used, the height of the wheel should be such that
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186
28 inches; across each knee, 6 to 8 inches; and above knees and thighs, 26
inches. For the occupant of the private airplane with an operational ceil-
ing below 10,000 feet and with provision of a reasonable heating system,
necessary clothing is not so heavy nor thick so that the dimensions speci-
pilot. For this purpose, the dimensions of a man who is 6 feet tall are
EXITS
If the cockpit is not accessible from the cabin, a separate door should be
exit as well. If the windshield is large enough when opened, it may serve
When the airplane is not equipped to carry passengers, the pilot's com-
partment may be either open or equipped with a hatch of such size that it
can be used for an emergency exit for the crew with parachutes.
openings are generally not large enough, however, for a man equipped with
a parachute, and are usually intended for emergency exit on the ground.
Without a shoulder harness to hold the pilot in his seat, severe or fatal
the instrument panel. The danger can be avoided by making the space
equal to the length of the torso from the hips to the top of the head,
might hit his head in a crash should have the following characteristics:
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2. They should be rigid enough to help support the head but should
187
pressure intensity;
contact pressures;
EJECTION EQUIPMENT
reasonably safe for aircraft speeds up to Mach 0.5. Beyond this limit,
various escape methods have been proposed and possible solutions arc
It has been suggested that between speeds of Mach 0.5 and 1.5, an
escape chute located in the bottom of the fuselage may be suitable. Ejec-
tion of the pilot, complete with seat and head and face protection gear, is
another alternative.
From about Mach 1.0 up, a capsule holding the pilot's cockpit would
means.
shown that a spin of 160 rpm for 12 seconds will produce unconsciousness,
and that visual, mental, and physical disorientation will take place at 90
rpm, or even less. Rotation at 200 rpm for two minutes has proved
make any self-contained system free from tumbling and spinning char-
acteristics.
equipment would have greater mass and better streamlining than a body
tolerance and give protection from tumbling, wind blast, extreme temper-
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the capsule would also protect the pilot from such conditions as dynamic
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heating and sudden decelerations, which make re-entry into the normal
periods.
188
PARACHUTES
gers are carried. When the airplane does not carry passengers, pilots
CONTROLS
The distance from a control wheel in its rearmost position to the back of
189
the pilot should be at least 12 inches. The height of the wheel should
clear the pilot's legs with the seat in its highest position.
trol surfaces.
trol is incorporated.
sengers, crew, nor cargo will interfere with the operation of such controls
during the course of flight of the airplane. Further, all controls must be
so located and designed that the pilot or co-pilot will not bump them when
moving in or out of his seat, or in and around the cockpit. Latest designs
This makes for faster action by the pilot and minimizes error in selecting
INSTRUMENT BOARD
the instrument board, with the flight instruments and power-plant instru-
ments in front of the pilot. The controls and switches should be readily
accessible, and in case of pilot and co-pilot arrangements, the engine con-
In a twin-engine airplane there are some 16 controls for the power plant
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brakes, as well as flaps and tab controls, for which provision must be made
easy access even to the largest instrument. It may be made of any mate-
be made to Chapters XI, XVI, and XX, entitled Instruments and Equip-
Figure X-18. Side and plan views of controls and instrument board for prone
position of pilot, which permits smaller cross section of fuselage for high-speed airplanes.
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CHAPTER
From the first flight of the Wright brothers, and practically up to about
1928, pilots flew by feel and intuition. Today they cannot trust their own
ing, since airplanes are becoming faster and more complicated with each
new design. Fogs, high altitudes, and night flying obliterate landmarks.
High headwinds, sleet, snow, and rain interfere with the intuitive senses
of the pilots. They must rely, for safety's sake, almost entirely on radio
passes, automatic pilots, turn and bank indicators, and at least 25 other
dials and gadgets essential to the safe operation of the airplane in all kinds
of weather.
no matter how well qualified the pilot may be along these lines, he would
how the engines were performing, what speed the airplane was making, at
the various instruments, for example, on the aircraft instrument board has
been the subject of considerable controversy among pilots since the pilot's
needs also vary with the type of flying he has to do. To this day, it has
been impossible for pilots to agree upon a definite location of even a few
considered that the use of various instruments differs considerably for each
191
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192
only and not by actual view of the airport on which landing is taking place)
are rarely, if ever, used in normal landing. The best instrument board,
therefore, is the best compromise that has been worked out for the par-
to be able to step into a strange airplane and feel reasonably sure that he
will be able to locate any particular instrument in the usual place on the
ready pointed out, is also difficult owing to space and structural limita-
tions, as well as the size and shape of various airplanes. Some degree of
The military services prescribe some specifications, and the various air-
craft are able to follow these in most instances except for the relatively
small airplane where some elasticity is necessary because of the small area
The primary flight group is immediately in front of the pilot and near the
top of the panel. This group consists of the Sperry turn indicator and the
Sperry flight indicator, both on the same level. Below these is the second-
ary flight group consisting of the airspeed, bank and turn indicator com-
bined, and the rate of climb instruments. To the left, either in the same
The engine instruments are usually grouped in the same general pattern,
location available as well as the particular purpose for which the instru-
the presence of rain, air turbulence, and darkness, he will have inter-
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preted these readings and applied control forces for definite corrections
have responded to, actuated, or concerned himself with over 200 cockpit
stops his aircraft and clears the runway, he will have made more than
1,000 major and minor decisions and 2,000 lever, switch, and control
INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT 193
segment of time.
While the commercial pilot may not have quite so many operations,
with the increase in the speed of aircraft, the time for split decisions
[ \)
Time in seconds
4 3 2 10 12 3 4
Distance in feet
amount of time spent in any phase of the time-response sequence would result in a
collision. Similarly, a marked increase in the relative aircraft speeds would make
wing span would be visible as a point. Two 900-mph airplanes approaching head-on
INSTRUMENT BOARD
aluminum alloy sheet are made in thicknesses varying from J^j; to }/$ inch.
The instrument board should be fully accessible from the rear so that
paid to the depth of the instrument, space required for removal, and extra
be mounted on either felt or sponge rubber. Elastic stop nuts are excel-
lent for fastening down bolts which do not need extra lock washers. As
the board with the instruments has sufficient weight of its own to acquire
Location
Instruments should be located far enough away from the pilot to permit
him to see all the instruments at a glance. If there are a great many in-
struments, the more important ones should be grouped so that they may
be seen readily.
Grouping
gether and preferably right in the line of sight of the pilot. Likewise,
and instruments and accessories used for heating and ventilating and
ticular group.
Variety of Instruments
the pressure.
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out. It is used to determine the maximum loads imposed upon the air-
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additional data, but is not required or used by the pilot for his information.
and used to operate the control surfaces to maintain an even keel without
the intervention of the pilot. The automatic pilot relieves the pilot of
much strain of constantly "flying" the airplane so that he can devote more
of bank.
that the pilot has a ready means of determining whether he is climbing fast
tively, the airplane is descending. The dial is marked to read "Up" and
"Down."
is required when the range is 100 or more miles, or when operating over
the actual flight path of the airplane and the longitudinal axis of the air-
12. Fuel level gauge—a long-distance indicating gauge for registering the
actual fuel level in the fuel tank. If there are several fuel tanks, a sepa-
13. Fuel pressure gauge—indicates the fuel pressure in the fuel line,
necessary for determining whether the fuel is brought to the engine in the
proper quantities.
These generators generate the power required for lighting and for motor-
driven appliances.
which are changed from time to time by the pilot to give the necessary
well as tanks and distributing units. Airplanes flying above 14,000 feet
for any great length of time are required to carry this equipment.
196
matically controlled, there are certain control instruments and pitch indi-
there may be pumps for the hydraulic systems, and in some cases, oil
pumps may also be required. Pumps operated by hand, or used for in-
termittent duty only, are usually operated from the instrument board.
radioman.
the automatic pilot and other instruments depending upon suction for
their operation.
importance in all blind flying operations when the intuitive sense of man
is decidedly unreliable.
the engines on take-off; the indicated rpm is high since more power is re-
quired for the take-off than at any other time. During cruising, the rpm
of the engine is lower than for high speed since less power is required and
better fuel and oil consumptions are obtained at lower engine speeds.
likely to be present).
28. Turn indicator—often combined with the bank indicator; when the
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two are used in conjunction with each other they are considered among
the instrument board in the direct and unobstructed forward view of the
pilot in the center of what is called the "primary flight group" consisting
cator.
INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT 197
29. Warning units—may be special lights that flash on and off; or buzz-
ing signals; or any similar devices. Very often the positions of the hands
on the various indicating dials are sufficient warning signals. Since the
dials may be rotated, some instruments are so arranged that during the
most common flying regime, such as cruising, dial hands or pointers of all
Selection of Instruments
pends greatly upon the purpose, and whether visual contact or instrument
carrying airplanes.
1 airspeed indicator,
1 altimeter,
position lights,
landing lights,
landing flank,
1 bank indicator,
1 sensitive altimeter,
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1 generator,
1 rate-of-climb indicator.
198
listed already:
1 icing indicator.
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
haps more complex and larger than many reasonably sized communities.
All the storage and generation of the electrical power supply must be car-
electrical system from fuel, oil, water, and any other damaging substances.
such installations as oil and fuel tanks and systems, carburetors, exhaust
the airplane, and adequately isolated from fuel, oil, and ignition systems.
ceivers, and any other equipment which exacts a constant load. Radio
gears and flaps are considered as causing only intermittent use. Landing
light is not less than 10 feet either right or left of the first pilot's seat and
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equipped with rheostat control for dimming unless the nondimming light
flying position, the red forward-position light on the left and the green
on the wing. Each should show unbroken light between two vertical
planes whose dihedral angle is 110 degrees when measured to the left and
rier type) should be placed as far back as possible. It should emit light
A master switch has to be provided in the cockpit for the entire elec-
trical equipment.
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
belts for pilot, crew, and passengers. Private airplanes may carry a para-
chute for each occupant, but this item becomes a considerable weight fac-
tor where the number of passengers is reasonably large. Since the majority
practical.
Landing flares for use in emergencies should be releasable from the pilot's
landing flares.
planes are de-icers for all the surfaces and some form of de-icing means for
the propeller. One of the positive methods of breaking up dry ice forma-
tion on the leading edges of the wing and tail surfaces are rubber overshoes
Heating the leading edge surfaces by conducting heat either from the
to as anti-icing.
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combustion and ventilating systems, with the combustion air being ob-
tained from a source separate from the ventilating air; the enclosure of the
heater fuel system so that no fuel connections are exposed within the
ventilating air stream; and, the construction of the heater so that all flame
a 3-inch diameter exhaust pipe and with ventilating air ducts of the proper
restriction on the downstream side of the heater, the static pressure in the
ventilating air stream in the heater will be greater than the static pressure
combustion gases and fuel vapors into the ventilating air stream. Instead,
there will be a flow of air from the ventilating air passages into the com-
bustion chamber.
rapid "cycling," as well as starting trials in which the heater is first turned
let down so that the exhaust tube may act also as a drain. For that rea-
son, the tube should be installed so that its entire length slopes downward
from the outlet of the heater to the point where it discharges overboard.
Unless the exhaust tube is very short, some provision such as a flexible,
sion of the tube. The entire exhaust system should be designed to handle
A combustion air regulator valve is needed only if the heaters are re-
quired to operate over a very wide range of air speeds and altitudes.
Usually, when the combustion chamber and fuel system are completely
enclosed, the heater may be installed with ventilating air flowing in either
that pressure from the main engine fuel pumps, the weight and potential
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the heaters then benefit from all the high-altitude provisions made in the
engine fuel system to ensure delivery to the engine of fuel that is free of air
and vapor bubbles. If it is not possible to obtain fuel from the main engine
of 15,000 feet, the inlet of the heater pump must be connected to a fuel
INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT
201
tank) to remove vapor from the main fuel system. Whatever source is
shut-off valves at the heater; and, an overheat switch to close these valves
in the event outlet air temperatures reach 350° F. Since the "cycling"
the overheat switch is not called upon to operate except in the event of
vide proper seating arrangement, heating and ventilating, and vision out-
ward. After all, there are only a few rows of chairs placed rather closely
together and usually a window beside each chair. But, as in all parts of
the airplane, numerous considerations enter into the final solution which
as well as weight.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
but if this consideration were given full weight the size of the cabin might
become unwieldy for the type of airplane to be built. Moreover, if all the
seats are not occupied, the center of gravity will not coincide with its posi-
tion for the fully loaded condition, and just as soon as the center of gravity
has moved too far from a given position, the pilot will find it difficult to
balance, and so to fly, the airplane. This has been discussed earlier, to
"What is the minimum allowance for spacing of seats, for aisle widths,
two church pews, one behind the other, and found it to be 28 inches, but
also reported that the spacing was not conducive to comfort. However,
one may say that distance is the absolute minimum spacing possible. Any
there is a central fuselage with the engines located in the wings, greater
leeway may be permitted for both fully loaded and empty conditions and
still good balance obtained, because the movable or variable load may be
placed with its center of gravity coinciding with the center of gravity of
the nose, it is not usually possible to get this happy solution and so less
202
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THE PASSENGER CABIN
203
allowance must be given to the spacing of seats than absolute comfort may
require.
to avoid too deep a fuselage, a designer will locate the wing spars so that
they extend above the floor level. Usually, in such a case, there is a mini-
his head and while worrying about that matter, he is more than likely to
(and that is debatable), a wall with a door in the center may be a good
solution since passengers usually expect to step high over a sill, especially
COMFORT FACTORS
chapter.
for relatively short periods of time and much more so for transcontinental
and transoceanic airplanes which are in the air for many hours.
4. Vision outward so that the passengers may see the country over which
they are flying. Although on long flights the passengers may find the
writing desks, and other small items, which make traveling more appeal-
ing.
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The notes that follow will help the designer in planning the cabin layout.
CABIN DIMENSIONS
The cabin dimensions depend upon the type of chair, the number of
205
Two rows of chairs with a center aisle are common practice. Two seats
on one side and one on the other helps to concentrate the variable load and
is therefore better for stability and trim for empty and full conditions.
The latter arrangement requires a wider fuselage that may affect the per-
walk its length without stooping. Aisle heights vary from 51 inches for
standing erect, but the use of members over the seats that may be struck
the width of the plane. Cabin widths for two rows of passengers vary
more passengers.
A wide aisle gives the impression of spaciousness and may permit some
The cabin should be free from structural members. If these are un-
PASSENGER SEATS
1. Seats should be adjustable with respect to the angle of the seat with
the floor and the angle of the back of the seat to the vertical.
ger.
ances and weight allowances permit. Placing the chair at a slight angle
to the fore and aft axis of the cabin accomplishes practically the same
result.
206
6. Easy egress may be obtained also if the outside arm of the seat can
be dropped.
8. Direct metallic contact of the seat with the structure may be avoided
ance between seat and inner lining of the cabin. A minimum width of 19
10. For a narrow cabin, the backs of the seats should be tapered toward
the top, especially those paralleling the aisle. This design permits more
11. Seats should not weigh more than 20 pounds. Seat weights vary
13. Ample leg room should be provided. Seats are spaced from 30 to
SEATING ARRANGEMENTS
(2) minimum effect upon the center of gravity of the airplane as a whole
when one or more passengers are removed, (3) minimum frontal area of
the structure required to house the enclosed group, (4) ready access to the
seats and to the available means of ingress and egress. To these may be
added: (5) minimum over-all dimensions, (6) possible effect upon struc-
tural design, and (7) safety considerations. There are probably other
factors such as: (8) ease in providing suitable vision panels, (9) baggage
chosen. However, not all these factors can be given the same weight,
The seating arrangements are dependent upon the size of its occupants.
sirable to know the most likely heights and weights one might expect
among the people who do the most flying. Figures XII-2 and XII-3 show
THE PASSENGER CABIN
207
to as
1 XTv^v
Figure XII-2. Various seating arrangements across the aisle for passenger airplanes.
not expect the average bed to accommodate comfortably a man 7 feet tall,
so one should not expect the cabin of a light airplane to provide headroom,
however measured, for the exceptionally tall person. The average dimen-
sions for a man 6 feet tall were assumed and all discussion hereafter will
The first part of the problem resolves itself into consideration of head-
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THE PASSENGER CABIN
209
in gusty air, a few more inches should be allowed (certainly not less than
from the side. If the back of the seat were inclined so that the occupant
his seat, and after adjusting himself into position, he could close the over-
head cover.
length of time in such a reclined position, but such a position should cer-
But even if one were to toy with the idea of reducing the headroom by
reclining the occupants, one must not forget that the pilot cannot conven-
airplane. While the frontal area of the fuselage might not be reduced
materially, still such a solution would offer less skin friction, and permit
better streamlining than if equal headroom had to be allowed for the pas-
sengers.
seated one behind the other, in order to permit a gradual reduction in the
For large airplanes, where one of the prime criteria for design is passen-
distance between the floor and the ceiling in the aisle for a 6-foot man
seated next to the wall, the headroom over the seats may be reduced to a
value perhaps halfway between that provided for in the aisle and that
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Leg Room
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an amount to allow for the placement of the legs and feet. For every inch
increase in the height of the seat from the floor, there would be a corre-
sponding increase in the height between the ceiling and the floor.
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THE PASSENGER CABIN
211
could be closed up about 33 inches; that is, two passengers would require
only 51 inches in length instead of 84 inches when the legs are kept together
due to the fact that the seat position of each person is some 8 inches less
when the legs are spread about 70 degrees apart, in addition to permitting
the legs of one man to overlap the seated position of the man in front of
him by some 17 inches. With the passengers seated thus, the feet would
be some 48 inches apart, so that the width of the fuselage would have to
tained in reducing the required length was gained somewhat at the expense
Figure XII-6. With the pilot seated normally, length of cabin space could be re-
duced by the passengers sitting on the floor as indicated, more or less toboggan fashion.
for the toboggan method of seating. On the other hand, the width of the
the wing root joining the fuselage at floor level had sufficient depth to pro-
In the three seating arrangements just considered, the seat level was
assumed to be the floor level so that the minimum distance between the
ceiling and the floor was somewhat less than 40 inches. Suppose the seat
level were raised. Then the possible available leg room would lie some-
what between the two extremes of having the legs and thighs extending
horizontally out from the body and that of having the lower legs perpen-
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212
dicular to, and the feet in contact with, the floor. Two configurations
are possible for this seated position: (1) with the knees of one passenger
touching the back of the scat of the passenger ahead of him; and, (2) with
the knees spread apart, so that the passenger in back would straddle the
seat of the passenger in front. In both cases the height between the ceil-
ing and the floor would be a minimum of 59 inches. If the knees of one
touched the back of the seat of the other, a bare minimum of 24-inch spac-
ing would be required for each passenger; the passengers could be brought
tions for the passengers. If the legs are stretched out, then more room is
required. With the leg at a 45-degree angle, and the thigh horizontal or
nearly so, then two men would require 69 inches spacing and each passen-
apart would reduce the 28-inch spacing to about 21-inch spacing for each
the seat level of about 63^ inches and, therefore, brings the ceiling height
213
Side-by-Side Arrangements
considered with the seating extending the length of the fuselage instead
However, the legs and feet have to be placed somewhere, with the result
depending upon whether the legs are kept vertical or extended to some
Staggered Arrangements
of the seats, either across the width of the airplane or lengthwise. (See
freedom of movement since there is freedom for the legs and arms in the
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single-row arrangement.
Back-to-Back Arrangements
the weight of the pilot and one passenger close together would be a possible
of 41 inches for the normal seating position, but where the centers of grav-
ity of the two would be about 25 inches apart instead of about 28 inches,
case. If they were facing forward, the impact would be on the relatively
small area of the safety belts, or if no safety belts were used at the time,
they would be catapulted out of the seat. But, if the passengers were
seated the other way, the pressure would be against the back of the seats,
a very much greater area, and there would be relatively little danger of
being catapulted out of the seat unless there were some acceleration in a
While there may be many people who object to riding backwards in sur-
at relatively high altitudes (at least relative to the height of objects on the
ground) the same sensations of objects passing past the window do not pre-
In trying to obtain minimum frontal area, care should be taken that the
passengers are not enclosed in the structure like mummies, for such designs
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THE PASSENGER CABIN
215
also because of minor accidents that will constantly occur in bumping one's
XII-11.
VISION
dows for looking out, but where the passengers are seated athwartship,
the individual either has to look through the window on the opposite side
or has to crane his head to look out of a window in back of him. For large
airplanes, vision considerations are not so important as for the small air-
SEATING COMFORT
plane which stayed in the air any great length of time. It would be ques-
edly disliked by a man who did not like someone breathing down his neck.
SEATING ACCESSIBILITY
a small place is the matter of getting each passenger settled in his place
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216
with the least fuss and bother. Crowded seating arrangements require
the seats is required, especially where the number of seats exceed two or
three. The more passengers the airplane is to hold and the more crowded
the seating is, the larger the door should be for getting into and out of the
The closer the passengers can be brought together, the less will be the
effect upon the center of gravity between the fully loaded, partially empty,
or empty condition.
h 26" H
Figure XII-12. Average dimensions for seating when the leg is vertical.
Figure XII-13. Average dimensions for seating when the lower leg is 45 degrees ts
the vertical.
The single-engine airplane with the engine in the nose of the airplane
will require closer spacing for the tandem arranged seats since this design
usually has the center of gravity so placed that the variable load (the pas-
WINDOWS
A window should be located at each seat with the bottom of the window
at about shoulder level of the passenger when seated. The window should
also be slightly forward, that is, the right side of the window as one faces
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218
In addition to this door, closed aircraft cabins carrying more than 5 pas-
sengers, but not in excess of 15, require at least one emergency exit whose
the main door. When more than 15 passengers are carried, an emergency
exit for every additional 7 passengers should be provided. Not more than
4 exits are necessary, and they may be located either in the top or side.
SLEEPING ACCOMMODATIONS
are to be provided.
value. The length of the berth varies from 72 to 76 inches with a prefer-
Mattresses, blankets, pillows, and bed linen for a berth weigh from 12
to 18 pounds.
LIGHTING
Individual lights usually placed slightly overhead are provided for each
ter switch should be located in the pilot's cockpit so that the pilot may
FURNISHINGS
The walls of the cabin are usually treated for soundproofing. The in-
Inspection panels (in the case of fabrics, Talon fasteners are suitable)
inspection purposes.
For larger transport airplanes, provision for attachment for small tables
Since many trips are long, any device used to entertain the passengers
located on the front wall of the cabin will draw attention. An illustrated
map of the country being traversed will add to the general interest of the
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trip.
Paper bags are usually found in a pocket attached to the back of the
219
FLOORING
floating flooring made possible by the use of rubber or felt between the
alloy makes a very effective flooring which will take considerable local
loads. The floor may be further treated with a thin cork tile or "battle-
Floor panels should be provided with means for quick and easy access
customary to rest the floor on the spars. Inasmuch as the airplane may
floor. A good method is to select the angle at which the cruising speed of
the airplane occurs and make the floor level for this condition. A varia-
a compartment separated from, and usually in the rear of, the cabin.
The toilet (see Figure XlI-15) consists of a metal container with a water-
Wash basins are small but useful. The water supply should be placed
in a tank so located that it can be filled readily from the outside, but should
TOILETS
REFRESHMENTS
BAGGAGE COMPARTMENT
Since only coats and hats which the passengers are wearing are permitted
gage doors.
to permit the limiting of center of gravity movement for the various load-
ing conditions possible. The baggage door carries a schedule giving the
load capacities of each baggage compartment and for fully loaded and
9 X 17 X 31 inches.
Mail compartments should allow 12J^ cubic feet for each 200 pounds of
mail.
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CHAPTER XIII
Air Conditioning
at high subsonic speeds can be gauged easily when it is realized that the
is some 60° F on the ground, it may be — 50° F at 30,000 feet. In these
ture that an airplane encounters from the moment it leaves the ground
until it reaches its required altitude only a few moments later is enormous.
from a warm country to a cold country. While this change may not occur
in a few minutes as in the case above, it does occur during the same flight
It is not the heating alone, however, that has to be considered, but the
ventilation as well.
1. To supply oxygen,
2. To remove odors,
At present there are no ready means available for controlling the hu-
midity of the air. It is generally believed that the relative humidity should
be about 40 per cent for good health conditions. However, the movement
of the air has some effect. In still air, the body is enveloped in a layer of
moist air so that even a moderate air movement tends to create the effect
of a draft.
2. Increased respiration.
221
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222
Poisonous ozone, which injures a man's lungs, corrodes metal, and rapidly
rots rubber, adds to the hazards of flying at altitudes from 80,000 to 95,000
the atmosphere may become a factor in human flight. The heavy nuclei
of these rays can penetrate through a man without seriously injuring him,
8,000 feet—Altitude at which supplemental oxygen should be used for routine flights.
30,000 feet—Altitude above which slight positive pressure breathing should supplement
demand oxygen to avoid air leaks into oxygen mask. Approximate time
35,000 feet—Maximum for routine use of demand oxygen system. Approximate time
45,000 feet—Bombardment aircraft having combat ceilings above this altitude require
48,000 feet—Fighter aircraft having combat ceilings above this altitude require pro-
The air movement in the cabin should be such as to avoid the feeling of
1. Limit the maximum air velocity to about 2 feet per second for persons
at rest.
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the occupants, nor strike them from behind at about neck level, nor come
3. The air should not be admitted to the cabin below the normal cabin
temperature.
The natural movement of the air within the cabin is usually from rear
223
(Grumman Mallard). Fresh air is forced by ram pressure while in flight and by a
blower while on the ground. The heater (A) heats the air which is uniformly dis-
the top rear and thus, due to the forced draft produced by the incoming
air and forced exhausting system usually provided, the air flow can be
lating system.
corporated, although a by-pass for the heating unit in the system would
still permit use of the blower system as a pressure ventilator. The fresh
and then into the cabin when the heating system is by-passed; otherwise
being carried into the cabin. For high speeds, where heating due to high
has to be provided.
The toilet room should be made as airtight as possible, and a very posi-
the cabin.
It has been found that cool air is most effective in keeping a passenger
All incoming air should be controlled by the pilot at its source. Win-
AIR REQUIREMENTS
For a uniform CO2 content in the air to be breathed, about 1 cubic foot
of air per passenger per minute is necessary, although 5 cubic feet per pas-
senger per minute is desirable when the air is recirculated, while 10 cubic
rest on the ground for a total of 1J^ to 4 cubic feet per minute. This
tion, the needs of each person in the cabin would have to be considered.
Normal air contains about 21 per cent of oxygen by volume, and 4 per cent
breathed about twice before it would reach the 12 per cent minimum
that odors can be removed and the necessary sanitary precautions can be
observed.
Aircraft cabins provide from 10 to 40 cubic feet per person per minute,
varies from 40 to 60 cubic feet, regardless of the length of time the passen-
ger remains in the cabin, it is necessary to bring air into the cabin con-
stantly to replenish the supply. Some air will filter through seams and
cracks, but such air will have the temperature of the outside air which may
means.
This change of air every few minutes complicates the heating problem.
In a room there are steam radiators which will heat the air, and since the
would be useless unless the walls, ceiling, and floors were radiators. It is
therefore necessary to heat the incoming air before it actually enters the
cabin.
PRESSURE CONSIDERATIONS
Both the oxygen supply and air pressure must be increased for high-alti-
tude flying. Above 35,000 to 40,000 feet, a mask supplying pure oxygen
equipped or pressurized cabins are the most feasible solution for large com-
mercial airplanes. For small planes, pressurized suits and helmets are
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necessary.
It has been found, experimentally, that if his oxygen supply is cut off at
20,000 feet, a man will pass out in 10 minutes; at 25,000 feet in 3 minutes.
of "diver's bends."
AIR CONDITIONING
225
feet the pressure within the cabin is maintained at the level normally exist-
ing at 8,000 feet altitude. Beyond 14,700 feet, a differential of 2.5 pounds
per square inch between the outside and the inside of the cabin is main-
tained with the result that the apparent altitude at 16,000 feet altitude is
about 9,000 feet; at 18,000 feet it is 10,600: and at 20,000 feet it is approxi-
entials AP. The normal operating regime for pressurized cabins is from 6,000 to
square inch is used as the basis for structural design, and a safety factor of
The oxygen content of the air is the same up to usual altitudes at which
flights are made so that the air under pressure will have the necessary
oxygen supply.
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226
The temperature limits that the designer has to consider in dealing with
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS
in the warmest climates. Heating and ventilating systems have not yet
comfortable.
temperature within five minutes after the engine is started, for warming
up, and must be readily controllable to take care of sudden changes in out-
locality to another.
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The incoming air should not be lower in temperature than that main-
to deflect a sufficient amount of the incoming air from entering the cabin
method has a certain amount of time lag that is not possible to overcome.
227
tops of fuselages are often painted white. For a normal skin temperature
tops are most effective under high temperatures, zero wind conditions,
although some reduction can even be expected during flight. Zinc chromate
primer and du Pont White DeLux 83-508 is the treatment given the
surface.
AIR DUCTS
fumes or other engine gases. Since the ducts should have as few bends as
possible to permit the normal air pressure in flight to force the air into the
be permitted.
Cabin wall
Filter
rs
Conduit
tori":::::::.
— ^
1 Floor
1 Fan
Louvre
nun
The ducts leading away from the heater may be of metal, but usually
only for a short distance. The longer lengths of the ducts, after the metal
section, may be made of doped aircraft fabric. To prevent too rapid cool-
ing of the air while being transmitted to the cabin, and to aid in sound-
proofing, the fabric (or metal) ducts are lined with about 3^-inch thick felt
eters of these ducts are about the same as the inlet ducts, but their inside
Individual ducts are led to each seat. Since the amount of air leaving
each opening should be the same, it may be necessary to vary the opening
by inserting obstructions. Once the airflow has been regulated for each
For warm weather, when the air at existing temperature is brought into
the cabin, relief for the passengers may best be obtained by diverting air
into an overhead duct in the ceiling of the cabin and forcing the air through
sirable to have the air enter the cabin along the sides near floor level.
n ii
The air is taken out of the cabin through outlets located in the floor
although they may be located along the roof and exhaust near the top rear.
side of the fuselage; however, each additional opening adds to the sound-
proofing problem.
229
The pressure of the incoming air and the slight suction that is usually
present on the top surface of the fuselage are enough to force exhaust of
the air. If the rate of exhaust is not fast enough, an exhausting fan may
be necessary.
A grill-work made of fine mesh wire should cover each opening so that
The safest type of system is one in which the exhaust gases heat a liquid
through the radiator and then led into the cabin. It is not feasible to
supply actual radiators for each passenger in the cabin since the volume of
The liquids used in the boilers may be commercial ethylene glycol which
boils at 310° F to 340° F, specific heat of about 0.70; quenching oils of high
such liquids are that they boil at about 300° F, do not freeze or congeal at
The radiators normally used are the cartridge type, or similar to the oil
coolers. It is desirable that the air be in contact with the radiator suffi-
ciently long to be heated, that the heat transfer of the radiator be very
rapid, and that the airflow speed be maintained. (See also discussion
HEAT SOURCES
The exhaust gases of the engine supply the main source for moderate-
size airplanes for heating the air, whether directly or through intermediate
be used for heating the air. In any case, it is desirable to have a very hot
Because gas turbine engines provide great quantities of hot air, com-
bustion heaters are not used where such a hot air supply is available.
Electric "blankets" for the cabin side walls and certain areas of the
floor, and electric heaters in the cabin air-ventilation ducts may be used
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gral gear box and usually a weight-flow control as well as a valve permit-
ting the maintenance of an internal cabin pressure higher than the external
pressure.
2. A blower relief or surge valve, located in the air duct to the cabin. If
the pressure in the duct builds up due to a throttling down of the control
valve unit, the air is by-passed to the outside atmosphere and so prevents
sirable at low altitudes and in warm weather, although the blower may
ing the opening of the outlet valve. This valve is controlled by pressure-
pressure.
CALCULATIONS
Assuming 10 separate outlets, one for each passenger for the incoming
air, then air flows through each duct at the rate of 25 cubic feet per minute.
Restricting the air velocity to 2 feet per second, the area <S of each inlet
duct would be
2S
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25
60'
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25
120'
or
231
For relatively small airplanes, such as the problem cited, the practical
diameter of the inlet duct to the cabin would be about 3 inches. To re-
duce the velocity of the airflow, it would be desirable to increase the num-
ber of openings. The duct leading up to the actual outlet into the cabin
is often larger and is provided with a valve for regulating the airflow.
Q = Qi + Q* - Qs,
where Q = heat required to raise 250 cubic feet of air per minute from
Qi - WC,(h - <i),
well soundproofed and hermetically sealed cabins, this loss may be quite
Q2 = 100 Btu/min,
U = 95° F, approximately.
This relatively high temperature indicates that the heat lost due to
radiation is high in proportion to the heat supplied. This heat loss should
cases where the incoming air is too hot, a compromise in the temperature
within the cabin, and directing the warm air at the passenger at about
Q = WCp(t2 - h).
232
W = 14.4 lb/min.
The weight of the liquid at 300° F is 9.3 pounds per gallon. Therefore,
the capacity of the pump would be 14.4/9.3 = 1.55 gallons per minute.
HEATING SURFACE
The heating surface required for the boiler can be calculated from the
formula:
exhaust gas.
In the last problem, 506 Btu were to be supplied per minute. The mean
first approximation some value between 10 and 15 Btu per square foot per
m - ta ~ U
~ log.tfo/*,)'
where to = the initial temperature difference between the liquid and the
gases,
tf = the final temperature difference between the liquid and the gas.
Therefore
If the exhaust pipe used for heating the liquid were 4 inches in diameter
used in the latter case in the above formulas, and calculations continued
as before.
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AIR CONDITIONING
233
ture is zero. At Mach 2 (about 1600 mph) it may reach 280° F; at Mach
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0L
-100
At sea level
At 10,000 feet0
At 20,000 feet 0
At 30,000 feet
At 35,000 feet-
1600 1800
Figure XIII-7. The aircraft skin temperature gives an indication of the interior
might be added the heat developed by the power plant, by the electrical equipment,
problems than to heating problems. For the jet engine, various methods
are being explored and are still subject to further development and im-
provement.
For the airplane equipped with a jet engine, high-pressure air may be
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taken from the engine at a temperature much higher than the "ram" air
around the aircraft. The ram air can thus be used as the all-important
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to an automobile radiator transfers the heat from the engine bleed air to
the ram air. This cooled high-pressure air is then expanded through a
234
below the ram air temperature by giving up energy in the form of work.
This work energy is used by the turbine to drive a fan that pulls air
through the heat exchanger. The cold air from the turbine is then em-
no air, it will no longer be practicable to bleed air from the jet compressor
Perhaps the pilot will carry his own air and pressurization supply—
Compressor air would be needed for cooling only, thus greatly reducing
dumped overboard.
the engines.
posed, in one system, to spray Lox directly into the cabin to provide not
the outer portion and leading edge of the airframe and airfoils made of a
fusible material that will melt at extremely high temperatures and thus
Where the top speed and altitude portions of a flight are of short dura-
tion, insulation can do much to prevent heat from reaching the critical
the inside of the cabin to provide further protection. Such measures can
bring reductions in the total weight of the cooling system required. Even
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slight weight savings are vital, since in some cases a pound of such equip-
ment removed may permit as much as 100 pounds' reduction in the total
Soundproofing
The increasing demand for more passenger comfort has brought sound-
proofing very much to the fore, and no airplane passenger cabin has been
correctly designed unless every effort has been made to reduce noise to the
practical minimum.
of noise is inside so that the noise has to be absorbed and materials must
be chosen that will not only absorb the noise but also avoid reverberation.
In an airplane cabin the greatest portion of the noise comes from outside
plane so that materials must be chosen which will weigh the least for the
MEASURE OF NOISE
pressed as:
able device, generally the "noise meter" or the "decibel meter." Since
airplane engine makes a noise equal to 100 decibels, two such engines
would cause a noise level of only 103 decibels. Therefore, to reduce the
sound level from 100 decibels to 70 decibels, for example, requires very
careful soundproofing.
235
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236
SOURCES OF NOISE
1. Engine exhaust.
2. Propeller.
4. Structural vibration.
8. Conversation.
engine-exhaust noises, propeller noises, and wall vibration. The first two
in Table XIV-1.
These tests indicate that the reducing of the propeller-tip speed helps
already in the critical region (very close to the velocity of sound) when a
Mufflers help in reducing exhaust noises, but the level is usually not suffi-
mufflers may seriously reduce the engine horsepower and are not economi-
Experimentation with various materials reveals that all are not equally
237
Frequency,
structure 200-270
noises materially.
SOUNDPROOFING MATERIALS
by:
1. Location 7. Adaptability
2. Strength 8. Cost
6. Compactness
"Seapak" Linoleum
Felt Wood
Asbestos Metal
The fibrous materials, in general, seem to be the best from the point of
APPLICATION OF MATERIALS
tions.
approximately three times the thickness of the material are used. One
layer of the material should be attached to the outer metal skin. The
space; F, floating blanket; G, fiber glass; M, metal skin; O, organic material; H, organic
W, wire lacing.
pull apart due to its own weight when bung, may be reinforced by muslin
as possible.
1 fâ„¢!
1—n
239
Since all materials come in standard sizes, either in 36- or 72-inch widths,
wall seams in the three alternate layers should not be directly behind one
another.
sufficient since the windows are far better sound insulators than any
window stripping and should be supported firmly over the entire perimeter.
3. Flooring. A fibrous material placed over the metal floor and then
movable bulkheads may be covered with felt or some fibrous material and
linen cover. Large panels of metal in other parts of the airplane that are
rials cemented on. These are usually located in the center of the panels.
panels at intervals.
open atmosphere, special attention must be paid to them. Where the fire
hazard is negligible, the ducts may be made of doped fabric. The entire
lined with about 3^-inch layer of felt held in place by a lightweight, coarse-
level are:
(a) Placement of the exhaust stack exit below the wing, for example,
"shadow."
(b) Making the gap between the propeller tip and the fuselage structure
Since at take-off power 100% of all noise of the order of 116 to 120
muffling schemes are concerned with this noise, and any sound created
Table XIV-3.
Material
Allowance
(per cent)
Cabin door
54
11
13
11
100
Noise power produced in the exhaust of a jet engine fitted with con-
ventional circular tail pipe varies with the 8th power of the exit velocity
of the exhaust gas. However, any slight increase in the tail pipe's perim-
exhaust and ambient air. The ideal way to increase the tail pipe's
impose a certain weight penalty and will create thrust losses ranging from
to quiet the roar in a commercial jet's cabin than is required for a piston-
The Propeller
propeller most suitable for his design from the point of view of eventual
tained are:
T - | CmW*,
Q = | CQnW*,
P=
\ CpnW;
also
P = 2iroQ;
Q = torque in foot-pounds,
Cq = torque coefficient,
P = work in foot-pounds,
241
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242
While these equations are not normally of direct interest to the aircraft
power coefficients for a typical propeller (Figure XV-1), it can be seen that
Figure XV-1. Various operating states of the propeller made possible by varying
and climb, and as an air brake in the landing approach and upon landing.
Some designs may permit disengaging the propeller and rotating the indi-
vidual blades so that the entire propeller may windmill with the minimum
243
Stopped 1.00
Windmilling .44
Ls — (bhp)i/5(Arrjm)2/5'
The propeller, as viewed from behind, rotates toward the right. The
reaction of the forces acting on the propeller tends to turn the engine and
the left and right wing so that more lift is produced on the left than on
with its tendency to turn the airplane to the left, (1) a slight right rudder
tab, or (3) the vertical tail surfaces may employ an unsymmetrical air-
foil, or (4) the fin may be offset slightly from the plane of symmetry.
Propeller slipstream increases the air velocity over the wing and thereby
planes, where the slipstream over the wing with its lift-increase devices
GYROSCOPIC EFFECT
When the airplane rotates about its vertical axis, gyroscopic forces are
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brought into play. The moment about the propeller shaft may be ex-
T = o>Mh ~ h),
244
axis,
The effect of the gyroscopic couple is to force the airplane into a left-
hand turn when the airplane is pitched down from a horizontal path; or,
if the airplane is making a left-hand turn, the airplane will tend to pitch
This gyroscopic couple not only affects the behavior of the craft, but
also introduces additional stresses in the propeller shaft and the aircraft.
For the normal propeller, the loads and consequent stresses produced
PROPELLER PITCH
in a solid medium, or (2) as the tangent of the blade angle, measured be-
tween the chord of the airfoil section and the plane of rotation of the
propeller. Since the propeller blades have different blade angles from
'the radius.
The individual blade can be designed so that it can be rotated about its
blade after the propeller has been built. Such propellers are lighter than
ground so that the blade angle is changed to suit certain operating condi-
propeller.
Both the fixed-pitch and adjustable-pitch propellers are used for rela-
in which the blades may be rotated in flight. There are several possible
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(a) It may have a limited angular range and therefore not require as
(b) It may permit a variety of blade angles so that the engine may
THE PROPELLER
245
ceased to deliver power, the propeller blades may be rotated and stopped
so that the engine itself may not be harmed and the drag of the propeller
To offer more resistance and thereby help to reduce the speed of the
act as a brake. See Table XV-2 for the effect of reversing propellers on
Number of
propellers reversed
Trial
Use of brakes
Landing run
None
100%
100%
130
100
71
92
100
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52
6
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50
48
65
45
100
45
NUMBER OF BLADES
should have the highest propulsive efficiency since propeller blades inter-
can and has been manufactured, most propellers are produced with 2, 3,
With the increase in the number of blades, the over-all efficiency de-
its diameter until either the physical dimensions would be too great for
246
1000
oi I I I I I I I
Figure XV-2. The effect of different types of propellers on the performance of the
airplane:
1. Fixed-pitch propeller.
All propellers deliver the same power for the design speed—in this case, the maximum.
A large-diameter propeller will affect the height of the landing gear, for
and consequent added weight. However, since the area swept out by
the propeller near its hub is not very efficient aerodynamically, especially
when the propeller is placed in front of a blunt body, the propeller of the
with consequent higher service and absolute ceilings, whereas the smaller-
the airplane. The metal propeller usually has good operating character-
247
Increasing the number of blades will increase the weight of the propeller
neering compromise.
the "blanketing" of the propeller itself and the resulting reduction in its
The propeller would give its best performance if it were placed at the
tion is not always possible, since it would make difficult the proper mount-
ing of the shaft and increase the over-all weight of the installation.
Where the propeller tip operates close to a structure (at the side of the
between the propeller tip and the structure. One to two inches usually
speed and the power absorbed by the propeller blade. Too little clearance
peller or the structure or both. The structure in the region of the pro-
PROPELLER CLEARANCE
of at least 2 inches with the side of the fuselage and the tip of the propeller
longitudinal axis for any of several reasons; the nacelle may be brought
closer to the fuselage if the thrust line is outward; or the plane of rotation
of the propeller may thus be made to pass through the fuselage ahead of
the cockpit. In some cases, it has been thought preferable to place the
nacelles at a slight outward angle to assure the slipstream effect over the
vertical tail surfaces when one engine quits, for then it is necessary to coun-
teract the yawing moment produced by the thrust of the other engine.
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Any such angle incorporated in the design of the nacelle does not affect
the efficiency of the engine as far as forward thrust is concerned since the
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249
vibration.
5. The pilot and the primary control units, excluding cables and control
rods, should not be located in the region between the plane of rotation
of any propeller and the surface generated by a line passing through the
center of the propeller hub and making an angle of 5 degrees fore or aft
ASYMMETRICAL CONDITIONS
does not encounter the same airflow as it would if it were located at the
would pass by each half of the wing and the landing-gear members. (See
peller. The frequency of the vibration may be found from the formula:
/ = nBc,
B = number of blades,
c = number of interferences.
Figure XV-4. This propeller has six interferences for each blade to set up vibration
responses.
If the natural frequency of the propeller were the same as the inducing
natural frequency of the propeller should not be in the realm of the fre-
when the airflow through one propeller disk interferes with the airflow
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250
Figure XV-5. Flow interferences through the propeller disks lead to asymmetrical
the area swept out in one rotation of the propeller blades). See Figure
reacting against the wheels. (See Figure XV-6.) As the airplane takes
by the aileroTfST The airplane therefore has to have sufficient air speed
to obtain the necessary rolling moment. As the power used for the pro-
peller-type engine tends to become greater and the spans of the airplane
tend to become smaller, the air speed has to be quite appreciable at take-
XV-5.
251
of economics.
there, the axis about which the torque would act is vertical. No easy
solution would be available in the design of the landing gear for counter-
ing the torque on the ground. The transition from the moment of take-
off to the time when sufficient air speed past ailerons was obtained would
include a period during which the aircraft rotated about its vertical axis,
unless secondary propellers were employed purely for the purpose of pro-
TANDEM ENGINES
although the increase in power of individual units may make such a solu-
that in case of one engine failure there is not so great a yawing moment
produced by the excess thrust on one side as would be the case if the outer-
Auxiliary cooling, usually special blowers, must be provided for the rear
engine since the front engine partially blankets it. This could be over-
come by providing larger airscoops in the leading edge of the wing for ob-
this may be open to question since scoops for cooling air will add to the
(for radial engines) of the front engine is a good first solution. Slight alter-
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The propeller for the rear engine, since it operates in the slipstream of
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the front engine, may be designed with a smaller diameter than the front-
For airplanes with the conventional type of landing gear, the propeller
clearance requirement (9 inches between the propeller tip and the ground)
252
will either force the placing of the engine nacelle comparatively far above
The torque of the tractor engine will be offset by the torque of the
tractor propeller and also somewhat different from it since it works in the
PUSHER INSTALLATIONS
When the propeller operates in the rear of the engine, relative to the
vantages resulting not only from the placement of the propeller, but also
trailing edge of the wing, will also be located aft of the center of gravity
of the airplane. Cargo and passenger items, then, are usually situated
ahead of the engine in order to get the proper location of the center of
4. With the power plant aft of the center of gravity, a longer fuselage
may be possible to house personnel and equipment since the power plant
Figure XV-7. The pusher propeller may cause a higher location of the power plant
253
considered:
gear or a higher location for the power plant since the three-point landing
XV-7.
psychological effect as it may cause the people emerging to fear that they
unsound since passengers may fear that the heavy engines will crash in
to absorb the energy of the cargo and crew in a tractor installation, where
carry the tail surfaces and to protect the passengers from walking into
TAIL INSTALLATION
Desgins have been proposed and built with the propeller located di-
rectly aft of the tail surfaces and operating as a pusher. The engine is
are located below instead of above the horizontal tail surfaces, and
Since the air is rotated with the propeller, the air hitting the vertical
tail surfaces on one side below the longitudinal axis of the airplane will
tion, the gyroscopic couple may play an important part in the handling
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of the airplane about the vertical axis will be materially changed, so that
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the response of the airplane may not be quite as quick as in the conven-
ventional designs.
Both the engine torque and the gyroscopic effects can be overcome by
To streamline the propeller hub into the engine nacelle, a nose spinner
shank.
cover the shank of the propeller blades. The propeller blades, especially
those that are removable from the propeller hub, end in round shanks
at the root. These cuffs help to increase the thrust of the propeller and
improve the airflow in the region of the propeller hub. Since the aero-
dynamic loads and centrifugal forces on these cuffs are not appreciable,
Dime
asions
Manufacturer
Number
Weight (lb)*
01 d Jacies
Diameter
Length
Curtiss
21%
29%
21.5
21%
25Vâ„¢
23.0
24%
25%
18.5
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24%
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25%
22.0
Curtiss
24%
28%
25.5
Curtiss
30%
24K-
27.0
2Z%
23#
21.0
16
15
16.0
16
20
17.5
23K
14%
24.5
PROPELLER SELECTION
255
1000
800
0 600
«
1 400
200
Trial 2
Trial l<
\t
|j
p !j
Figure XV-8. The proper selection of a propeller requires a number of trial and
error calculations to determine the point at which horsepower available is equal to the
horsepower required.
calculated for a given design and plotted as shown in Figure XV-8. The
engine chosen will deliver 850 horsepower at 2450 revolutions per minute
given for the geared engine so that it is unnecessary to allow for the 2 or 3
propeller diameter.
0
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C. = 1.91.
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THE PROPELLER
257
V/nD at point C is 1.18. Since V and n are known, the diameter of the
X 1 io (227 X 1.467)
nD (1634/60)2>'
where D = 10.35 feet (say, 10 feet, 6 inches). The blade angle at 75 per
The critical propeller-tip speed is about 1000 feet per second and it
v. - VC^r25)' + ^
If a 2-bladed propeller has too large a diameter so that the tip speed is
per cent:
c- - (mi%w»*°^* = °000086Fp.
C, = 1.91.
miles an hour, for which the value of C, = 1.92, and the propeller efficiency
for a 2-bladed propeller is about 86 per cent, or 83 per cent for a 3-bladed
propeller.
1.15:
nD ~ (1634/60)Z)'
/ per cent of the radius is approximately 29.5 degrees. Again this value
\ is for a 2-bladed propeller since all values have been based upon those
i these same values may be used, and the diameter so found may be re-
diameter of the 3-bladed propeller is then 10.5 feet less 7 per cent, or 9 feet
1^ 9 inches, roughly.
of the formula:
propeller diameter
using only 70 per cent of the value for the brake horsepower in the formula.
EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
miles per hour, and N is the number of revolutions per minute of the
propeller.
_l I Z-i I I L
2 blades.
3 blades.
2 or 3 blades.
A—
100 h
Mach number. Further reductions for the various Mach numbers may be expected due
»-«(V£)(Vi>
K = 48 for 2 blades,
K = 51 for 3 blades,
K = 49 for 4 blades.
K = 01 for 3 blades,
X = 57 for 4 blades.
D = 480
2 or 3 blades.
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THE PROPELLER
261
Num-
Maxi-
Maxi-
Material
ber
Diameter
mum
mum
Weight
of blades
of
Pitch
in inches
hp
rpm
in
blades
rating
rating
pounds
1. Wood
Fixed
63
40
2800
2. Wood
Adjustable
84
50
14
3. Al. Allov
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Adjustable
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84
54
41
4. Wood
Fixed
70
65
2800
10
5. Wood
Fixed
70
75
2600
6. Wood &Plastic
Variable
85
76
2800
25
7. Wood
Fixed
72
90
2700
11
262
Num-
Maxi-
Maxi-
Material
ber
Diameter
mum
mum
Weight
of blades
of
Pitch
in inches
hp
rpm
in
blades
rating
rating
pounds
Controllable
151
2300
1520
494
50. Steel
Controllable
150 to 181
2500
1225
Controllable
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114 to 180
2500
1430
(i
Dual-rotation
157
2700
1400
757
Dual-rotation
144
2700
1400
712
Variable
134
2800
1470
485
Variable
158
2800
1470
509
CHAPTER XVI
The power plant consists of the engine, propeller, starting system, cool-
ing system, fuel and oil systems, cowling, engine mount, and miscellaneous
the ultimate success of the airplane depends upon the proper selection and
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
of a few types may be possible since there may be engines having a partic-
for the former, yet the liquid-cooled engine may be preferred for its lesser
and one cannot say arbitrarily that one engine is better than the other
the power plant alone. The engines may be tractors or pushers; that is,
they may be placed with the propeller in front of the engine, meeting the
air before the engine; or the propeller may be placed behind the engine.
263
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264
the engines as much as possible in order to reduce the length and complica-
no means ends the problem, for even the best engine cannot function prop-
erly unless attention has been paid to proper installation of the cooling
and pipe lines for liquid-cooled engines); to the correct installation of the
fuel and oil systems with special reference to the size of pipes or tubing; to
the location of pumps and relief valves; and, to the numerous little items
ing the power plant selection and design has been made. The following
detail.
LOCATION
desirable to locate the nacelle below the wing. To reduce torsional loads
would be desirable to locate the nacelle more or less with its axis in line
with the chord line. Usually, however, the governing condition for the
For jet engines, the pod installation is preferred in this country. Since
the fuel is carried in the wing, the location of the jet pod below the wing
Unless the spar structure is cut away, the most rearward position usu-
ally possible is to have the engine as close to the front face of the front
SUBMERGED ENGINES
the wing structure or within the fuselage. The chief reason for wanting
arrangement eliminates the engine nacelle, which interferes with the air-
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flow around the wing, there is still the possibility of increased resistance
caused by ducts within the wing. For the propeller-type engine, this
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shaft. Then, the propeller may work more efficiently because it is not
265
Engines located within the fuselage permit the placing of the pilot ahead
of the engine, giving the best possible vision forward. It is also possible
ings are located just at the leading edge of the wing where their position
causes the least effect upon the aerodynamic qualities of the wing, espe-
NUMBER OF ENGINES
simpler and cheaper to have only one engine since there is only one set of
controls, one engine mount; in short, one installation and all that it entails.
However, the one engine centrally located in the nose of the fuselage is a
of engine failure due to any reason, the airplane must land immediately.
The other alternatives are two, three, or four engines, so that in case of
one engine quitting, the flight may be continued, provided that this is pos-
there may be some penalty in allowable gross weight that the airplane
rectilinear flight when the thrust vectors are not symmetrical and espe-
cially if the horsepower loading for the two engines is already initially
heavy. It may be possible to dump the fuel load in order to lighten the
load, but if the airplane is over rugged terrain it may not be advisable to
The three-engine design, then, has the advantage over the twin-engine
design in such a case, since, with one engine not operating, it is usually still
The use of four or more engines may be necessary for large airplanes,
plications and require at least one co-pilot, in addition to the chief pilot,
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point of view of maintaining flight with one or more engines not operating,
266
any other and is the same for every engine (as would be likely when the
the relative probability of 0, 1, 2 • • • failures is given by the successive
(5 + P)\
q — 1 — p, where q is the probability that this failure will not occur,
1,000,000 miles flown and that the average trip length was 2,000 miles,
q = l - p = l - 0.02 = 0.98.
three engines; for example, the exponent of q indicates the number of non-
the number of failing and nonfailing combinations when any one of the
three engines may fail. The calculations for the three-engine design for
Table XVI-1.
1.
Term of binomial
q*
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3?'p
2.
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gine failures
3.
Number of no engine
failures
4.
Evaluation of binomial
term (Probability of
number of no engine
failures indicated in
10,000 trips)
9,411.92 X 10-*
576.24 X 10—<
11.76 X lO—4
0.08 X 10-«
THE POWER PLANT
267
10,000 trips.
of engines
9,800
200
9,604
392
—
—
—
—
9,412
576
12
(0)
—
—
—
9,224
753
23
(0)
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(0)
—
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—
9,039
922
38
(0)
(0)
—
8,858
1,085
55
(0)
(0)
(0)
the possible number of successful nights if the flight of the airplane can be
maintained and controlled with one or more engines not operating. Refer
to Table XVI-3.
number
6
268
These ratings may be for different altitudes for the same engine, depend-
ENGINE SELECTION
1.
Horsepower range
9.
2.
tion
charged
10.
3.
11.
Original cost
charged engine
12.
Ease of maintenance
4.
13.
5.
Propeller gearing
14.
Over-all dimensions
6.
15.
Method of cooling
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7.
Dependability
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16.
proval
8.
Durability
17.
Availability
power required on the basis of horsepower loading and the estimated gross
weight of the airplane to be designed and built for the required horsepower
for the student, and may be safely disregarded. It is well to keep these
ENGINE NACELLES
to the wing. The engine mount and engine cowling, installation of acces-
sories, and the like are the same as before. The nacelle construction is
the front spar, with bracing or supports going back to the rear spar.
FUEL CONSUMPTION
evident that the engine having the lowest fuel consumption would be the
desirable one to select. One of the useful formulas, the so-called Breguet
D c W,
THE POWER PLANT
269
per hour.
tion using successive values for Wo and We, in order to obtain more ac-
curate results.
of the airplane and the best operating efficiency of the power plant.
an engine with a low fuel consumption is highly desirable and more ef-
consumption is concerned.
The engine-mount supports virtually the entire power plant in the usual
case, although for engines of very large horsepower, the engine mount
proper does not extend more than a few inches beyond the rearmost acces-
Figure XVI-1. Engine mount for a radial engine of relatively low horsepower
capacity. The engine is attached to the ring by bolts through corresponding lugs on
i
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270
Tubular steel is used customarily for the entire mount whether the air-
tubing for engines of horsepower between 500 to 1500 may be used for
The engine mount should be so constructed that the entire power plant,
for replacement.
Figure XVI-3. Additional details of rubber mounts located at the points of attach-
273
662) indicate that arrangement (2) is better than (1); (4) is better than (3).
6. It is important that the fire bulkhead fit closely to the cowling all
COWLING
1. The type of cowl developed by the NACA for radial engines has met
with general favor by the industry. In designing the contours of any type
(8) (9)
Figure XVI-9. Tests indicated the exit slot of the cowling was too close to the
wing in (5), (7) was an improvement over the cowl in (6), and (9) was better than (8).
Figure XVI-10. A few governing dimensions are given in this illustration. Dimen-
sion A — 1 inch, B — 3 inches, C = 75 per cent of engine diameter (although 65% of
conditions, etc.
fuselage, and in such a fashion that the major portion may be removed in
ing in thickness from 0.032 to 0.050 with the larger thickness usually re-
cowling to engine crankcase by means flight that may be necessary to keep cowl-
of a vibration mount whose cross sec- ing in alignment and to reduce excessive
275
served for the cowl ring proper and the smaller, or some intermediate thick-
Figure XVI-13. A typical cooling system for a horizontally opposed engine with
6. All cowling around the power plant and on the engine side of the
cowling.
7. The cowling must fit tightly to the firewall, but openings may be
8. Unless small units of the cowling may be removed easily for inspec-
and on the ground, with separate drains provided for the parts of the fuel
10. All drains should be so located as to prevent fuel or oil from dripping
onto the exhaust manifold or any parts of the aircraft, or permeating any
cellular material.
11. Carburetor air intakes must open entirely outside of the cowling,
The exhaust manifold carries the exhaust gases of the cylinders to some
Figure XVI-14. A typical exhaust and induction system for a downdraft radial
engine.
section and, since the volume of exhaust gases increases as the number of
cylinders are added, it becomes necessary to vary the cross section of the
exhaust manifold so that the product of velocity times the pressure remains
constant.
A = (0.04) (P) |,
consideration,
operated,
The number of outlets varies; there may be one or two. It is possible also
to have individual outlets which are comparatively short but are0 0 also dan-
gerous because the hot exhaust gases are not carried far enough away.
Manifolds with a single right-hand outlet with all gas flowing in a counter-
clockwise direction (that is, opposite to the engines firing order) are also
(Iconel) or carbon steel. The wall thicknesses vary from 0.035 to 0.049
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THE POWER PLANT
277
inch with the greater thickness reserved for high-powered engines, partic-
gradually increase until the cross section at the last cylinder is at least 50
per cent of the total exhaust-port area of the particular engine for which
3. The "downwind" clearance of the open end of the exhaust pipe should
be at least 4 feet. Any exhaust pipe which is not exposed to the outside
4. The exhaust pipe should be kept at least 3 inches away from any in-
flammable part of the airplane, and the exhaust end should be at least 5
they will not blow back on the carburetor air intake, the pilot or passen-
carburetor.
Figure XVI-15. Governing dimensions for an air scoop. The figure on the left
shows an example of poor scoop design; the one on the right an improved scoop design.
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278
Figure XVI-15 indicates both poor and good scoop design. The dimen-
practical up to 4 diameters.
FUEL SYSTEMS
The fuel system consists of tanks, piping exterior to the engine, pumps
not integral with the engine, strainers, gauges, pipe fittings, and valves
and cocks.
The primer is operated from the instrument panel board in the pilot's
For starting the flow of fuel, it is necessary to use the hand or "wobble"
pump which should be as far below the fuel tank as possible so that it is
gear pump will continue the pumping of fuel. The hand or wobble pump
is so arranged that fuel will flow through it even when it is not being oper-
ated. If its location is at some distance from the cockpit it may be oper-
ated through a suitable linkage system to a crank near at hand to the pilot.
the hand or wobble pump becomes the emergency pump and will force the
In case the pump supplies the fuel at a greater pressure than the car-
buretors are designed to take, the adjustable relief valve permits the fuel
All tanks must be vented in order to prevent partial vacuums from form-
ing since these may reduce or prevent proper fuel flow. This vent is usu-
ally located at the topmost point, usually the filler unit of the gasoline tank.
A strainer must be included in any fuel line and is usually located at the
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lowest possible point in the line and in a place where it is easily accessible;
for, the strainer collects the water, grit, and dirt which may have collected
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the pressure in the fuel lines just ahead of the carburetors. If the pressure
THE POWER PLANT
279
Pumps
quired.
main tank.
3. The hand or wobble pump should be placed at least 50 per cent be-
low the top of the main fuel supply. In some cases, it may be desirable
to place it as far below the fuel system as the design will permit. Opera-
tion of the pumps may be done from the cockpit by means of a suitable
readily from the cockpit without requiring any opening of valves or cocks
in the system.
Tanks,
sure of ZYi pounds per square inch without failure or leakage. Fuel tanks
that have a maximum fuel depth greater than 2 feet should be investigated
for the pressure developed during the maximum applied acceleration with
full tanks.
2. No fuel tank may be closer to the engine than the remote side of the
firewall.
4. Each tank must be suitably vented from the top portion of the air
5. If two or more tanks have their outlets interconnected, the air space
in the tanks should also be interconnected. This will prevent the flow of
6. Where large fuel tanks are used, the size of the vent tubes should be
7. Each fuel tank should be provided with a pump and a drain located
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at the lowest point when the airplane is in the normal position on the
ground. The main fuel supply shall not be drawn from the bottom of this
pump.
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THE POWER PLANT
281
shut-off cocks, and strainers. Typical oil systems are shown in Figures
Tanks
1. The oil capacity of the system should be at least 1 gallon for every
16 gallons of fuel but should not be less than the minimum specified for
safe operation of engine. Commercial operators use the formula: oil re-
quired equals 10 gallons plus 1 gallon of oil for every 20 gallons of fuel.
2. The oil tank should allow for at least 10 per cent volume over that
4. Oil tanks are made of the same materials as those used for the fuel
tanks—2S, 3S, or 52S aluminum alloy with wall thicknesses varying from
obtain the most uniform pressure distribution possible and the maximum
output and fuel consumption are affected by both of these factors, and
may be considered for the turboprop engine. The more common ones are:
and D.
Design Considerations
best inlet design for the turboprop engine as far as internal airflow and
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95 per cent and very uniform inlet pressure distributions have been ob-
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Handbook for the PTSG Turboprop Engine, by permission of Pratt and PPhitney Aircraft.
282
283
to use the ducted spinner for a given installation should be made by weigh-
ing the engine performance gains which will be obtained against the me-
tain, and easier to de-ice. The pressure recoveries which can be achieved
design factors as: the spinner contour; the propeller cuff thickness; the
width of the gap between the spinner surface and the bottom of the pro-
peller cuff; the distance from the trailing edge of the propeller cuff to the
cowl'inlet; and the ratio of the area at the cowl inlet to the area at the
occur ahead of the cowl inlet with a conventional propeller spinner occur
as the air flows through the propeller shanks or propeller cuffs. These
tion occurs at the surface of the spinner. For this reason, care should be
taken to choose a spinner design which will make provision for the preven-
in choosing the spinner shape to help insure that the desired spinner con-
sidered:
(3) The modified conical spinner with the shortened and rounded nose,
Figure XVI-18D.
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cowl, spinner, and propeller shanks be designed for high critical Mach
principal advantages of the conical spinner are that (1) it can be operated
with somewhat lower cowl inlet-velocity ratios than the elliptical spinner
before serious separation occurs, and (2) the design of the conical spinner
it is difficult to design a conical spinner that will clear the propeller hub
propeller hub, it is generally necessary to use either a low cone angle and
make the spinner quite long, or a high cone angle and make the cowl
some point forward of the propeller blades and fitted with a rounded nose.
will result from the nose of a conical spinner being shortened and rounded;
but these tests were very limited, and it is possible that this loss could be
possible.
(b) Inlet-Velocity Ratio. For any given cowl and spinner design,
above the optimum, the inlet-duct losses increase, and the pressure re-
optimum, the diffusion and separation losses ahead of the inlet increase,
at which the inlet will operate under all important flight conditions, and
to choose the inlet area and cowl and spinner design so as to obtain the
285
ever is more important for the particular airplane involved) and to accept
For any given design there is usually a critical inlet-velocity ratio below
which separation losses ahead of the inlet become quite severe and pres-
the system in such a manner that this critical inlet-velocity range is not
In designing the spinner inlet configuration for the engine, the following
1. Wind-tunnel tests have shown that the optimum cone angle for a
conical spinner is about 40 degrees. This angle is not unduly critical and
performance.
2. When a conical spinner is used, the cone should be continued all the
way into the cowl inlet. The surface should not be curved ahead of the
cowl inlet as separation may occur and pressure recoveries will be reduced.
5. The gap which is required between the spinner surface and the lower
edge of the propeller cuff to permit the blade to turn through its normal
pitch range has an adverse effect on pressure recovery which may become
quite serious when large gaps are used at high speeds. These adverse
spinner surface to move the junction between the fixed and movable
portions of the propeller blades radially outward away from the boundary
layer area so that the wake from the junction does not enter the cowl
inlet under any design condition. Tests indicate that this allows good
For best results, the clearance gap between the platform and the base of
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larger than the engine inlet area, i.e., a constant area or contracting duct
should be used between the cowl and engine inlets. A diffusing duct
For some applications, it may be necessary to make the cowl inlet smaller
286
than the engine inlet in order to keep inlet velocity ratios within the de-
ence with the undercowl scoop and plenum chamber type of induction
system with the engine. In general, it is believed that this type of system
would not be very satisfactory for this engine because the distance be-
tween the propeller and engine inlet is too short to permit a good duct
configuration, and, as a result, there are high internal losses. The inlet
flow conditions should be good with this design since the air which enters
the inlet does not flow through the propeller shanks, but it is difficult to
be taken to design the cowl lips to avoid separation and excessive inlet
difficult to design a cowl lip which will be satisfactory for both static and
high-speed operation. Static ground losses are important and should not
these losses are excessive. Present indications are that this problem is
figurations.
In order to prevent icing of the engine air inlet section, provisions are
made for bleeding compressor discharge air through passages in the com-
pressor inlet guide vanes and the four upper air inlet struts. The two
lower inlet struts are not subject to icing since oil circulates through
the bleed duct at the right of the compressor section, should be opened to
permit flow from the compressor discharge. The rate of flow is limited
air-discharge ports are located at the outer ends of the four air inlet
case struts.
287
that no ice formation was evident on the inlet-passage outer wall between
struts or from struts aft to the inlet guide vanes; this was with engines
some additional heat from within the nacelle will be available to this
outer wall. Anti-ice heat in engine struts and inlet guide vanes easily
able heat transfer from the hot air and oil in struts to case areas between
and aft of the struts. Anti-icing of the inner passage wall was satis-
tion and, as noted above, no ice buildup was experienced. This con-
anti-icing systems for the spinner, cowl, propeller equipment struts, and
build up to a certain degree and then broken off should not be used for
these components since some of the ice particles may enter the engine
The advent of the various types of jet engines requiring such enormous
amounts of air has increased the importance of the design of the induction
systems. Not only have important gains been made in obtaining good
ram recovery, but there has also been a marked impact on the amount
delivery.
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1. Separation of the airflow over the duct lips, due to stalling, through
sure loss (a positive pressure gradient ahead of the inlet and continuing
of the boundary layer and may induce separation along the duct walls);
nacelle;
2. Wing inlets, located along the leading edge of the wing, usually at
fuselage or nacelle;
inlet;
The amount of air required for a jet power plant will he specified for
For aircraft speeds up to about sonic, the air velocity in the induction
system varies from three tenths to nine tenths of the aircraft speed or
This ratio is known as the inlet-velocity ratio, and for preliminary design
purposes may be assumed to be about 0.5. For fighter aircraft, the ratio
V -Q
289
where Q
Q=-
pg
, cu ft/sec,
7.0 to 7.2 lb of air per horsepower hour for best economy mix-
tures,
6.1 to 0.8 lb of air per horsepower hour for best power mixtures,
G.6 to 7.0 lb of air per horsepower hour for rich best power
mixtures.
For the jet-type engine, the specific air consumption can be calculated
on the basis of the air-fuel ratio, which for complete combustion is about
then be calculated:
Some comments should be made on various types of air inlets for turbo-
to be made.
2. The critical Mach number for the inlet can be made as high as for
the wing.
W = 15(e) (T or P),
2. Unless engines are installed in the wing root, resulting bends in the
3. Retraction space for the landing gear may be made less available
2. Except for large angles of attack, there are few flow complications.
the wing.
aft location of the cockpit and wider nose of fuselage are usually required.
291
Figure XVI-20. Nose inlet in fuselage or nacelle. The nacelle or pod installation
is favored for multi-engine designs because it is considered less of a fire hazard, and
also keeps the exhaust heat away from the wing structure.
Figure XVI-21. The annular inlet. Such inlets may extend circumferentially only
The total pressure distribution at the inlet of the engine is usually very uniform with
a pod-type installation under normal level flight conditions. However, the distance
from the inlet to the engine is usually so short that disturbances generated at the inlet
by high angle of attack or yaw operation are not damped out before they reach the
engine, and relatively large disturbances can occur at high angles of attack. As a
general rule airplanes which use pod-type installations are not normally designed to
operate at extreme angles of attack so this problem may not be serious. However, in
to the maximum angle at which the airplane will operate during maneuvers. The
adverse effect of angle of attack on inlet distribution can be reduced by using relatively
thick lips on the lower part of the inlet although this may be objectionable on high speed
on lip design, even where some drag penalty is involved, in order to insure satisfactory
The adverse effect of angle of attack on pressure distribution at the engine inlet also
can be minimized by making the distance from the cowl inlet to the face of the engine
long enough to permit distrubances created at the inlet to be damped out before reaching
the engine.
Here, the advantages, especially when compared with the nose type, are:
fered with.
likely to be encountered.
Figure XVI-22. The external scoop. Such a scoop may also be located on top or
(a)
(b)
Figure XVI-23. The flush inlet. In order to suck away the boundary layer ahead
of the main inlet, a small secondary inlet is used, as shown in the schematic sketch in
Figure B.
2. Structural simplicity.
2. Location outside of the normal air stream so that duct bends may
Matching the air inlet system of the airframe to the turbo-jet engine
tion system.
4. Duct rumble due to flow separation ahead of side inlets at low air
5. Excessive spillage.
295
Research is still progressing in this area, and the following are some of
The rotating blade transfers energy from regions of high axial velocity to
2. Screens placed across the inlet also are effective in reducing dis-
tortion, but the relatively large energy losses may make screens a last-
Fuel
Oil
Rated
con-
con-
Ratio of
No. of
Cylinder
horse-
Normal
sump-
sump-
Weight
weight
cylin-
arrange-
power
rpm
tion,
lb/hp/hr
tion,
lb/hp/hr
to horse-
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ders
ment
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power
65
2300
.49
.010
176
2.70
Horiz. Op.
85
2575
.51
.010
184
2.20
Horiz. Op.
90
2475
.52
.010
184
2.07
Horiz. Op.
100
2550
.50
.015
230
2.30
296 AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL
Maximum
Fuel con-
Maximum
Maximum
Dry
thrust, in
pounds
sumption,
diameter,
length,
weight,
lb/hr/lb
inches
inches
pounds
790
.55
—
—
315
920
1.13
—
—
364
1000
1.65
22
96
370
3250
1.06
24
120
1233
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4600
1.14
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49
94
1790
6970
—
37
145
2554
7650
—
37
288
3196
9000
—
37
148
—"
10000
—
48
191
3829
In addition to the diffusion process, losses and space available for a dif-
ahead of the compressor face, results in suitable mixing in the duct, thus
application.
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298
ROCKETS
The rocket does not depend upon the surrounding air for its operation,
For aircraft, it is used for the additional power required to take off
limitations on high speed, all other factors being equal, may be the take-off
speed and take-off run, since there is a definite relationship for any given
design between the take-off speed and the high speed. Additional power
For each additional 1000 pounds of thrust at 60 miles per hour, there is
There are two types of rocket—one using a solid propellant, the other a
liquid propellant.
powder for the pyrotechnic agent that furnishes hot gases and solid
burning surface and the nozzle throat. The nozzle is used to control the
proper working pressure and to provide the rate of expansion of the hot
when desired.
The liquid-fuel rocket motor is more efficient but more complex in its
jected into the combustion chamber. These fuels are unstable, hard to
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bolic fuel systems are liquid oxygen and alcohol, or gasoline and an acid.
Design of the Wing
CHAPTER XVII
Qln spite of its seeming simplicity, the wing of an airplane requires the y
most careful study in its design for it is the vital part of the airplane which
contributes to the lift. ) A slight change in any one of the factors affecting
the wing design is so critical that only one slight difference in two other-
ences in maneuverability.
Pilots who fly externally braced biplanes will attest to the fact that rig-
ging the wings differently by tightening lift wires or adjusting struts often
"logy." The change of rigging may have altered the angle of incidence
of the wings, and therefore the decalage, so that entirely different charac-
wing alone that should be considered but its relationship to the rest of the
is concerned with the design of a structure that can meet the aerody-
imposed on the wing by the normal and chord components of these forces.
299
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300
CN, Ce, or
Figure XVII-1. Reference diagram for the development of equations for bending
In Figure XVII-1,
or
AF„ = qCN
AF„ = q
144'
CnCx
144'
if dx = 1 inch, and represents the load at any station x inches from the
Cxdx
AFC = qCc
144
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DESIGN OF THE WING
301
or
and
AMac = qCmaCz2
in inch-pounds.
The spanwise loads AFn, and AFC cause shears and bending or torsional
y=n y=n
Mz = ^(AFn)y = ^ ^CNCyydy;
y=i=o y=t = o
y-n y=n
M, = ^(AFc)y = j^^CcCvydy;
y=t=o y=i=o
y=n y=n
y=i=o y=i=o
|f—i—o y=t=o
Due to dihedral, the chord forces cause a torsional moment which may
be expressed as:
y-n y=n
z or normal axis
spanwise station of the wing. The aerodynamic center is taken as the point of origin
of the system of axes shown. The subscripts of the moments are determined by the
In Figure XVII-2, M,' is the total of all these torsional moments or:
for the configuration shown. Similar formulas may be derived for the
fb = { u. - ij )x + { uu -1j ) *.
by comparing the numerical value of Cc with CV), and that the principal
axes of the cross section of the beam are known. Then, the above formula
t - Mxz
f" = —f
Ix = I0 + pLAz? = -£Az?,
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DESIGN OF THE WING
303
Chord line
Principal
(b)
Figure XVII-3. (A) shows the principal components of a wing structure. (B)
represents the equivalent wing structure where the solid line segments represent the
shear elements and the solid circles the bending elements required to resist the transverse
from which it may be noted that all the longitudinal stringers, as well as
the chord members of the spars, will contribute to the strength of the
wing. If the wing has a negative dihedral, then the torsional moments
are all of the same sign and therefore of considerable magnitude. The
In general, the bending and torsional moments are the design deter
<
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The first three-view, the preliminary weight estimate, and the arrange-
ment of the balance diagram are the necessary steps in furnishing the data
for the type of wing for the position relative to the fuselage, and for its
size. The preliminary three-view has more or less set the shape of the
an externally braced wing, or, for example, a biplane with wings of differ-
ent proportions.
thus be able to fix the governing dimensions of span, chord, and taper.
The balance diagram is necessary to locate the wing relative to the cen-
the fuselage without the necessity of swinging it back first and then in-
board in order to retract the gear fully into the wing without interfering
with the front spar? Such retraction requires that the root portion of
the wing be somewhat forward of the leading edge of the mean geometric
chord; or, in other words, the wing should have the leading edge swept
back so that the root chord will come forward along the fuselage. The
reason for this is that there are two original conditions that must be met
by the wing and the landing gear. (The wing, for example, should be placed
so that the 25 per cent point of the mean geometric chord falls directly
under the center of gravity. ^^The landing gear, if a rear tail-wheel type
is used, on the other hand, must be placed at a certain angle ahead of the
center of gravity to prevent nosing over] These conditions for the wing
and landing gear must be kept, and, unfortunately, these conditions may
play havoc with original ideas of wing planform and simple landing-gear
retraction.
may be desirable to have a constant chord flap whose spanwise axis is per-
conditions will affect the ultimate planform of the wing. It is a good plan,
therefore, to list at first all the various ideas that the designer wants to
various features which affect its final design. The more important fea-
tures are considered here although it is impossible to point out all the pos-
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Since the wing design has to allow for so many factors—planform, spar
studies to make sure that every design feature has been properly in-
DESIGN OF THE WING
305
The instructions are for a two-spar wing and may be modified for any
005
2. Determine the mean geometric chord and check that the relation
of the wing to the fuselage is such that the center of gravity lies in the
aerodynamic center.
root to tip. The front spar is located at between 12 to 17 per cent of the
chord. Note that the constant percentage line of the chord is not parallel
to the leading edge of the wing. Indicate the spar location by its center
line.
4. Locate the rear spar similarly. The rear spar is located at from 65
aileron.
Neither the front nor rear spar need extend to the extreme wing tip,
5. Mark out the aileron. The leading edge of the aileron may be
parallel to the rear spar centerline. If the rear spar is located at 70 per
cent of the chord, then the aileron chord cannot exceed about 27 per cent
of the chord, since some allowance must be made for rear spar width,
chord might be increased, even if such an aileron has some adverse charac-
teristics. Increasing the aileron chord may necessitate moving the rear
usually less than the aileron chord—perhaps 15 to 20% of the wing chord.
A false spar, needed to support the flap hinges, may have to be added to
7. The wing rib spacing may be spotted in next. There are certainly
likely to be ribs located at each aileron and flap hinge (unless a piano-type
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hinge is possible). The aileron must have at least three hinges for sup-
rib stations. Reinforced ribs are also called for for engine-mount attach-
such ribs may suggest relocations of the other ribs in order to obtain a
wise stringers are not normally carried out to the tip, but are rather
discontinued at intervals inboard of the tip so that fewer and fewer stringers
9. The main elements of the wing structure have now been located. If
example, the well for the retraction of the landing gear may necessitate
some re-design.
limiting dimensions, and the like should be omitted. After the stress
Before the structural layout has progressed too far, it may be wise to
check on the effect of the spar and spanwise stringer location on the
double frame just where the pilot has to be provided with the best vision,
it may be wise to relocate the spar, or even change the wing planform.
If the wing fuel tanks interfere with the landing-gear retraction, some
of the fuselage, the power plant, and the landing gear constantly in mind.
mined for only one-half of the wing, either up to the side of the fuselage
Figure XVII-6. Geometric determination of the mean geometric chord for a simple
trapezoidal wing.
can be determined such that the area included in the equivalent semispan
The distance out from the side of the fuselage or plane of symmetry may
be calculated from
_ b (C + 2CQ
X ~ 3 (C + CO'
_ yi (C + 2d)
y ~ 3 (C + Ci)"
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DESIGN OF THE WING 309
procedure is to
\ r* yn
it
<>
—r <o
*l
'2
"3
Figure XVII-7. Geometric determination of the mean geometric chord for a com-
2. If the area of the rectangle is A, and the trapezoid A2 then the mean
„ _ CR At + Ci A,
t2~ Al + A2'
Its distance from the mean geometric chord of the rectangular section is
strip method. The location of the chord out from the side of the fuselage
I—*—I
h X -|
Figure XVII-8. Reference diagram for mathematical calculation of the mean aero-
dynamic chord.
strip of width dx = unity. If the airfoil used is the same from root to tip,
and the angle of incidence of each strip is the same, Cl will cancel in the
The taper ratio of wings varies greatly, depending upon the speed range,
span, aspect ratio and other similar parameters. For structural con-
square foot from root to tip would cause less bending moment at the root
aspect ratio of 26/C, where b is the span and C is the chord at the longi-
one third the span—an unusually large chord at the root which brings
horizontal and vertical tail surface arrangements, the aircraft would be-
perpendicular to plane
of symmetry.
plane of symmetry.
to plane of symmetry
perpendicular to plane of
symmetry
plane of symmetry
Figure XVII-11. A double delta-wing design for obtaining optimum relative posi-
tions of the aerodynamic center and the center of gravity. Inner delta incorporates air
duct for jet engines. A low thickness ratio can be employed for the outer delta. In
spite of the low aspect ratio and small thickness ratio, the delta wing, because of its large
root chord, offers a relatively large volume and depth for ducts, structure, and retraction
of landing gear.
313
running.
been proposed and used. Some of these are discussed under "Sweepback."
Some unusual planforms are illustrated in this chapter. See also Figures
For aircraft operating at high subsonic speeds, the use of the sweepback
Mach number of the wing. Since the thickness ratio t/C is measured for
were swept back an angle A, the apparent thickness ratio, instead of t/C,
However, unless steps are taken in the design of the wing, a highly
Figure XVII-13. Suggested design limits for aspect-ratio determination based upon
of attack of the swept-back wing is increased, the wing will stall at the
tips first, thereby reducing the lift at the tips. Since the lift on the swept-
back tip has a large moment arm from the center of gravity, the pitching
angle of attack still further. In addition to stalling the entire wing, the
tip of the wing losing the lift first will drop, and a spiral dive will ensue.
Sweeping the wing back produces two aerodynamic results. For the
towards the tip, whereas for the swept wing, the reverse is true. The
at the tip than inboard, and therefore the tip of the wing will stall before
wards the tip that tends to further complicate the problem of lift dis-
tribution.
aspect-ratio wings than with low. Figure XVII-13 presents some design
limits.
the tip-stall tendency. Such compromises may include (1) low aspect
ratio with large angle of sweepback, which leads to poor performance, (2)
wing fences on the top wing surface to reduce or prevent the outflow of
the boundary layer, (3) wash-out of the wirig tip, (4) choice of special
the wing near the root rather than at the tip, and (6) special planforms
"crescent" wing and the "isoclinic" wing, and the "cranked" wing.
configuration for low subsonic-speed operations and a more swept-back version for higher
speeds. The aerodynamic center of the mean geometric chord would be used as the
approximate pivot point. A root cuff to accommodate the various positions of the wing
would be used to streamline the section. A complicated spar mechanism would have
to be constructed to permit variable sweep and to sustain the loads imposed upon the
structure.
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DESIGN OF THE WING 315
back.
out the flight regime. A forward position is desirable for take-offs and
to the tip section and by increasing the chord length at the tip to increase
the lift farther outboard and the decreased depth of structure at the root
leading edge for the root section; 40° for the middle section; 30° for the
tip section. The wash-out due to bending in the middle section is offset
by the wash-in due to torsion caused by the loads on the tip section. Be-
cause of the smaller sweep of the tip section, the possibility of aileron
to the "crescent" wing except that the different sections of the wing
317
The effects of wing and fuselage mass distributions, wing loading, and
DIHEDRAL
A wing equipped with flaps will probably require more dihedral than
one without since the span is relatively shorter for the former than for the
dihedral to the wing. This may be given to the entire wing from the
fuselage outward or from the stub wing outward. Again, in the latter
case more dihedral would be required than for the former case.
pered in planform and thickness. The angle measured between the plane,
passed through the mean aerodynamic chord and parallel to the locus of
the aerodynamic centers of the airfoils, and the horizontal plane, will give
Figure XVII-19. Various configurations showing dihedral. The angles have been
the horizontal plane and a plane through the locus of the aerodynamic centers of the
airfoils.
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318
show this droop appearance because of the aerodynamic twist of the wing
rather than the dihedral. The usual negative dihedral varies from 3
to 6 degrees.
(B) combines a negative dihedral for the root section and a positive
the smaller portion of the wing affected. The positive dihedral would
(C) shows no provision for dihedral for the root section, but greater
dihedral for the tip section. Such a design might be employed to obtain
(D) represents the dihedral angle applied to the full wing span. The
with the descending wing operating at a higher angle of attack, and there-
fore, greater lift than the ascending wing. The effectiveness of the dihe-
dral for a given airplane is measured by the rate of change of the rolling-
When the wing is swept back, the effective dihedral increases rapidly
with change in the lift coefficient of the wing so that the effectiveness is
take-off.
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porates sweepback.
DESIGN OF THE WING
319
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
Theoretically, an airplane designed for high speed should have its wing
set at such an angle to the fuselage that the combination will give the least
.^fa good compromise is to set the wing at an angle to the longitudinal axis
in the deflected position, or the inconvenient ground angle for the fuselage
when in the three-point landing position. The former case usually requires
a smaller fixed angle of wing setting while the latter requires a larger angle
of incidence.
To obtain a desired lift distribution of the wing especially near the tip
twist. Formerly, wash-in and wash-out was resorted to for the wing-tip
section only, but it is now customary to study every section along the
wing and to develop the change of angles of incidence carefully so that cer-
A wing is said to have zero aerodynamic twist when the zero lift lines
of all airfoils from the root of the wing outboard are parallel.
especially at cruising speed at high altitude, with the result that the angle
of incidence of the wing with relation to the fuselage axis is relatively large.
However, the large angle of incidence of the wing causes the airplane
sideslip, while the reverse is true when the inclination of the fuselage is
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positive. The difference in the fuselage axis and the wing chord axis
moment.
For high-speed flight at high altitude, the thin wings have a relatively
larger angle of attack than might be expected for the subsonic designs.
In order to reduce the over-all drag of the wing and the fuselage, the wing
320
The angle of incidence is dependent upon the airfoil chosen and the aspect
ratio of the wing. Whereas for subsonic designs, the angle of incidence
of the root chord to the wing is of the order of 1, 2, or 3 degrees, for tran-
sonic and supersonic designs, the angle of incidence is about twice those
values.
WING LOADING
For high rates of climb and high service ceiling, relatively low wing
> ing are (1) the maximum lift coefficient obtainable, and (2) the permissible
landing speed, which is likely to be about the same as the stalling speed.
increase devices because of the additional cost and the reduction in the
margin left for cargo and pay load. These aircraft are likely to have
high speed, relatively high wing loadings are necessary. Thus, for this
also necessary to raise the landing speeds. Here, the wing loadings are
ably not be used—so that values between 45 and 70 pounds per square
ASPECT RATIOS
Aspect ratios for wings operating at subsonic speeds vary from 6 to 12,
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tively small wetted surface for the lifting surface as compared with the
321
tion of the high aspect ratio. Increasing the aspect ratio from 6 to 12
cuts the induced drag in half. A better lift over drag ratio (L/D) for the
speeds vary with the designs. Some idea of the selection of the aspect
ratio may be obtained from Figure XVII-13 which indicates the relation-
ship between aspect ratio and sweepback angle. Based on data for
per square foot, the aspect ratios vary between 6.5 and 12, with the higher
aspect ratios for the higher wing loadings. The following linear relation-
For speeds between 500 and 650 miles per hour, foreign fighter airplanes
have aspect ratios ranging between 4 and 7 for wing loadings between
44 and 72 pounds per square foot. The relationship between them may
be expressed as:
^ = 10.4 AR.
For aircraft operating at speeds between 400 and 800 mph, the follow-
AR = 3 + 1.175 ~
and rear spars of a two-spar system, the thickness ratios at various sta-
tions along the chord with reference to the maximum thickness ratio
may be examined.
Since
d
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322
and
/ « bds,
where d/2 is the distance from the neutral axis to the outermost fiber of
the section under consideration, where in this case d is the depth of the
then
f ~L
h d2
Chord
NACA
23018
NACA
0018
NACA
63018
NACA
643018
station
dydma2
d*/dmax2
%
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5.0
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10.72
35.8
10.68
35.0
8.724
23.4
8.372
22.8
7.5
12.61
49.5
12.60
48.8
10.616
34.3
10.152
33.7
10.0
14.05
61.3
14.04
60.7
12.136
45.5
11.606
43.7
15.0
16.04
80.1
16.04
79.2
DESIGN OF THE WING
323
WING-FUSELAGE CONFIGURATIONS
the wing structure over the entire root-chord length since a multi-spar
chord, the depth of the wing becomes appreciable and easily accommodates
1. Difficulty in disposing control rods, cables, and the like in the interior.
since this type of construction would probably not be utilized for deeper
wing sections.
utilized for deeper wing sections where the skin may be somewhat less,
greatest depth rather than at a station of less depth and may therefore
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enumerated as:
for optimum design, might as well work in conjunction with the main
spar. Thus, the ultimate design of this type of structure would lead to a
two-spar structure.
325
3. The skin may form wrinkles when the spar bends and thus present a
weight.
covering.
3. Minimum weight penalty for cut-outs because the skin is less highly
tion in the spar chords leads to simpler fittings, whether for attachment
1. Relatively smaller effective depth for the spars, which are usually
2. Closer rib spacing is needed to carry the air loads into the spars
form.
4. Possible handling difficulties with thin skin unless the skin thickness
tion difficulties.
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E, these are:
326
localized.
4. Wing deflections are less than for any other type shown.
1. More fabrication.
The final structure of the wing is dependent upon its final arrangement
on the location of the aileron, the flap, the fuel tanks, the retractable land-
ing gear, and any other items peculiar to the particular design.
Figure XVII-21. A cutaway sketch showing one type of metal wing construction.
1% inches and more at the root section. For missile designs, such wing
covers may be cast from a magnesium alloy. However cast wing covers
are not used for manned aircraft receiving repeated use, primarily because
to vibration.
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328
are in common use. The one on the right shows a "shear-type" spar with lightening
holes.
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DESIGN OF THE WING
329
the action of the limit load, the spar or beam would be considered a normal
Since the dimensions of a spar obviously depend upon the loads im-
posed and the depth of the wing available, it is difficult to give many
a shear web made of sheet material at least 0.025 inches thick and chord
members with thicknesses two or more times that of the sheet. For a
of the web is about the same order of magnitude as the chord members.
Truss-type spars (See Figure XVII-25) have been used only rarely in
recent designs. For small aircraft, the truss-type spar has some merit as
Figure XVII-25. Suggested truss-type spar construction. Trusses are used rela-
tively infrequently.
cent of the chord, with the rear spar located at from 65 to 75 per cent of
the wing chord. While analyses could be made to determine the optimum
the normal flight regime and the load factors encountered at low and high
angles of attack (since not only the magnitude but also the distribution of
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330
are common.
of the structural system coincide with the center of pressure. Since the
center of pressure of the wing varies with the angle of attack and there-
fore may vary as much as 25 per cent of the chord (more with trailing
center.
up the more common type of wing structures where the spars lose their
identity to some extent and are more commonly referred to as shear webs.
The spars vary not only in depth for the tapered wing, but also in the
cross-sectional area of the spar chords. If the spar chords are milled or
root, and then discontinued at suitable intervals along the span. Since
the spar members will most likely have to be spliced, a reduction in thick-
ness can be made for the adjacent outboard member. If two angles back
to back form a Tee section for the inboard section of the spar, one of the
changes, special precautions must be taken to make sure that the dis-
331
out that spanwise stringers serve to add to the bending strength of the >
wing.
The spacing chordwise of these stringers is arrived at—as it is for the ribs
equidistantly apart. Not all the stringers are carried out to the extreme
tip since the wing-tip portion is relatively more rigid—even for the mini-
mum structure—than the inboard sections. Carrying out all the stringers
Usually the positive load factor will cause greater compressive loads on
the top surface of the wing than the negative load factor will cause on the
bottom. Therefore the stringers on the bottom surface can be lighter in \•
The primary functions of the ribs in the wing are (1) to maintain the ~\
chordwise shape of the airfoil, (2) to act as supports for the panels of the
wing skin or envelope, and (3) to transmit the pressures on the wing to the
o V ^ V ^ \/
Figure XVII-27. Cross sections of a metal wing. In the top illustration, corru-
gated sheet with a smooth skin on the outside, serves the same function as spanwise
stringers. In the bottom illustration, truss-type ribs, spanwise C-sections, and tension
field spars show one type of metal wing construction. Plain transverse former ribs of
spanwise bending members. In some cases, they also serve to act as the
members are attached, or as supports for fuel tanks, control systems, and
localized loads. In turn, such ribs transmit the loads to the spanwise
spars.
Ribs are located at or near centerlines of aileron and flap hinges of fitting
to assemble the ribs in three sections—the nose section, the center, and
the trailing edge sections—in order to avoid any cut-outs of the spars.
The ribs are notched for the spanwise stringers, which should also be con-
tinuous members.
thickness of the sheet used in their construction may be one gauge lighter
Where concentrated loads are applied to transverse ribs, the rib struc-
ture has to be carefully designed to take the shears and bending moments
imposed.
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DESIGN OF THE WING
333
Figure XVII-29. Various metal rib configurations. Flat sheet, beaded and light-
ening holes add to the rigidity of the wing. Truss-type ribs utilize U-sections for
added column strengths for the diagonals. Former ribs, top and bottom, are simplest
in form and are generally satisfactory for wings utilizing occasional ribs of the more
rigid type. The ribs shown are center-section ribs; the nose and tail portions are of
similar construction or utilize methods of other ribs shown for their construction. Ribs
are riveted, by means of integral flanges or separate brackets, to the faces of the spars
or shear webs. The top three ribs show cut-outs for transverse stringers. The skin
covering offers continuity of structure since it is riveted to the ribs and the spanwise
stringers.
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334
V--""' (a)
WING-FUSELAGE ATTACHMENTS
the flying wing or some delta-wing designs where the fuselage becomes
be desirable to support a wing not only at the fuselage, but at some point
outboard. The two-spar wing lends itself most conveniently to the ex-
ternal support.
XVII-30.
Figure A shows two external configurations for the same wing spar—
one full cantilever when the lift strut, shown dotted, is supplied.
335
moment when (in C) the wing is full cantilever; when (in D) the wing is
externally supported and pinned at the fuselage; when (in E) the wing is
obtained by the use of a single pin placed parallel to the wing chord. For
placed parallel to the chord are common. A vertical pin accomplishes the
the fuselage structure. In all cases where the lift struts are employed,
pin connections are used at the ends, with the pin parallel to the wing
chord or line of flight so that only axial loads are imposed upon the struts.
and there will therefore be fewer complications in the design of the fuselage
339
may be equally spaced provided the taper ratio of the wing planform is not
too great. In the latter case, equidistant spacing may cause relatively
too close spacing near the root and too large spacing near the tip for
economical design.
In some wings of tapered planform, the spars are not placed either
gear well.
When spars are equidistant, it is possible to slip the ribs over the spars
from the tip end, but modern construction of ribs usually calls for three
Wood or metal may be used for either the spars or ribs or both. Spars
The ribs are spaced from about 6 to 14 inches apart depending upon the
This spacing is based upon the gliding (or diving) speed and may be
assumed to be about V/i times the maximum speed attained (or expected)
Figure XVII-36. Samples of wooden rib construction for two-spar wings. These
could be made of metal with a little modification, as shown, for example, in the third
in horizontal flight. The chord line of the ribs is placed parallel to the
axis of symmetry (longitudinal axis) of the airplane. The ribs are usually
A piece of sheet metal or plywood covers the nose section so that the
doped fabric maintains its shape properly. Where rib spacing is quite
large compared to the thickness of the nose covering, extra nose ribs be-
where there are hinge connections, concentrated loads are applied to the
spar, so that local reinforcements are required. In the case of wood spars,
extra plies are glued to the sides, or a solid block is inserted in the box-type
spar. Metal spars have extra plates riveted or bolted to the sides to trans-
or subribs.
design dive speed or design glide speed. (Adapted from C.A.M. 04.)
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DESIGN OF THE WING
341
In the slipstream, use 75 per cent factor for lacing and rib spacings, ex-
cept that lacing spacing need not be less than 1 inch; aft of 30 per cent
chord point, when aft portion only is fabric covered, lacing and rib spac-
the juncture of the wing spar with the fuselage. For pin-type ends, a
male and female fitting with a single horizontal bolt is the usual solution.
necessary condition for a pin joint. For fixed ends, a male and female fit-
ting with a single vertical bolt or tapered pin for alignment purposes is a
common solution where the bearing loads are not excessive. Another
solution is the use of two horizontal bolts. For transmitting large bend-
ing moments (that is, fixed ends), continuity may be obtained by a series
at their ends with one horizontal bolt parallel to the plane of symmetry at
each end of the strut. No bending moment from the wing should be
AILERONS
very effective at low angles. Figure B shows the aileron slightly too far
preferably should be not more than 25 per cent of the chord although 30
per cent is common when flaps are used for increased lift.
balanced aileron of the Frise type, and Figure I a modified Frise type.
T is an upper-surface aileron.
342
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343
The next question that arises is whether the aileron should be aerody-
The leading edge preferably should not project beyond the normal con-
tour of the wing when deflected, since ice may form on the leading edge of
high an aspect ratio as possible and about 10 to 12 per cent of the total
The aileron's primary function is to rotate the airplane about its longi-
tudinal axis. In general, any method that would increase or decrease the
lift on one side relative to the other would meet the objective. Various
devices have been invented and applied to flying designs. A few may be
1. The spoiler. A small slat usually raised near the top surface of the
wing near the leading edge. This is still used in conjunction with the flap-
type aileron.
2. Opening ports on one side to destroy the lift. Such a scheme is highly
effective for high angles of attack or low speeds, but ineffective at high
speeds. Moreover, the control system is not a continuous one in that the
control stick would have to disengage the control system for one side be-
zero lift, regardless of the wing's angle of attack, and are therefore effective
for any angle of attack. Such ailerons require relatively more area than
the flap type, and while they may increase the apparent aspect ratio of
the wing, this gain is offset by the parasite resistance of these surfaces.
device.
5. Other devices can easily be envisaged that would meet the require-
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1. Rolling moments
L = CiSwbq;
344
2. Yawing moments
N = ChSwbq;
3. Hinge moments
H = ChSaCaq;
zero, and the hinge moments should be within the normal capacities of
system is one that requires a relatively small proportion of the wing area.
The measure of effectiveness is gained in flight tests, and for the subsonic
follows:
With the rudder locked, and the stick or control wheel thrown hard over,
1. Reach its maximum rolling velocity in not more than 0.2 seconds
later; *
g > 0.07,
3. At any speed below 80 per cent of maximum level flight speed, should
With the rudder held fixed, and the airplane flying at 110 per cent of its
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minimum speed, the craft should not sideslip more than 20 degrees due to
345
In a sideslip:
1. The rolling moment obtained should vary smoothly with the sideslip
angle;
3. The tendency of the aileron to return to its trim position should in-
The greater the lateral stability induced by the dihedral and/or sweep-
back effect of the wing, the larger the aileron area has to be to counteract
such effects.
because the moment tends to turn the airplane out of its designated turn.
Figure XVII-39. Typical rolling and moment variation with anuglar deflection of
stick or wheel. If they are too large, auxiliary boosting systems actuat-
greater the ratio of flap chord to wing chord, the greater the hinge moments
chord ratio of 25 per cent. The hinge moments may be reduced in magni-
employed for elevators and rudders are applicable here, and reference
on this subject.
Aileron areas vary from 8 to 12 per cent of the total wing area (including
0.005 C
0.1 C J
0.005 C
-M —0.25 C
- c-
Radius R variable
Figure XVII-40. Typical aileron (or flap) dimensions. The aerodynamic balance
347
with the function of the elevators so that the control surfaces combining
the aileron function would take place from any flap position.
of the flap leading edge to provide a less turbulent airflow over the flap in
to obtain a higher lift coefficient and less turbulent airflow aft of the flap.
In Figure D, the Handley-Page slot and flap are shown. This combina-
tion offers a number of possibilities. The slot can be brought out into
suitable linkage mechanism, the flap can be depressed at the same time.
The design must ensure fool-proof mechanical operation, since the front
rigid. Under icing conditions it would have to be heated, lest ice interfere
In Figure E, the Wragg flap or external airfoil flap not only increases the
lift due to flap action, but also increases the effective wing area.
downward while the top half remains fixed in place. A variation uses a
movable top split flap as well. This flap, moving up while the other
moves down, acts primarily as a spoiler to create more drag and is there-
Figure G is a split flap which moves rearwardly and down, thus increas-
ing the wing area and providing additional lift action when deflected.
The famous Fowler flap employs a recessed airfoil section for such a flap.
This type gives the highest increase in the maximum lift coefficient ob-
tainable.
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There are other devices for increasing lift which are not shown. There
has been some study on a series of smaller recessed airfoils which when
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349
o, de-
•
Description or
Flap
Maxi-
grees
L/D
NACA
diagram
data
mum
for
at
reference
Cl
CLmax
Clark Y airfoil
Basic airfoil .
1.29
15
7.5
-.085
TN459
Chord .30 Cw
L95_
12
4.0
—
TR427
deflected 45°
Chord .30 Cw
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1.98
12
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4.0
—
TR427
B)
deflected 45°
Handley-Page auto-
1.84
28
4.1
—
TN459
matic slot
Chord .30 Cw
2.18
19
3.7
—
TR427
deflected 45°
Chord .40 Cw
3.36
16
3.7
-.740
TN459 v.
deflected 45°
speed, with the result that the horizontal tail surfaces do not operate
• Since the center of pressure moves rearward along the chord, the ef-
fective tail moment arm is decreased and the moment coefficient about
tail surfaces to the basic wing area is therefore greater for an airplane
using the flaps than for an airplane not using them. Accordingly, the
quate stability when flaps are employed will have more than adequate
to be obtained for the lift, drag, and hinge moment coefficients. These
are given for full-span flaps on test models under two-dimensional testing
conditions. In the actual application, the flaps seldom extend over the
full span of the wing, nor is the wing likely to be identical with that used
in the test. Some qualifications in the data used are therefore always
necessary, but reasonable estimates are still possible until particular tests
are made.
for a given flap configuration is possible for any airfoil, regardless of what
1.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Figure XVII-42. Typical curve showing rate of increase of maximum lift coefficient
with flap deflection. Curve shown is for a split flap with a chord of 20 per cent of the
For an airplane equipped with conventional size ailerons, and with flaps
devoted to the rest of the span not covered by the ailerons, the maximum
lift coefficient for the entire wing area is often arbitrarily assumed to have
where 1.7 Cimai represents a 70 per cent increase in lift due to the flap.
The area covered by the fuselage is normally not included in the wing
area, but if a flap is made continuous across the bottom of the fuselage,
additional lift results, depending upon the type of fuselage. This addi-
flap or "droop snoot" whereby the forward portion of the wing nose is
foil equipped with such a nose indicated that the lift coefficient could be
The nose flap also increases the angle of attack at which the maximum
lift coefficient is obtained over that for the basic airfoil, evidently because
the nose flap aligns the airflow better at the stall. However, even so, the
Another good feature of the nose flap is that the additional pitching
moment created by the nose flap is not so great, at least at low angles of
the same longitudinal stability for the airplane without the use of the nose
flap.
Figure XVII-48. "Wing fences" used to prevent drift of boundary layer towards
the tip. Note the "wing fences" on the vertical tail surfaces.
Wing fences have been employed for the transonic and supersonic air-
planes to prevent the outward flow of the boundary layer. These fences
height, attached to the top surface of the wing and extending from the
leading edge of the wing to the leading edge of the flap or aileron. Usually
two such fences are used on each half of the wing, sectioning the wing
weights along the wing of the airplane increases the rolling and yawing
moments of inertia so that the normal size ailerons provide reduced rolling
WING FENCES
355
oscillatory stability, and increase the time for the airplane to damp out
oscillations. It has been found that this effect was small for low values
of effective dihedral, especially when the ratio of vertical tail surface area
to the wing area is small. The solution for high moment of inertia would
be either increased vertical tail surface area with relation to the wing, or
with a low value of the moment of inertia; but due to poor damping, steady
While ordinarily the wing loading is given as the ratio of the gross weight
of the airplane to the wing area, it has recently been pointed out that the
relative density of the airplane (that is, the density of the airplane divided
ing the wing loading at sea level or flying it at high altitudes where the air
density is less is the same. In both cases the degree of the lateral stability
is decreased.
The solution would be to increase the ratio of the vertical tail area to
FLUTTER PREVENTION
ing edges on movable surfaces, should be avoided. (These are also prone
to collect ice.)
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356
it is usually more effective when located near the outboard end of the
aileron.
The lac ding gear consists of the wheels, tires, brakes, shock absorbers,
minor exceptions, most of the items making up the landing gear are not
However, their selection and their relationship are determined by the air-
plane designer so that it is important for him to know the various condi-
tions which the landing gear must meet and the purpose for which each
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
rectilinear motion along a flight path, making an angle with the horizontal.
before the point of contact. During this operation the rate of descent is
slowed to practically zero at contact; also the flight path speed along the
The landing gear is brought into the picture from the moment of contact
The landing gear must, of course, take the shocks when landing or when
shock loads—the tire which absorbs minor shocks, and the shock absorber
which absorbs hard and sudden shocks. Not only must the landing gear
be able to take these shocks, but it must also be so arranged that the air-
357
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358
The proper design of the landing gear requires possibly as much or more
attention than any other component of the aircraft, even though the use
of the landing gear contributes such a very small proportion of the useful
"dead-stick landing" or a flared landing path; and the final ground run.
the attitude of the airplane may affect the distribution of the loads, mak-
wheels, tires, and brakes are not investigated by the airframe designer
since their selection on the basis of static load assures that strength re-
For the tail-wheel type of landing gear, the basic landing conditions
cover (1) the level landing attitude with inclined reactions at the main
wheels, and (2) the tail-down landing with vertical reactions at the wheels.
investigated to cover the use of brakes and the landing occurring from a
side-slip.
DYNAMIC LOADS
Ground run
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THE LANDING GEAR
359
For the nose-wheel type of landing gear, the basic landing conditions
are (1) level landing with inclined reactions at the nose and main wheels,
(2) level landing with inclined reactions at the main wheels, and the nose
wheel just off the ground, (3) the tail-down landing. Subsidiary condi-
tions take care of (4) braked landing, (5) obstruction load, and (6) side
loads, as well as several supplementary conditions for the nose wheel only.
commercial airplane, the limit vertical inertia load factor is one obtained
V = 4.4 (W7<S)1'«,
but need not exceed 10 feet per second nor be less than 6 feet per second.
Other restrictions may be imposed, such as that the inertia load factor
used for design purposes should not be less than 2.67. Since the aircraft
designer does not necessarily desire a load factor greater than 2.67, he
attempts to design the landing gear so that the load factor is not likely
In the main, the load factor is determined by the rate of energy dissipa-
tion. To keep the load factor as low as possible, the designer would
ideally favor a long stroke for the shock absorber. The action of the
impact of the ball hitting his hand at a relatively high speed, the catcher
turn, the work of the shock absorber and the wheel brakes. Some of the
devices may be employed just before the landing run starts. Not only
is the sinking speed changed, but the drag is increased, thereby reducing
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speed.
lift or for boundary layer control, seem to offer great possibilities for re-
a drag chute released from the tail of the airplane works effectively as a
braking device. The reasons for using a drag chute may be summarized
as follows:
gear.
reversers are essentially cups placed in the exhaust jet stream to reverse
the direction of the exhaust gases and thereby produce a reverse thrust or
drag. It has been proposed that it might be worth while to employ small
jet engines, which would direct the thrust in a direction opposite to that
fuselage to make contact with the ground at about the same level as the
7. Barriers. Barriers at the end of the landing run that make contact
with the wing, fuselage, and landing gear have been used to advantage
THE LANDING GEAR
361
peller-driven aircraft.
DISSIPATION OF ENERGY
The normal airplane upon landing has both a sinking and a forward
velocity. The kinetic energy of the airplane from the time the aircraft
first makes contact with the landing area—be it an airport, a ship's deck,
ner. The various devices employed to accomplish this are termed shock
absorbers.
Since the airplane may glide to contact with the ground in landing, the
Lw = W cos 0 = Y2pvgCLS,
v = ^jW cos (3
vg sin j3,
V2pCtS'
vg = gliding speed,
Vh = Vg cos /3.
The energy of the airplane due to the sinking speed v, has to be absorbed
following ways:
a coiled spring or a cantilever beam may also be used for the same purpose.
results, and landing with these shock absorbers may therefore be rough.
weight-saving results.
2. Friction
(a) Brake friction is the usual accepted method. Here the result
compression of the air represents a portion of the work done, and some of
thus dissipated is relatively small, but the compressed air acts as a spring.
Since the air is forced into the absorber under pressure, it tends to keep
some of the energy. The wheels and tires are also shock-absorbing
mechanisms.
rotation before contact is made with the ground. In this way, the initial
landing shock could be lessened and the wear and tear on the tire reduced.
for stronger struts and wheels, tires that can withstand higher ground-
impact loads and spin-up speeds, and brakes to absorb and dissipate
planes require high wing loadings to attain the desired speeds, the landing
are used to decrease the approach speed. Such devices and means would
be auxiliary and would usually serve only one specific purpose—to reduce
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SHOCK ABSORBERS
363
Inflation valve
Compressed air
Friction material
Rubber spring
Compression tube
lowing:
6. Weight of chassis.
9. Tire size.
pressed condition.
condition.
angle to the vertical for the best results. A limiting angle of 45 degrees
may be assumed although not more than half that would be more desirable.
One-Point Contact
A single wheel has been used primarily for relatively light gliders or to
recessed in the fuselage or in the keel of the flying boat hull. To obtain
stability on the ground and to protect the rest of the structure, a tail or
nose skid and wing skids are used. When the aircraft is under way,
either in landing or taking off, contact with the ground is made only
dual-wheel installation (side by side), which would give the craft some
both lateral and longitudinal stability on the ground and thus eliminate
skids.
Two-Point Contact
in the lateral direction) may be employed with the aid of a nose or tail
skid. Since this imposes some importance on the skids, there may be a
having two points of contact. This arrangement was used for relatively
light airplanes, but objections were raised against the wear and tear
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365
for lateral balance unless there was a dual installation of wheels at either
Three-Point Contact
This arrangement consists of two main wheels plus either a nose or tail
Four-Point Contact
vehicles, has been proposed and used. While ground stability is excep-
The tail-wheel type landing gear consists of (1) two main wheels or
their equivalent, placed slightly ahead of the center of gravity, and (2)
ahead of the center of gravity of the airplane, if placed too far forward
there would be difficulty in taking off. In taking off, the tail of the air-
plane must be raised until the longitudinal axis of the airplane is practically
reaches a climbing speed and is ready to take off. But, in order to reach
this horizontal attitude, there must be a lift on the horizontal tail surfaces
produced by the relative wind on these tail surfaces caused by the pro-
peller slipstream and the forward acceleration of the craft. This lift, mul-
tiplied by the distance from the center of pressure on the horizontal tail
surfaces to the point of contact of the wheel with the ground, is the mo-
ment which must be just equal to the moment produced by the weight of
the airplane times the distance from the center of gravity of the airplane
to the point of wheel and ground contact. When these two moments are
If the front wheels were quite far ahead of the center of gravity of the
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tail surfaces. Since the lift on the tail surfaces is proportional to the
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the necessary lift. However, it takes time to start at zero speed and ac-
to dig in at low angles of attack. By raising the nose of the airplane the
5. With increase in propeller thrust, the load on the nose wheel increases
since the propeller thrust line is above the nose wheel. Unless the nose
for the "oleo" or shock absorber may be compressed long before any seri-
obstacles. The tail wheel seems to behave better under such circum-
stances.
7. The tail wheel has the advantage of protecting the tail surfaces. Un-
less a skid or special crash pad is provided for the rear portion of the fuse-
lage when the nose-wheel type of landing gear is used, the rear portion of
location in the forward portion of the fuselage and because of its longer
shock-absorber travel.
transport planes.
1. Ability to operate from sand, dirt, and sod, since the track-type
the aircraft load is spread over approximately 250 per cent greater run-
way surface.
3. "Bounce" eliminated from hot landings; the gear holds to the ground
after touch-down.
9. Belt runs cooler than a tire so wears less; also, low unit ground
1. Heavier installation.
371
more time, study, and ideas, most of these unfavorable aspects can be
TANDEM GEAR
In place of the track-type landing gear, tandem wheel trains have been
devised, using either two wheels in tandem in place of the main wheel, or
two sets of dual wheels in tandem. These arrangements have been sug-
1. Reduce the over-all size of the individual wheels and thus encourage
compactness.
contact area.
front gear first with an appreciable rate of descent will result in an up-
ward bounce or will at least prevent sufficient load being applied to the
2. Due to the large fore and aft spread of the tandem gears, the pilot
has virtually no control over the attitude on the ground. However, this
In a cross-wind landing, the pilot approaches the airport with the air-
the airplane with the runway either too early or too late, thus imposing
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allow the wheels to swivel and to line up the airplane not with its longi-
Several types of cross-wind landing gear have been proposed both here
and abroad.
One type provides for an assembly of wheel and wheel fork permitted
to swivel any amount under control of the pilot but locked by him in a
pilot must make a free run over the field to decide the amount of wind
correction needed.
1. The pilot has accurate steering at all times. The airplane will taxi
just as with the normal configuration except that the longitudinal axis
loads due to taxiing, propeller thrust, etc., will be exerted, regardless of the
required.
1. The pilot does not have to actuate the gear to the desired swivel
angle.
1. The wheels are somewhat difficult to steer since the longitudinal axis
of the airplane must be turned through the entire swivel range of the
wheel (unless a strap is engaged) before the wheel starts to turn and the
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3. As the longitudinal axis of the airplane may vary greatly from the
pilot-operated airplanes.
THE LANDING GEAR
373
operated.
5. It is estimated that the weight increase in the landing gear for this
configuration.
Use of the cross-wind gear should shorten take-off runs in most cases
separation of the flow over the down-wind wing in the region near the
shows how the wheels would operate in a crosswind landing. The wheels line up with
the direction of the inertia of the airplane, not with the longitudinal axis of the airplane.
The swivelling wheel, fork, and shock-absorber member may be preset in flight, and
then locked, to give the pilot steering control of the wheel; or wheel may be given a
slight trail (point of contact is behind the swivel axis) so as to give each wheel inde-
installations.
tendency for the wheel to oscillate violently about the spindle axis. This
the application of friction at the spindles of the tail wheels, (2) locking
the wheels while taxiing at high speeds, and (3) incorporation of shimmy
dampers.
Shimmy is common with the large nose wheels used in tricycle landing
gears. Because it is impossible to lock the wheels, friction for the spindle
has been the sole means of correction; but the larger the wheel and the
The illustration
greater the load carried by the wheel, the larger the amount of spindle
ing upon the materials and type of rubbing surfaces. Moreover, the damp-
may rotate in the upper bearing. The rotation is limited by the shimmy-damper
installation shown above and to the right of the axis of the fork strut. The shock
attachment allows for only axial motion of the piston inside the shock-absorber cylinder.
The shimmy could be incorporated within the lower end of the shock-absorber strut.
The distance between the vertical through the axle center and the axis of rotation of
375
velocities, the nose wheel does not respond to steering and to finding its
Hydraulic damping means, on the other hand, have very little resistance
increases, the damping action increases also, since hydraulic energy ab-
vane type.
The piston is connected by suitable means to the wheel fork and operates
scissors and sliding collar, the wheel movements are transmitted to the
cylinder and forces a fluid through appropriate orifices for energy ab-
sorption.
to the stationary vanes. The fluid is passed through a valve orifice from
volume. The fluids used are the same as for the shock absorber.
TREAD
The wheel tread is a function of (a) the height of the center of gravity
above the ground, (b) the wing span, and (c) the distance between the
front wheels and the tail wheel. As these dimensions increase in size, the
The size of the wheels and tires in the conventional landing gear is de-
termined by the static weight equal to half the gross weight of the airplane
per wheel. It is not necessary to determine the load factors and loads im-
posed by various landing conditions since the wheels and tires are origi-
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The size of the wheels for a tricycle landing gear depends upon their
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position relative to the center of gravity. The two rear wheels may have
376
from 85 to almost 100 per cent of the load while the front wheel may have
from 10 to 25 per cent of the gross weight of the airplane as the static load.
The weight of the tail wheel for preliminary weight estimate and balance
to one-twelfth the gross weight of the airplane and then choosing the re-
quired nose or tail wheel, with the larger fraction for the nose wheel.
After the center of gravity has been found, the weight and size of the
nose or tail wheel may be corrected by finding the correct static load on
Examination of the landing gears reveals that the wheel without any
load on it, as incorporated in the normal landing gear, may toe-in; or the
vertical centerline when viewed from the front is at an angle of several de-
grees from the vertical, commonly known as camber. These two features
are of course accentuated when the landing gear is in the fully extended
The wheels are given no toe-in for the normal condition unless the con-
Too much leeway either way may cause the tire to roll off when landing.
The position of the wheels with relation to the center of gravity is shown
in the illustration for the conventional landing gear and the tricycle land-
ing gear.
WHEEL POSITION
The simplest form of retraction is one that employs only one motion,
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THE LANDING GEAR
377
good conception of the various methods that may be employed for re-
traction.
Fiocbb XVIII-12. The landing gear is retracted directly rearward into the wing
between the front and rear spars. Similar linkages could be employed to retract the
gear sideways.
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378
Figure XVIII-13. Another retractable landing gear design where space between
Table XVIII-1. Minimum radius of bend for hydraulic lines. Aluminum alloy or
Outside diameter of
tube, in inches
'/£
IX
3
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THE LANDING GEAR
379
Figure XVIII-14. A simple brake installation. The arrows indicate the direction of
linkage when applying full brake. The brake pedal system is suspended from the
rudder bar.
Figure XVIII-15. A detail drawing of the landing gear used on the Ercoupe.
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380
Stroke,
Piston diameter,
Length,
per strut
in inches
in inches
in inches
500- 1000
1.50
19.5
1000- 1500
1.75
19.5-23.5
1500- 2000
2.00
19.5-24.0
2000- 2500
2.25
19.5-25.5
2500- 3000
2.50
19.5-26.0
3000- 4000
2.75
19.5-28.0
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4000- 5000
6
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3.125
20.0-30.5
5000- 6000
3.50
20.0-32.5
6000- 8000
4.125
20.0-32.5
8000-10,000
4.625
20.5-34.0
10,000-12,000
5.00
20.5-34.0
12,000-14,000
5.50
20.5-34.0
SPECIAL PROBLEMS
Wings for transonic and supersonic flight are already too thin for
room for the gear in the crowded fuselage, which must carry increasing
planes fly deeper into the thermal region, the landing-gear wheel well's
THE LANDING GEAR
381
approximately 1/25 to 1/30 of the wheel diameter. There should be increasing allow-
Tail Surfaces
The tail surfaces serve two functions. The fixed portions of the tail
surfaces, together with the movable, provide stability vhile the movable
portion in conjunction with the fixed portion provides a means for control.
struck by a sudden gust of wind, either on the wing or on the tail surfaces,
Without any control exerted by the pilot, or any change made in the
throttle setting, the airplane should return to its original angle of attack
after cessation of the gust and continue to fly in its original direction. It
may not return to its original angle of attack instantaneously, but may
Definitions
the pilot when he depresses the elevator and then returns it to its original
previous paragraph. There are similar cases of stability about the longi-
tudinal axis, or lateral stability, and about the vertical or normal axis, or
directional stability.
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TAIL SURFACES
383
There are two distinct types of stability, aside from their relationships
angle of attack the resulting moment of all forces about the center of
with the fact that the sum of all forces along the 3 axes equals zero, but
that the airplane does not come back to its original condition of equilibrium
There are also three different states of static stability and of dynamic
to directional stability.
Figtob XIX-1. Pitching moment coefficients about the center of gravity plotted
for the wing, the tail, and the complete airplane. The diagram shows how and where
from its original attitude, and instead of coming back to it, will continue
Or, the airplane may be unstable: When disturbed from its original atti-
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384
tude, instead of coming back to it, it will go farther and farther, not re-
If the airplane does come back to its original attitude, then it is said to
be stable.
3. Unstable when the oscillations increase with time after they have
The equation for the pitching moments has been derived in Chapter IX
Cm„. = Cm„. + Xi(CL cos a + CD sin a) + j/i(Ci sin a — Cd cos a) —
or simply,
This equation may be used for the initial calculations to determine whether
take into consideration effect of fuselage, landing gear, and the like.
The student may set up his own tables, which are always desirable where
(dCM.Jda)
W/S
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TAIL SURFACES
385
If, therefore, the value of Cm.*• is found for a series of angles of attack 0,
and plotted as the ordinate with values of a as the abscissa, then the value
of the slope of the resulting curve, particularly in the region in the angle
of trim will give the value of dCM..,./da. This value divided by the wing
loading W/S for the airplane will give the value of the stability coefficient.
For commercial airplanes of the passenger transport type, the value for
tions and procedures outlined in this book are relatively brief and are in-
tended to point out the high lights. They are believed to be all that a
ever, has to make a careful study of all existing reports and research papers
To give an idea of some of the free flight characteristics desired for air-
planes, the following synopsis based upon NACA reports (for example,
When the elevator is held in a given position, the airplane should main-
1. With engines idling, flaps up or down, at all speeds above the stall;
2. With engines at cruising, flaps down, landing gear down, as for land-
3. With engines at full power, flaps up, at all speeds above 120 per cent
1. Obtain control forces such that "pull forces" are required at all
speeds below the trim speed, and "push forces" at all speeds above;
trim position;
3. Obtain the allowable load factor (G's) of the airplane as well as the
5. Obtain control forces varying not more than 50 pounds for every G
attained in steady turning flight for heavy transports, but less than 6
stick force for every type to attain the allowable load factor;
6. Hold the airplane off the ground until the minimum speed of the air-
plane has been reached with the control force not exceeding 50 pounds on
7. Hold the airplane level after one-half of the take-off speed has been
reached;
level flight with zero stick forces, without obtaining forces greater than 50
pounds for the wheel and 35 pounds for the stick, regardless of the changes
Elevator trim tabs must be capable of reducing stick forces to zero under
1. Cruising condition at any speed between high speed and 120 per cent
2. In the landing condition at any speed between 120 to 140 per cent of
denly and releasing it with the airplane in steady and level flight. The
resulting pitching of the airplane and movement of the elevator must dis-
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
It is very important that these tail surfaces be so located that they are
not blanketed by the fuselage. If the fuselage has a relatively large cross
section for the greater part of its length and then tapers suddenly near the
tail post, it is very likely that the horizontal tail surfaces will be blanketed
The vertical tail surfaces are most likely to be blanketed not only by
the fuselage but also by the horizontal tail surfaces, especially when the
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would be desirable to get some of the vertical tail surfaces below the hori-
387
the vertical and horizontal tail surfaces, but unfortunately the greater the
aspect ratio the more difficult it becomes to get an efficient structure that
will be rigid. Since the movable surfaces are a reasonably large propor-
tion of the total area, the fixed portion, which supports the movable sur-
faces, must contain all the necessary structure. If the aspect ratio is too
great for the area, there is relatively little depth with the result that
the fixed surfaces may deflect so much under a load that the hinges of
The proportion of the movable surfaces to the whole depends upon the
The elevator should be able to trim the airplane at the lowest, or stall
speed, at which time the elevator will usually have its maximum angular
deflection upward. The elevator should also be able to trim the airplane
practically at zero lift, at which time the elevator may have its maximum
the discussion here applies equally to the vertical tail surfaces) but also by
the hinge moments produced. If for the same angular deflection of the
movable surface one has greater hinge moments than another, it should
be obvious that the one with the smaller hinge moments can be actuated
far more quickly, and the response of the entire airplane will be quicker
therefore.
CONTROL SURFACES
They are designed to change the lift of the entire surface (whether wing,
one of three axes of the airplane for motion or control about that axis.
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Wing, dealt with increase in lift versus flap deflection and with hinge
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(for example, the aileron) it helps materially in reducing the hinge mo-
388 AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL
merits to have a smaller chord so that the ratio of the chord of the movable
a larger span in order to get the same total control but, unfortunately, the
rudder or elevator seldom has the ratio of its chord to the chord of the com-
plete surface less than 45 or 50 per cent. In order to reduce the hinge
by having the hinge line of the movable surface somewhat in rear of its
the trailing edge of the main movable surface. This small surface has an
angular deflection opposite to that required for the main movable surface.
If the tab is small or its setting fixed and changed only when the load
conditions change the center of gravity, then its purpose is for trim only,
stabilizer.
If the tab can be controlled from the cockpit, it may be used to operate
present. The design of this balance is very critical and is still the subject
the leading edge of the balance is provided. Although this slot helps to
increase the effectiveness of the movable surfaces, yet, more often than
not, the relatively large gap caused by the slot increases the parasite drag.
Great care should be taken in designing the leading edge of the aero-
dynamic balance so that it is not too sharp and does not project too far
above the upper or lower contour of the fixed surface when the movable
surface is deflected. Such projections collect ice very quickly under icing
of the controls.
Design details of the tail surfaces are given under the various paragraph
AIRFOIL SECTIONS
Symmetrical airfoils are usually used for tail surfaces so that equal effec-
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tiveness per degree of deflection may be obtained for both up and down
movements.
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The airfoil section used should have a thickness ratio of from 6 to 9 per
cent and not more than 12 per cent. Unless the tail surfaces are ex-
ceptionally large, the same airfoil is used from tip to root. The NACA
Figure XIX-2. Three forms of aerodynamic balance for movable surfaces. (A) is
called an unshielded horn balance; (B) is a shielded horn type; (C) shows the more
commonly used aerodynamic balance. All have a certain amount of area ahead of the
hinge pin.
AERODYNAMIC BALANCE
the aerodynamic forces on the flapped surface is behind the hinge line,
arm of the control arm in the cockpit give rise to the stick force that the
aerodynamic balance, each of which has special merits of its own. There
details.
is from .15 to .20 for the rudder and the elevator. It is generally not
logically sound to have the stick forces that are to be overcome increase
Figure XIX-3. The balancing tab reduces the hinge moments. The hinge moment,
Figure XIX-4. Bulge contour for control surfaces. These tend to float, and
Figure XIX-6. Cord or bead along the trailing edges of control surfaces may be
Figure XIX-7. Wedge or bevel contour for control surfaces may be used in place
of trim tabs.
Figure XIX-8. Different arrangements for the operation of trim tabs. The top
two diagrams illustrate fixed trim tabs adjustable, by trial and error, to the proper
degree on the ground, while the two lower diagrams show arrangements which may be
391
aerodynamic balance.
with the rudder for the same purpose as the offset fin and on the elevator
Trimming tabs have a chord varying from 5 to 10 per cent of the mov-
able surface chord and approaching 25 per cent of the chord if used as
gravity of the plane containing the hinge line acts through that hinge
line. Static balance is one of the design features required to avoid flutter
possibilities.
For low-speed aircraft having maximum speeds below about 200 miles,
static balances are generally not necessary. For greater speeds, static
For a surface that has its hinge line at the leading edge, static balance
can be obtained only with a concentrated weight ahead of the hinge line
For the surface having its hinge line at some distance to the rear of the
leading edge, the structural weight can be so distributed that the center of
gravity falls on the hinge line. Usually, however, this is more easily ac-
STATIC BALANCE
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392 AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL
Figure XIX-10. Three different ways by which static balance of a movable surface
could be obtained. By proper positioning of the added weight ahead of the hinge line,
covered. For the latter, some counterbalancing of the nose section may
become necessary.
DYNAMIC BALANCE
principal mass axes of the surface in the plane containing the hinge line
must coincide with the hinge axis and an axis perpendicular to the hinge
line about which angular deflection could take place when subjected to
aerodynamic or inertia loads. For the rudder and elevator, this per-
For airplanes with a speed greater than 150 miles per hour, it is de-
than 0.08.
= Cdb0
0
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TAIL SURFACES
393
The hinge line is the F-axis, while the neutral axis of the fuselage is the X-axis.
Figure XIX-11 shows a typical surface with the axes designated and
the terms indicated for the equation above, in which the numerator is the
is the product of the mass and the aerodynamic area of the control sur-
the surface area, x is the distance between the center of gravity of the
mass and the F-axis, y is the distance between the center of gravity of
the mass and the X-axis, and dx dy is the area of the mass under con-
sideration, S = X dxdy.
The products of inertia in the first and third quadrants are considered
positive; the products of inertia in the second and fourth quadrants are
considered negative. For movable surfaces the hinge line is one axis,
FLUTTER PREVENTION
1. Structural stiffness.
motion of the tab. When the tabs are completely statically balanced,
irreversible controls are not required, provided that the tab control system
'of the hinge line, will help to offset harmful effects of any possible looseness
10. When trailing-edge tabs are used to assist in moving the main sur-
face, the areas and relative movements must be so proportioned that the
two or more structural components exist. Where such cases do occur, re-
Unlike the wing, the spars of the tail surfaces need not be located at a constant
The structural details of the vertical and horizontal tail surfaces are
similar to a simplified version of the wing tip which includes the aileron.
A spar at or near the hinge line is desirable for the elevator or rudder.
are supported by the rear spar of the fixed surface, which usually has
the tail surface. While spars in the wing are located at or close to a
constant percentage of the chord spanwise, such is not the case for tail
CONSTRUCTION
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TAIL SURFACES
395
Figure XIX-13. The box structure at the hinge of this movable surface carries the
torsional moment around the hinge cut-out of the leading edge D-spar.
For aircraft operating at speeds less than 350 miles per hour or there-
abouts, the movable surfaces are usually fabric covered in order to obtain
Location
blanketing.
when the elevator is deflected downward through its total angular range
chord lengths (mean geometric chord of the wing) behind the center of
gravity so that the observance of this rule will assure reasonable static
longitudinal stability.
The horizontal tail surfaces may be ahead of or behind the vertical tail
Figure XIX-15.
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396
Figure XIX-14. Layout of the horizontal tail surfaces showing cut-out of elevators
to prevent interference with the movement of the rudder. Each movable surface should
tions, the rear stabilizer spar and the rear fin spar usually intersect and
are built in integrally with the fuselage frame at that station unless either
or both the fin and stabilizer are adjustable in flight or on the ground.
Figure XIX-15. Location of horizontal tail surfaces. They may be located ahead
or behind the vertical tail surfaces. or located vertically anywhere between the two
extremes of the vertical tail surfaces at the bottom of the fuselage or at the top of the
397
A position of the horizontal tail surfaces behind the vertical tail surfaces
gear is used.
The location of the horizontal tail surfaces where they can be securely
point of view.
duct or ducts of the jet engines in .the tail of the fuselage, the horizontal
tail surfaces have to be located above the fuselage. Thus the horizontal
tail surfaces, whereby the smaller elevator could, in its operation, be used
the horizontal tail surfaces ahead of the wing. In that position, the
surfaces are acting in the up-wash, rather than the down-wash of the
wing. For this reason, the horizontal tail surfaces are apt to stall before
the wing, so that sufficient control may not be available at a critical time.
However, this feature has been considered an advantage since the tail
surfaces could act as a stall-warning for the wing. The location of the
tail surfaces ahead of the wing may interfere with the vision forward.
Angular Deflection
Adjustable Stabilizer
either on the ground or in the air from the cockpit (usually the latter, if at
The adjustable stabilizer is used to change the trim angle of the air-
plane without displacing the elevator. The elevator can then operate
from the new neutral position determined by the stabilizer. In the first
range.
adjustable stabilizer is preferred over the elevator trim tab, since the trim
down. This adjustment has been possible either on the ground or in the
trailing-edge tabs.
Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio of the tail surfaces should be as high as possible (usually
are attached. Aspect ratios greater than 6 are seldom used unless ttyey
aspect ratio because the fuselage section increases the span of the tail sur-
For correcting airfoil data from the given aspect ratio to that of the tail
surfaces, the aspect ratio is calculated on the basis of the square of the span
length from tip to tip divided by the area including that covered by the
Angle of Incidence
of downwash from the wing, its relative location with respect to the wing,
The angle of trim of the airplane is denned at that angle at which the
sum of the pitching moments about the center of gravity of the airplane is
that is, undeflected for that attitude of the airplane or angle of trim for
TAIL SURFACES
399
which the flying time is the greatest. This attitude is usually for cruising.
calculations, it may be assumed that the desired angle of trim lies between
the angle of the wing at which the minimum drag coefficient occurs, and
Once the angle of trim has been decided upon, the angle of incidence (or
setting) of the horizontal tail surfaces can be determined for at trim by:
but
or
— Cm.
where Cm. has been calculated for that angle of attack of the airplane cor-
Once the lift coefficient of the tail surfaces at trim condition has been
determined, the required angle of attack of the tail surfaces can be deter-
Since the tail surfaces are affected by the downwash of the wing, correc-
tion for this downwash must be made not only to determine the angle of
incidence of the tail surfaces, but to determine the angle of attack of the
e = ^a^»ir*» (3)
V the 20 per cent pomt of the mean geometric chord of the hori-
wing, and
wing.
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For any given design, equation (3) could be written in terms of the angle
e = kaa, (3a)
where
0.40a
£-0.25 y-0.7I_
fixed reference line on the fuselage, the effective angle of downwash meas-
ured with relation to this reference line would be e + iw. The angle of
attack of the horizontal tail surfaces, when placed at zero angle of incidence
to the fuselage reference line, would be — (« + ij). Should the horizontal
tail surfaces have an angle of incidence of its own, the angle of attack of
Recapitulating,
at = -(« + (4)
or
depending upon whether the horizontal tail surfaces have an angle of inci-
dence or not. This angle of incidence can now be determined for the re-
quired at, for Cl [as obtained from equation (2)] at trim gives the neces-
i* + it0
Sweepback
Normally, any sweepback that the horizontal tail surfaces may have is
401
Dihedral
Normally horizontal tail surfaces are not given any dihedral, but it has
been found that the effectiveness of the horizontal tail surfaces can be in-
ing some dihedral in the horizontal tail surfaces. How large the dihedral
angle should be depends upon the down wash of the wing; for purposes of
symmetry, the span line of the tail surfaces may be made parallel to the
Area
Examination of airplanes of all sizes reveals that the jpatio of the hori-
zontal tail surfaces to the effective wing area varies from'20xo 25 per cent.
The greater the tail length is, in terms of the wing chord, the smaller per-
require that the percentage area of the horizontal tail surfaces be greater
The elevator area varies from 35 to 45 per cent of the horizontal tail sur-
face area.
Construction
For ease in assembly and disassembly, the horizontal tail surfaces are
is used for both the tail surfaces and the fuselage. When reinforced metal
nearer the longitudinal centerline of the rear portion of the fuselage and
Planform
obtained from those shown in Figure XIX-17. Since the aspect ratios
are about the same for the horizontal tail surfaces as for the wing, and
horizontal tail surfaces look very similar to the wing planforms. Some
modification may be made due to the greater role that the movable sur-
face, which takes up almost half of the total area, plays in the design of
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the structure.
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402
Figure XIX-17. Typical planforms of horizontal tail surfaces. Only one half of
the surfaces are shown. Vertical tail surface planforms are similar.
Other Solutions
For some aircraft, especially those of the flying-wing type, the horizontal
and supersonic designs employing the delta wing should be studied, es-
For other high-speed designs, there may be no elevator as such, but the
Figube XIX-18. Two illustrations showing the application of moveable wing tips
that, freely floating, would operate as an aileron on a normal wing, as in (A); or, for a
tailless airplane the tip surfaces could be operated differentially for aileron action or
Clearances
When the horizontal tail surfaces have been positioned on the fuselage
check allowable clearances with the ground when the elevator is deflected,
The vertical tail surfaces consist of the fixed surfaces (the rudder), the
Figure XIX-19. A "canard-type" airplane with the horizontal tail surfaces located
ahead of the center of gravity. The vertical tail surfaces are located at the wing tip.
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404
Straight flight should be attainable at any speed above 140 per cent of
the minimum speed by sideslipping without the use of the rudder and with
flection would be required for a sideslip toward the left, and left-rudder
deflection toward the right. For small angles of sideslip, the sideslip angle
The airplane should always tend to return from a sideslip without the
the airplane in rectilinear flight with one engine inoperative and the other
or others at full rated power at all speeds above the minimum take-off
speed;
When all controls are released in flight, lateral oscillations of the air-
plane should always damp to one half amplitude within two complete
cycles. When the ailerons or rudder are moved and released quickly,
they should return to their neutral position and damp any oscillations of
Both rudder and aileron may employ trimming systems. They should
be:
1. Used if the control forces for level flight are 10 per cent greater than
80 pounds for the aileron control wheel or 30 pounds for the aileron control
stick, or 180 pounds for the rudder pedals for any speed between the maxi-
erative (for a multi-engine airplane) at speeds 140 per cent of the minimum
or above.
and make itself felt by increasing "pull force" on the control column, and
the attitude required for a 3-point landing should not cause the airplane to
stall.
TAIL SURFACES
405
From the flight criteria mentioned, the designer is able to work back to
the detail design so that the airplane will incorporate the characteristics
in the wind tunnel, for there may be a number of variables that require
Location
The location of the vertical tail surfaces depends upon the type and
speed range of the aircraft. For the small, single-engine private airplane,
the vertical tail surfaces are, almost without exception, located above the
It is desirable to locate about half of the rudder below the axis of sym-
metry of the fuselage, but this may not be possible because of required
XIX-20) for several reasons, although the primary one is to obtain the
relative efficiency.
surfaces are used. This reduces the tor- Figure XIX-20. Arrangements
sional load imposed by the outrigger type of twin vertical tail surfaces.
The extension of the fin area ahead of the middle fin in triple vertical
tail-surface design has often been added after flight tests indicated that
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cally, such extensions do not impose very much additional torsion on the
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fuselage.
To a less extent, multiple vertical tail surfaces are used in order to re-
duce the over-all height of the aircraft structure, especially in those designs
the wing tips of the swept-back wing, where they obtain a sufficiently long
The placing of the vertical tail surfaces at the end of the horizontal tail
In some cases the vertical tail surfaces are slightly tilted from the ver-
tical. This is usually the result of the dihedral incorporated in the hori-
Angular Deflection
surfaces operate through the same angular range so that a pilot transferring
movement.
The fin may be adjustable to offset the yawing moment induced by the
means used to produce a rolling moment of the wing to offset the torque
Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio of the vertical tail surfaces may be somewhat restricted
since the vertical tail surfaces are usually asymmetrical about the longi-
tudinal axis. Since the tail surfaces are at zero angle of attack throughout
the flight regime, aspect-ratio effects play a very small part, if any, in
Figure XIX-21. For aspect-ratio calculations, the surface area represented by the
side of the fuselage aft of the dotted line is included in the total area; but it is not con-
sidered as part of the vertical tail surface area in the evaluation of the ratios of tail
surface area to wing area—which ratio may vary from .08 to .12.
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TAIL SURFACES
407
for the vertical tail surface is to locate it so that it is not made ineffective
such blanketing, a higher aspect ratio for the vertical tail surfaces often
becomes necessary.
The aspect ratio of the vertical tail surfaces should be between 2 and 4.
It is difficult to state exactly what the aspect ratio of the vertical tail sur-
faces may be, because the rear portion of the fuselage influences the vertical
Area
The size of the tail surfaces is dependent upon the location; the greater
the distance between the center of gravity of the airplane and the center
chord^ofThe wing^the smaller the area needs to be. Where the vertical
tail surfaces are attached to the wing tips, the relative distance is likely
The area of the vertical tail surfaces ranges from !10jto 15 per cent of
the wing area, with about 30 to 50 per cent of the area devoted to the
ventral fins are employed, in which case the movable portion of the vertical
tail surfaces is likely to be no more than 30 per cent of the total area.
The dorsal fin (see Figure XIX-22) may be used to increase the fin area
Figure XIX-22. The dotted lines show various ways of increasing the fin area.
The top diagram illustrates a dorsal fin, while the two bottom diagrams illustrate the
vertical-type fin.
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408
proves inadequate, (2) transmit the loads on the fin to a greater number
of fuselage frames, (3) reduce the torsional moment about the longitudinal
fuselage axis, (4) reduce the over-all height dimensions of the vertical tail
surfaces, and (5) obtain a possible weight saving, although the total fin
area is likely to be greater for a dorsal fin than for a normal fin-type
surface.
the fin area. Since it is located below the fuselage, it is not blanketed
Planform
what upon their location. A few likely designs are illustrated in Figure
XIX-23.
Sweepback
For transonic and supersonic designs, the vertical tail surfaces must
the sweepback observed in the design of the vertical tail surfaces is a result
of the fin-post.
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TAIL SURFACES
409
Tail Length
For subsonic designs of conventional layout, the tail surfaces have been
so located that the distance from the center of gravity of the airplane to
is from 2.5 to 3.25 times the mean geometric chord of the wing.
long as possible, so that smaller areas may be employed for the tail sur-
faces and relatively little deflection is necessary for the desired amount
skin drag, and thus a gain in one may be offset by a loss in the other.
|- A M
times the mean aerodynamic chord of the wing. The angle B, corresponding to the
maximum deflection of the elevator, should permit the tailing edge of the elevator to
This type of tail surface combines the vertical and horizontal tail
the lift corresponds to the normal tail-surface load, while the horizontal
component of lift when both halves of the surfaces are neutral is zero,
The movable trailing-edge flaps act as elevators when both are deflected
The cockpit controls are the same as for the normal type of rudders and
elevators, although the control mechanism from the cockpit to the tail
2. Higher maximum speed, due to less area and consequently less pro-
considered:
SH = S cos 0; (1)
oc
nOOOC
) O O Oil
DO
JUj
uihrj
— i
<
5—4
1= \
Figure XIX-26. Dive brakes are used to reduce speed of aircraft and may be used
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as spoilers for additional aileron or directional control, depending upon the number
used and their location. When not in use, they recess—flush—into the top surface of
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the wing.
TAIL SURFACES
411
Sv = S sin 0. (2)
tan /3 =
so that using the proportion of areas needed for the conventional vertical
and horizontal tail surfaces, the value of tan /J can be determined where /3
is the dihedral angle for the tail surfaces. Once the value of /3 has been
found, the total area of the Vee tail can be calculated from either equation
Control Systems
in the cockpit, the connections between these mechanisms, and the control
surfaces.
TYPICAL SYSTEMS
ture, as the wing for example, has large deflections, the push-pull control
system may be bent with the wing causing difficulty of operation. It may
be used for part of the system in combination with others, and for engine
controls, and rudder and elevator controls. Its advantage is that it has
Since cables have a tendency to stretch, they are prestretched before in-
install them with an initial tension of 100 to 150 pounds. Long cables,
3. The torque-tube system, which converts lineal motion into rotary mo-
tion, has relatively few members and usually its installation is compara-
412
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CONTROL SYSTEMS
413
controls or, if stops are provided in the system, the angular deflections
may be large enough to reduce seriously the angular depression of the con-
lizer is adjusted to its extreme position, may cause either interference with
other parts of the control system or excessive tension in the rigging of the
PULLEYS
Cables passing over pulleys are kept in place by guards. These should
Figure XX-2. Schematic diagram of the tension cable system for control surface
operation. Motion caused by rotation of control wheel for aileron, and by fore and
aft motion of the control column. Rudder operation is obtained by another control
The pulleys should be located in such a way that the plane of rotation
of the pulley lies in the plane determined by the cables. There should be
CABLES
may be used where especial care is taken to provide against wear. Cable
smaller than %a-inch diameter may not be used in the primary control
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CONTROL SYSTEMS
415
system except for tab-control systems, provided the airplane may still be
FAIRLEADS
3 degrees is permitted.
control cable.
ailerons is the only system for returning the ailerons to neutral, the effects
cause such deflections (stretch) in the control cables or chains that jamming
STOPS
control.
416
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° 8
CP
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C »H
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SSSSSoSqoS0
Oize
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(in.)
Weight ser
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thouOnd
feet Qb)
»-H l-( N
Minimum
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strength Oh)
Size
(in.)
£ g
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418
Figure XX-5. Aileron control unit. The mechanism employed here may be used
with equal effectiveness for the operation of any movable surface. (Courtesy Convair.)
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422
WING FLAPS
In addition to the usual air loads acting upon the deflected wing flaps,
high local loads may also be caused by the impact of water, especially
when low-wing airplanes are operated from wet fields or water. For these
hinge is used, a series of short sections rather than one long section should
be used not only for ease of maintenance but also for better operation.
tests may indicate that a greater angular deflection of the flap may be de-
sirable. The ground clearance is least for the largest angular depression
able.
TABS
Tabs for control surfaces should be rigid and well anchored to prevent
usually consist of thin sheets attached to the trailing edge. In this case,
care should be taken that successive bendings of these tabs do not interfere
with the performance of the main surface or do not damage the tab itself.
HINGES
of the surfaces. The deflections of the surfaces and the structure to which
Usually it is desirable to so space these hinges that the load for each
Closed piano-type hinges are acceptable when they are positively at-
tached (other than wood screws) as close to the hinge line as possible.
problems and they should not be located near the control horns where the
load is concentrated.
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Strap-type hinges are generally not desirable since the wear is appre-
423
For the upper limit, a torque of 133 inch-pounds applied to the control
trol wheels, cranks, levers, or handwheels with a well-defined rim are used,
sidered.
manual operation of all devices which are changed from one position or
condition to another for which the time element may not be important
The widest application so far has been for cases requiring lineal motion
although rotary motion can also be obtained through the use of hydraulic
1.
8.
2.
Wheel brakes
9.
Tail wheels
3.
Automatic pilot
10.
4.
auxiliary engines
5.
Engine-cowling flaps
11.
Remotely-mounted fuel
6.
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Windshield wipers
pumps
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7.
Full-feathering hydromatic
12.
propellers
All these could also be operated by electrical means and for military pur-
3. Ease of installation.
sure and fluid requirements vary. Usually one system is installed for use
another for use with Lockheed hydraulic fluid for operating brakes, re-
Hydraulic systems for aircraft may operate from 1000 to 1500 pounds
per square inch for which 52SO aluminum alloy tubing is usually employed.
Hydraulic
tubing
Support
bracket
Support
bracket
Figure XX-10.
cylinder.
Actuating cylinder
The diameter of the tubing is selected on the basis of fluid flow required.
load factor, and commercial thickness available. The average fluid flow
Nominal Tubing,
y*
1.2
2.3
3.5
6.0
10.5
16.0
29.0
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KPD
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t=
2F
lu
CONTROL SYSTEMS
425
where /
the absence of extreme changes in viscosity, are used for aircraft powered
Above 70,000 feet, air compressors will probably not be used since the
jet engine will need all the air it can get, leaving none for such functions
A pneumatic source will probably still be necessary, but the use of air
stores jettisoning. Seals and joints of the entire operating system would
TRAVEL OF CONTROLS
and lose much valuable time in the learning process. The travel of pri-
Figure XX-12. Pulleys guiding and supporting control cables. Pulleys are also
of the aircraft. Stick travel at the grip may vary 18 inches fore and aft,
and 18 inches side to side, to somewhat smaller dimensions for the light
airplane. Angular travel of the control wheel from neutral may vary cor-
Irreversible Controls
are not too severe, irreversible controls are used primarily for reducing
Above Mach 0.8, effectiveness of the control surfaces drops off since
deflections. However, the stick forces, and the hinge moments that
cause them, increase rapidly as the speed of the aircraft increases. Ir-
introduced in such systems so that the pilot may also have some psycho-
427
DETAIL REQUIREMENTS
Controls
senger.
adequately balanced.
and rudder.
for trim.
is required and full operation in either direction should not require more
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Engine Controls
assembled (C). The bottom figures show the top view and cross section of such a hinge.
2. Engine controls should be placed at the left of the pilot's seat, except
for side-by-side seating of pilots, when they should be located between the
pilots' seats.
5. A positive means for shutting off all ignition must be readily acces-
10. Each control system should have one lever of adjustable length.
11. All rod lengths should be adjustable and stiff enough to take 70
429
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
The Fuselage
the size, shape, and structure of the fuselage up to now, it has been practi-
cally designed in most of its major elements while the pilot's cockpit, the
passenger cabin, the placement of the wing, and the balance diagram were
under consideration.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
For conventional designs, the fuselage and its contents usually represent
basic- part of the airplane, for it houses the crew, cargo, instrumentation,
tural members, openings, and attachments has been agreed upon, a more
WING-FUSELAGE CONSIDERATIONS
430
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THE FUSELAGE
431
For airplane speeds of less than 350 miles per hour, the problem of
a minimum drag form, when combined with the wing produces an optimum
combination. Filleting at the juncture of the wing and the fuselage helps
midwing arrangement was next best; forward positions of the wing with
effects.
effects when the nacelle is placed too close to the fuselage or to another
more acute. For the large delta wing, the fuselage practically disappears
within the contour of the root airfoil and therefore presents no serious
problem. For other designs, a more careful study must be made of the
The method is illustrated in Figure XXI-1. The side and top views of a
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proposed design are shown in the top two figures. The cross-sectional
areas normal to the line of flight are plotted against the longitudinal axis
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the cross-sectional area of the fuselage and the tail surfaces. Curve BDE
ACDG. The station where the pilot's cockpit would be located was taken
of curve DGFE.
of the wing and power-plant nacelles, it is likely that for airplanes flying
the fuselage may become very long in order to have the cargo and pas-
sengers ahead of the wing. To compensate for the large mass ahead of
the center of gravity, the power plant will be carried somewhat aft of the
center of gravity.
The student should study the latest NACA reports on this subject in
aspects.
SHAPE OF FUSELAGE
The length of the fuselage is determined by the cockpit and cabin con-
siderations in the front and the location of the tail surfaces and the tail
wheel at the rear; the over-all depth and width by cabin requirements.
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THE FUSELAGE
433
For efficient structural design, a circular cross section is desired, but this
by the cabin so that the natural compromise is an oval, perhaps with greater
width at the top than at the bottom. Figure XXI-2 shows three basic
fuselage shapes.
The various cross sections of the fuselage may vary from a circular sec-
tion at the engine mount to an oval section and finally to a circle or a rec-
tangle at the tail post. It is, therefore, very important to fair one section
into another very carefully, and to avoid double curvatures (two curvatures
the fuselage offers theoretically greater strength for shell structures, but
cross section permits the most economical use of the space but is not suit-
able for shell structures. Oval or elliptical outline for the reinforced
to have the front-spar double frame intersect the fuselage at the front
cabin wall; but in order to do so, the wing has to be given an appreciable
sweepback in order to satisfy not only the particular condition just men-
tioned but also to obtain the proper location of the mean geometric chord
Figure XXI-3. Cross sections of two fuselage shapes designed for large volume
capacity. The two intersecting circular shapes lend themselves to two compartments
Since all these items affect the size and shape of the fuselage, it is obvious
that the arrangement and general dimensions of the pilot's cockpit and
the passenger cabin are the primary considerations. Only after all this is
done should the contours of the fuselage be settled. The cross sections of
the fuselage will vary from circular at the nose to slightly elliptical at the
intersection of the root of the wing, and then to an elliptical or oval section,
sometimes even rectangular (with the long side vertical) at the tail post.
efficient for space utilization (as cabins, cockpits, etc.) and the circular
section which is most efficient from a structural point of view for reinforced
engine and its cowling determine the nose treatment of the fuselage. The
pilot's cockpit governs the development of the windshield and that section
The main section of the fuselage is built around the passenger cabin, and
then the rear portion of the fuselage is gradually tapered back to the tail
post.
For a preliminary approach, the student will find the following pro-
1. Lay out the cockpit to scale, showing the important items to assure
that proper clearances have been provided. Since the relationship of the
cockpit to the cabin may vary, it is helpful to draw the layout of the
or rearward, as the case may be, before being traced on the fuselage
drawing.
2. Lay out the cabin and cargo areas to scale so that the limiting interior
drawing.
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final drawing of the fuselage interior, and an inboard profile can be ob-
435
nn
(a) (b)
Figure XXI-4. Rear fuselage cross sections just ahead of the tail surfaces often
look like this. If the cross section in (A) is used, the horizontal and vertical tail surfaces
are more likely to be blanketed than if the cross section in (B) is used.
FUSELAGE LENGTH
For subsonic airplanes having wings of aspect ratios between 6 and 14,
the ratio of fuselage length to wing span is from .60 to .70; for supersonic
airplanes having a wing aspect ratio varying from 2.5 to 4.5, the ratio of
fuselage length to wing span becomes materially greater, not only because
of the shorter wing span but also because the fuselage must be longer.
wing as there is behind it, and ratio of fuselage length to wing span varies
the volume of revolution such that both ends are pointed. However,
design. In any case, the development of the fuselage lines entails the
templates. These pose problems in storing and handling but are never-
painted a dull white. This method has been adopted from the marine
field, where it is common practice to lay out the lines on a large lofting
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436
floor. In this method, curves are laid in by long flexible splines and are
angles through the body have to be taken to determine how well the
curves faired; the method is long and tedious. Again, permanent records
is the one most often used. By properly assigning values to the con-
forms that may be easily sawn to shape and to which attachments may be
analytical approach may have been used in determining the lines of the
fuselage, since some solutions are arrived at only by trial and error methods.
in one direction only, a flat sheet may be used. If, however, there is a
dies.
to solve many problems usually too intricate for the drafting board, and it
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also helps to visualize a design far better than a series of drawings could
possibly do.
Figure XXI-5. The fuselage structure, consisting of the skin and longitudinal
stringers, has to withstand the bending moment caused by the inertia and tail loads.
The above diagram illustrates the bending moment distribution for a fuselage to which
a two-spar wing is attached. To best sustain the bending moment, the fuselage, con-
sidered as a beam, has to be deep with bending elements as far away from the neutral
axis as practicable.
Assuming, then, that the outside contour has been definitely established,
have to be transmitted to the fuselage (as from the wing spars, or landing
located. For example, there would be double frames at the front and rear
spar locations of the wing. Between these double frames, single frames
window locations. How often do the front spar frames intersect a window
Naturally there will be frames at each side of the door, for such frames
The front and rear cabin wall will determine another station where frames
gradually "build up" the structure until a few intermediate frames are
added just to cut down the unsupported length between frames. Similar
Some insight may be gained into the desirable sheet, stringer, and
fuselage section close to the rear wing spar or shear web. The approxi-
determined tail load and from the inertia loads of the structure and items
stringer spacings. Reject any combinations for which the applied stress
Such studies can result in optimum designs for the combinations chosen.
used section of the fuselage, where cut-outs, floors, equipment, cargo, and
The main portion of the fuselage structure, aside from the frames just
profit for small, light airplanes where the thickness, originally determined
When enough longitudinal members are used, the skin will add mate-
rially to the bending strength. Proper balance between stringers and skin
Instead of stringers, corrugated sheet covered with flat sheet will give a
Figure XXI-6. The fuselage structure may "sit" on top of the wing structure with
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connections at the wing spars (see chapter on Design of the Wing). The leading and
trailing edge portions of the wing are discontinued at the side of the fuselage.
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THE FUSELAGE
439
Figure XXI-7. Longitudinal stringers may be omitted at the bow or nose section
of a fuselage since the curvature of the skin enhances the pressure-supporting ability of
the structure. Simple frames, such as shown above, are sufficient to maintain the
cylindrical shape. Similarly, in the tail section of the fuselage, the longitudinal stringers
may be omitted so that rigidity is obtained through the curved skin and the transverse
frames.
Figure XXI-8. Where transverse frames allow the longitudinal stringers by suitable
cut-outs, additional rigidity may be obtained by small brackets riveted to both the
stringer and the frame. A frame like the one above may support brackets or attachment
fittings for control systems, electrical conducts, and other light equipment.
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440
Just as for the ribs in the wing structure, the primary functions of the
transverse fuselage frames are (1) to maintain the shape of the fuselage,
equipment, flooring, and the like, and (4) to transmit the loads to ad-
1. The frames which serve merely to maintain the shape of the fuselage.
These will not be subjected to stress unless distortion of the entire ad-
jacent structure has taken place. They are often just one gauge thinner
than the metal sheet covering, and the developed width of the frame,
formed out of sheet material, varies from 2 to 4 inches for aircraft weighing
tion to the developed width, the other variable available is the thickness of
the sheet from which the frame is fashioned. For purposes of later
equipment, control systems, and the like. These are similar to the simple,
the load and reduce deflections to a minimum. Such frames are subjected
to severe loads only locally and therefore may differ little from the simple
441
where the depth of the fuselage is comparatively large may add to the rigidity of the
fuselage either by the larger depth of the frame ring around its entire circumference or
by the added depth of the bottom half of the frame as shown in the sketch above.
Figure XXI-11. Certain frames may be modified to incorporate a beam for the
support of flooring or as a continuation of the wing spar. In the latter case, two frames
may be placed back to back, as the cross section indicates. If the flooring alone is to
be supported, one frame may suffice. Longitudinal stringers may pass through the
frame and be tied into the frame structure more securely by special brackets.
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442
Figure XXI-12. In order to make the spanwise stringers of the wing effective, such
stringers would have to tie into the frame structure of the fuselage either through
separate fittings or through the aid of local reinforcements or gusset plates. The span-
wise stringers, furthermore, could be riveted or bolted to the longitudinal stringers of the
fuselage through intermediate gusset plates or fittings. Only the spars, not the stringers
of the wing structure, would pass through from one side of the fuselage to the other.
through the landing gear, power plant, or wing structure. These are
Figures XXI-7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 show some sketches of typical
Figure XXI-13. For a two-spar wing, the spars could pass through the fuselage and
be supported by two transverse frames, back to back. The spars may be at an angle
to the perpendicular to the wing chord if the inclination will permit the frames to clear
the windshield of the cockpit or cabin. The wing profile and the structure other than
443
Figure XXI-14. The transverse frames of the fuselage are perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the airplane even though the spars are at an angle to that axis.
from 10 to 24 inches apart with the closer spacing near the cabin and cock-
of spars, landing gear, doors, and windows. Reinforced frames are re-
distribute the loads into the metal covering evenly. After these reinforced
frames have been placed, the intermediate frames can be placed at proper
intervals.
except for the thicker material or local reinforcements; or they may be two
frames, back to back, but spaced a few inches apart, with tying members
extent on (1) tin-canning of the sheet covering, (2) the allowable shear
stresses of the covering, and (3) the allowable column compressive stress
be referred to.
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444
Figure XXI-15. Main frames, to which external loads and bending moments are
applied, have transverse shear, axial load, and bending moment varying in intensity all
along the centerline of the frame. The representation above illustrates the mathe-
matical approach to the solution of the stresses in the indeterminate frame. Because
these frames have to withstand severe stresses, their construction is somewhat different
be noted that the frame is subjected to shear, axial load, and bending
conditions.
an important function in that they, along with the effective width of sheet
For small aircraft of gross weights of about 2500 pounds or less and
fuselage depths of less than 48 inches, relatively few stringers are neces-
The cross sections of the longitudinal stringers are the same as for the
wing.
445
where the skin contributes little to the strength. Figure (B) shows a pure monocoque
structure where the skin is made sufficiently thick to avoid local buckling.
Since the fuselage shape is not likely to be very regular, the spacing
projected upon the plane for symmetry may show parallel lines. Further
so that the skin is amply supported and contributes materially to the fuselage strength.
The longitudinal members have been replaced by corrugated sheet, as shown in Figure
have little twist but would follow a faired line. Another method would
the larger spacing at the largest cross section—and to reduce the spacing
have the top and bottom of all frames for such openings rest on longi-
periphery of the largest cross section. Since the cross sections gradually
diminish in size, the spacing is closer towards the tail post so that alternate
Since the nose of the fuselage is not heavily subjected to bending mo-
The same procedure would be in order in the rear portion of the fuselage,
where the bending moments are less severe and where the available circum-
In general, since the stringers are the main bending elements, they
Where local stresses are likely to be high, brackets tying the frames and
stringers together are added for greater rigidity and load-carrying capa-
bilities.
FUSELAGE SKIN
The gauge of metal sheet used for the fuselage will vary according to
are not apt to be too critical. Where the structure is more or less normal
to the line of flight, such as the windshield and fuselage nose, the posi-
tive pressures, even at 800 miles an hour, may be of the order of 350 to
600 pounds per square inch; whereas curved surfaces along the top
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bottom, or sides of the fuselage may have normal negative pressures vary-
ing from 60 to 300 pounds per square inch. At lower speeds, the pres-
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in the region of high pressures, the skin thickness will have to be relatively
447
In areas where rough handling is likely to occur (e.g., around doors and
aluminum alloy sheet is 0.025 inches, since a thinner sheet is easily punc-
tured and is rather hard to handle. For airplanes of less than 10,000
pounds gross weight, the predominant gauge thicknesses are 0.025 and
greater.
countered, nickel steel or titanium alloys replace the aluminum alloy sheet.
WINDOWS
Since windows are not considered part of the primary structure, they
rigid frame, which must bear the stresses around the cut-outs caused
by the windows.
The normal pressures are likely to be high for the material used, espe-
ably large. However, since windows have been known to fail in flight,
for pressurized cabins are three layers thick, with each layer constructed
The student should also refer to Chapter XII, The Passenger Cabin.
PRESSURIZED CABINS
formula
Jt 2t
that the stresses and distortions of the fuselage are not transmitted to the
cabin.
Since the cabin is not subjected to the airstream, stringers and other
structural members may be used either on the inside or the outside of the
flannel tape impregnated with a sealing compound (much the same as for
water-tightening a metal float or hull) between the seam laps prior to rivet-
ing. In addition, the rivets are spaced from 4 to 6 diameters apart to form
Soft rubber gaskets, so arranged that they are pressed together when
subject to internal pressure, are used to seal all doors and hatches. Win-
dows are sealed in rubber channels. Sliding windows are best mounted
has to be modified. A cylinder with partly spherical ends is the best com-
promise.
Unless the airplane is very large, so that the weight involved becomes
Where weight considerations are not so vital, the pressure cabin is a sepa-
control systems and the like are not a serious problem in such cases.
Cabin windows should be double with a dead air space between, or pro-
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vision may be made to heat and circulate the heated air at high altitudes,
because the moisture in the air within the cabin has a tendency to frost
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the windows.
THE FUSELAGE
449
FLOORING
Flooring may float: it may not be structurally tied to frames and string-
ers. In this way, loads on the fuselage structure are not transmitted to
to the flooring. Since the flooring is not an integral part of the main
Flooring may be tied in with the primary structure and so become part
would serve a dual purpose. Whether or not the flooring is tied into the
The flooring would extend only over that section of the fuselage where
floors in the various compartments need not all be placed at the same
Since the flooring will transmit loads to the fuselage structure, it should
that are not so loaded. Usually the transverse frames brought up to the
The number of doors and exits included in an airplane will depend upon
exits for the crew and for the passengers, although the main entrance to
the cockpit may be through the passenger cabin. (See Chapter XII.)
The closures for doors and exits are usually rigid in construction so as
the doors; yet they are seldom designed to act as part of the primary
structure of the fuselage unless the locking device can be depended upon
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Access Doors
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doors, which usually employ some form of cowl fastener for quick opening,
Batteries should be removable from the outside and not from the inside
of the cabin or cockpit; likewise, the water tank should be finable from
the outside. Since these two items are not removable and access is not
Baggage Compartments
Baggage compartments and the like are lined with a secondary structure
To avoid the added complexity and higher costs involved in the design
of a larger fuselage, the use of twin fuselage designs has been proposed.
are assigned to each fuselage. It could also prove effective in cases where
the heavy concentrated load of the larger fuselage would hinder the ful-
The design considerations for the tail booms are very similar to those
TWIN FUSELAGES
TAIL BOOMS
451
bending and torsional moments, with very little transverse shear. For
For the nose-wheel type of landing gear, the tail boom or booms would
There is some weight penalty involved with twin tail booms. On the
basis of skin alone, it can be seen that 2 ir di > v d, where di is the di-
ameter of each of the twin booms, and d is the diameter required for a
single boom. The single-boom diameter would be a little larger than the
twin-boom diameter.
the nose. Only the top and front side trusses are shown. The Pratt truss is shown for
the top and rear portion of the fuselage, and the Warren truss for the front side. The
side trusses may be either Pratt or Warren, or a combination of the two, while the top
and bottom trusses are always Pratt type since they tie in the side trusses, which are
cockpit and cabin section and a steel truss structure for the tail section,
or vice versa.
XXI-20. The two truss types employed are (1) the Warren truss, in
which three adjacent members in the side truss are placed to resemble a
letter W, and (2) the Howe truss, in which every two members in the side
Figure XXI-20. Possible arrangements for structural members around a door for a
truss-type fuselage.
In general, the truss structures are easily produced. The stress analysis
the structural weight may be high since separate structures are used—one
for primary purposes to carry the load, the other for secondary purposes
Another design approach is to use one or more keel beams to serve the
role.
The structure has been proposed for small airplanes in which the seats
The structural advantages of using one or more beams of this kind are (1)
that they are easily stress-analyzed, (2) they are easy to manufacture, and
453
the moment of inertia about the normal axis of the airplane is increased.
axis was kept inclined at a positive angle of attack to the flight path, the
oscillatory stability was improved, but at zero angle of attack, there was
determine whether or not the original specifications set forth for the design
based upon empirical formulae that have been established on the basis of
past performance of similar airplanes and which are predicated upon simi-
lar power and wing loadings, gross weights, and general design. These
calculations are wholly rule-of-thumb and are used by the engineer for his
general information and to decide whether his design is likely to meet the
SOURCE OF DATA
briefly in this chapter. The data for determining the horsepower required
previous designs.
accuracy depends upon the judgment of the engineer using the particular
data. Performance data must be obtained finally from actual full flight
tests.
These calculations are given here in briefest form, and their accuracy de-
454
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PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
455
Pr = (D. + D,) X,
and
ratio and must be corrected for the aspect ratio used. These corrections
The parasite resistance includes all the resistance caused by the fuselage,
tail surfaces, surface irregularities, landing gear, supports and the like, and
are often referred to unit length as in the case of struts; or, per unit as in
the case of wheels; or, per square foot of maximum cross section in the case
of the fuselage. It is usually desirable to obtain the total drag for a speed
of 1 foot per second and then obtain a new coefficient referred to the wing
into the wing, with landing gear retracted, offers far less interference drag
than one not so well faired. The arbitrary factor may be as much as 5
per cent.
Table XXII-1.
Table XXII-1.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
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(6)
(7)
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(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
D•
Dl,
Dvts
Dbts
A>
D, X 1.05
Com
Cd,
CL
HP
456
Column 1. Here are entered the angles of attack of the airplane or the
wing, whichever is chosen for reference. The angular range should start
slightly above the angle at which zero lift of the wing occurs and should
stop at a few angles beyond that at which maximum lift of the wing occurs.
Column 2. Record here the total drag, at 1 foot per second, of the fuse-
lage. The fuselage drag usually varies with angle of attack. If this
Column S. The total drag of the landing gear, at 1 foot per second, of
the wheels, struts, and cowling. This drag usually remains constant for
Column 40 0 The vertical tail surfaces do not change their angle of attack
as the airplane changes its angle of attack; therefore, the drag remains
constant for all angles of attack. Any blanketing effect of the fuselage on
the vertical tail surfaces is neglected. The drag of the vertical tail sur-
Column 6. The drag of the horizontal tail surfaces changes with angle
of attack so that the drag at 1 foot per second varies with increasing angle
of attack of the airplane. The drag coefficients of the horizontal tail sur-
faces must be corrected for aspect ratio. These corrections are outlined
the wing) contributing to the parasite drag, then the addition of these col-
umns for each angle of attack will give the total parasite resistance, desig-
from 1.00 to 1.05. This may be called a "bogey factor" by which any
for if so desired.
Column 8. The value of Cd„ the parasite and interference resistance co-
efficient in the absolute system referred to the wing area, may be found by
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the wing area; since v = 1 foot per second (the speed for which calculations
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were made, or if desired, calculations may be made for 100 feet per second)
Column 9. Here are recorded the drag coefficients of the wing corrected
for aspect ratio, of the airfoil used in the design corresponding to the angles
Altitude
(ft)
<(°F)
p/po
Ob/ft«)
gp
p/po
(in.)
59.
0.002378
1.
0.07651
29.92
1.
1,000
55.434
0.002309
0.9710
0.07430
28.86
0.9644
2,000
51.868
0.002242
0.9428
0.07213
27.82
0.9298
3,000
48.301
0.002176
0.9151
0.07001
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26.81
0.8962
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4,000
44.735
0.002112
0.8881
0.06794
25.84
0.8636
5,000
41.169
0.002049
0.8616
0.06592
24.89
0.8320
6,000
37.603
0.001988
0.8358
0.06395
23.98
0.8013
7,000
34.037
0.001928
0.8106
0.06202
23.09
0.7716
8,000
30.471
0.001869
PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
459
(usually given in miles per hour); then, with the aid of horsepower avail-
able curves, almost all the performance figures required may be calculated
tiplying the square roots of the relative densities by both the velocity and
where vi represents the new speed at the density pi at the new altitude,
table does not usually extend beyond the stratosphere, or above 50,000
feet. Additional data has been made available for use in extreme high-
live in altitudes up to 18,000 feet without the need of oxygen, but oxygen
well, for the human system to absorb the required oxygen, but if no other
difficulties arose, it would be found that the human blood would boil at its
own temperature at 63,000 feet altitude. One hundred per cent oxygen
ALTITUDE CORRECTIONS
tO V0.
Altitude
(ft)
Altitude
(miles)
Weight of air
(lb/cu ft)
between mole-
cules (in.)
Molecules
(per in.*)
500,000
94.6
370
43 X 10"
450,000
85.2
—
65
25 X 10"
400,000
75.8
—
12
15 X 10"
350,000
66.3
0.2 X 10-»
1.9
84 X 10"
300,000
56.8
2.6 X 10—7
0.3
48 X 10"
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250,000
47.4
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t2.9 X 10-*
5.8 X 10-*
27 X 10"
200,000
37.9
1.6 X 10-»
1.0 x io-«
16 X 10"
150,000
28.4
9.5 X 10-*
1.7 X 10-'
96 X 10"
100,000
18.9
0.000107
2.7 X 10—«
62 X 10"
50,000
9.5
0.0116
3.6 X 10-*
47 X 1018
0.0
0.0765
3.5 X 10-*
44 X 10"
f This is another way of saying 2.9 pounds per million cubic foot.
461
Item
Vertical tail surface cantilever per square foot. If the minimum drag
used with an increase of about 25 per cent to account for gap at hinges.
per cent.
aspect ratio, for each angle of attack. Add about 25 per cent for
Fuselage plus cowled engine per square foot of projected maximum frontal
Da = D0 + 0.0015 Do a1
THE ENGINE
tal flight is determined from the brake horsepower curves of the engine
This power curve is given for sea-level conditions unless the engine happens
engines above the rated altitude limit of the supercharger varies with the
formula:
P = P„ (p/po)1 \
tude,
The following should be borne in mind also when the engine horsepower
is desired for other than the usual standard for the engine in question.
cent.
in pounds at
100 mph
0.40
6-8.5
462 AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL
engine.
900
I 800
* 700
«s
5 600
500
Figure XXII-2. Variation of brake horsepower of the engine with the propeller
Horsepower Available
same revolutions per minute regardless of the forward speed of the air-
plane, at least within the permissable angular range of the propeller blades.
angle. It is desirable to determine the blade angle also, since the con-
463
Table XXII-5. Determining horsepower available. Design speed 224 mph; pro-
peller diameter 9.75, 3 blades; engine 850 horsepower at 2450 rpm; sea level = 0.002378;
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Propeller
Brake
HP
(mph)
V*/nD
C.
0*
n*
li
(rpm)
hp
available
224
1.11
1.92
29.5°
86
83
1,634
850
706
200
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1.025
1.72
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28.5
85
82
1,634
850
697
180
0.922
1.55
27.0
83
80
1,634
850
680
160
0.821
1.375
26.5
81
78
1,634
850
664
140
0.717
1.202
25.5
78
75
1,634
464
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Figure XXII-4. The variation of engine power with change in aircraft speed when
Column 40 0 The blade angles at 75 per cent of the radius are determined
for the values of C, given in column 3. See Chapter XV, The Propeller.
the calculated values of C, are determined with the aid of curves such as
propellers, a subtraction of 3 per cent is made from those values to give the
since the engine revolutions per minute and power do not remain the same.
could not change its pitch angle below 20.0 degrees so that the propeller
would be, in reality, a fixed-pitch propeller at speeds below 140 miles per
Table XXII-6.
(1)
(2)
Per
cent
of
(3)
Per
cent
(4)
(5)
(6)
Pro-
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
HP
of
design
rated
Brake
RPM
peller
avail-
speed
hp
hp
rpm
C.
1*
ii
able
140
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100
100
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850
2,450
1,634
1.202
25.5
78
75
638
120
85.7
94.5
803
2,300
2,185
1,535
1.071
25.5
74
71
570
100
71.4
90.0
765
1,456
0.919
25.5
72
69
528
80
466
The calculations for other altitudes are similar to those given for sea-
the same.
238 mph; altitude 7000p = 0.001928; engine 850 horsepower at 2450 rpm; propeller
Propeller
Brake
Available
(mph)
C.
V»/nD
V*
»?i
rpm
hp
hp
238
1.982
1.22
29.5
86
83
1,634
850
705
220
1.815
1.13
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29.0
85
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82
1,634
850
697
200
1.65
1.025
28.5
84
81
1,634
850
687
180
1.485
0.922
28.0
83
80
1,634
850
680
160
1.321
0.821
27.5
82
79
1,634
850
672
PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
467
55700
(a
v.
*>
^ 80
v.
<i
£ 60
< 40
*.
Critical
20,0
altitude
00 ft/
OO ft.'
level'
- /£,0<
sea
0 4 8 12 16
800\
5:
200\
HP i
1O,0(
ivailable
OO ft. a
at
1titude
Ma*
HP
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: excess
385
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i|
>
HP ret
at 1O,t
juired
700 ft.
? 40 80 120 1t
iO 200 2*
to
Figure XXII-6. Available and required horsepower curves obtained for an altitude
of 10,000 feet for the supercharged engine whose critical altitude was 7000 feet.
468
airplane. In Figure XXII-1, the maximum speed at sea level is 224 miles
per hour. Figure XXII-3 indicates that the maximum speed at 7000
feet is 238 miles per hour, and Figure XXII-6 indicates that the maximum
RATE OF CLIMB
and the horsepower required at the same speed along the flight path will
determine the maximum rate of climb at the particular altitude for which
435 X 33,000 , , .
at sea level. Similarly, the rate of climb at 7000 feet is 1419 feet per min-
ute, and at 10,000 feet the maximum rate of climb is 1270 feet per minute.
The absolute ceiling is that altitude at which the rate of climb Ja zero
feet per minute. The service ceiling is that altitude at which the rate of
mining the rates of climb for two different altitudes (outside of the super-
charged region and extending the straight line drawn through these points
This has been done in Figure XXII-7. The service and absolute
climb does not vary directly with the change in altitude but the assump-
RANGE
The range may be calculated on the basis of the known horsepower, fuel
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469
40
I32
24
16
bsolute
?rvice c
ceiling
eiling
Si
rv
1\
— TOOL
7 feel
U-l 1
supercharged engine.
is also used:
the necessary data on the basis of which the usefulness of the airplane for
PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
With fixed equipment as listed in the following text, and a useful load
consisting of
1 pilot 170 lb
5 passengers 850 lb
baggage 200 lb
cargo 200 lb
the minimum performance acceptable when using fuel of not more than
* At any altitude from sea level to 5000 feet altitude (standard air),
t Standard air.
Weight
Min take-off
speed (mph)
Distance
(ft)
Engine
manifold
pressure (in.)
Propeller
rpm
Max gross
Light
minimum speed required for level flight with one engine dead.
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Weight
Min
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dead engine
speed (mph)
Distance
(ft)
Engine
manifold
pressure (in.)
Propeller
rpm
Max gross
Light
PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
471
Engine
manifold
pressure (in.)
Weight
Best climbing
speed (mph)
Distance
(ft)
Propeller
rpm
Light
Angle
(degrees)
Engine manifold
pressure (in.)
Propeller
rpm
Weight
Altitude
(ft)
(mph)
Engine manifold
pressure (in.)
Propeller
rpm
Sea level
5,000 ft
Engine manifold
pressure (in.)
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Propeller
rpm
Weight
Ceiling (ft)
Light
472
Altitude (ft)
Cruising speed
(mph)
Engine manifold
pressure (in.)
Propeller
rpm
Sea level
Fuel consumption (gals per hr) Oil consumption (gals per hr)
retracted (mph)
extended (mph)
Engine manifold
pressure (in.)
Propeller
rpm
Engine manifold
pressure (in.)
Propeller
rpm
Weight
Ceiling (ft)
Max. gross
Light
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PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS 473
Engine manifold
pressure (in.)
Propeller
rpm
Altitude
Speed (mph)
Fuel consumption (gals per hr) Oil consumption (gals per hr)
Angle
(degrees)
Engine manifold
pressure (in.)
Propeller
rpm
Weight
Max cross
light
Landing.
Angle (degrees)
Speed (mph)
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474
EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
The formulas listed below have been based upon published data and
Maximum Speed
of power plant for power loadings (W/P) between 5 and 12 and wing
'—» + *(?)(?).
2. For aircraft powered with jet engines, with speeds of between 450
and 700 miles an hour, the following formulas have reasonable validity:
For the upper values of speed, the following formula gives closer values:
The available data for jet-powered airplanes are still too sparse to en-
able one to determine reliable values for the constants in these empirical
475
where K has a value from 135 to 145 for small personal aircraft employing
fixed-pitch propellers;
K has a value from 125 to 135 for small flying boats and amphibians;
constant-speed propellers.
for which K may be evaluated from existing values of Vmaz, Vm,„, and
planes equipped with jet power, an empirical formula such as the following
can be used:
The following formula may be used with good results to determine the
where K varies from 15 to 18 for small airplanes without the use of lift-
increase devices and with fixed-pitch propellers, for wing loadings (W/S),
span flaps and constant-speed propellers for W/S values from 30 to 80.
The rate of climb, in feet per minute, may be calculated from the fol-
R = 18,000 ~ - 45 ^-
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476
PW
Rc = 18,000 w- 10 -^
Absolute Ceiling
may be derived:
\p)\s)
• jw
engines.
H = Hc + 40,000 logio
K has a value between 215 and 230, for values for W/PVW/S from 40
to 90.
Range
477
ing gross weights, it will lead to results that are quite reasonable.
engines:
R = K logio j^2'
Generated on 2012-05-30 05:49 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015000500895
Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google
Absorbers, shock, 359-361, 362-364
dimensions, 380
proportions, 380
types, 361-362
419, 420
movement, 222-223
requirements, 223-224
460
229, 281-296
boilers, 229
calculations, 230-232
equipment, 229-230
importance, 221-223
radiators, 229
soundproofing, 227
39-41
computation table, 40
construction, 45-46
Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google
criteria, 39
laminar flow, 48
ordinates, 45-46
power coefficient, 35
selection, 29-49
structural considerations, 38
thickness, 321-322
292
anti-icing, 284-285
289
losses, 286
requirements, 287-289
scoop, 292-293
data, 26-28
forces in flight, 30
length, 118
performance, 28
482
Airplanes (Continued):
three-quarter view, 8
three-view, 113-123
types, 10-28
construction)
downwash, 399-400
400
401
319
trim, 399
equipment, 199-201
408
wing, 116-117
wing, 320-321
ballast, 169
clearances, 168
defined, 155
diagram, 155-157
dynamic, 392-393
fuselage, 161-164
procedures, 155-157
static, 391-392
wing, 164-167
worksheet, 163
Ballast, 169
Beading, 105
weights, 151
Biplane, 10-11
Boilers, 229
Bolts, 109
aisles, 205
comfort, 203
considerations, 202-203
dimensions, 203-205
doors, 217-218
exits, 217-218
flooring, 219
furnishings, 218
INDEX
483
Cables (Continued):
strengths, 416
Canopies, 183
Castings, aluminum, 70
magnesium, 74
estimation, 170-171
fuselage, 161
movement, 160
seating, 170-216
propeller, 247-249
considerations, 172-174
controls, 188-189
design, 174-176
dimensions, 184
exits, 186
parachutes, 188
requirements, 175-176
seating, 183-186
windshields, 176-181
conditioning)
Generated on 2012-05-30 05:50 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015000500895
factors, 203
soundproofing, 239
travel, 425
engine, 427-428
fairleads, 415
hydraulic, 423-425
pneumatic, 423-425
requirements, 427-428
stops, 415
weights, 150
wheels, 188
engine, 427-428
wheel, 188
engine, 274-275
484
controls, 427-428
cowling, 273-275
firewall, 272-273
installations, 251-253
manifolds, 276-277
nacelles, 268
number, 265-267
piston, 295
rating, 267-268
selection, 268
submerged, 264-265
tandem, 251-252
weights, 295-296
safety, 199
cockpit, 186
145-146
Fabrication, 71-73
Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google
blanking, 72
cutting, 72
forming, 72-73
Fail-safe, 82
Fairleads, 415
Fool-proof, 82
Firewall, 272-273
Fittings, 97-99
vices)
clearance, 351
controls, 420
wing, 422
diving, 34
envelope, 58-59
gliding, 33-34
horizontal, 31-33
range, 36
Flooring, 100-102
soundproofing, 219
394
Forgings, 68-70
spacing, 440-442
pumps, 279
systems, 278-279
INDEX
485
Fuselage (Continued):
shape, 432-435
structure, 451-452
twin, 450
windows, 447
tubing, 111-112
sources, 229
surface, 232
Hinges, 422
grouping, 194
importance, 191
location, 194
selection, 197-198
variety, 194-197
clearances, 381
cross-wind, 371-373
description, 357
location, 364-371
retraction, 376-378
shimmy, 373-375
tandem, 371
tread, 375
cockpit, 184
Lighting, 218
determination, 55-56
empirical, 57-58
gust, 52-55
maneuver, 51-52
Loads, 50-63
dynamic, 50-53
factors, 50-58
gust, 52-55
486
Materials (Continued):
considerations, 65
fabricated, 71-73
magnesium alloys, 74
steel, 74-75
fuselage, 436
frequency, 236-237
measure, 235
soundproofing, 235-240
Parachutes, 188
weights, 151
Payload, 129
476
engine, 461-462
475
requirements, 470-474
take-off, 470-J71
protection, 186-187
seating, 183-186
defined, 263
229-230
considerations, 224-226
structure, 447-448
characteristics, 241-243
clearances, 247-249
cuffs, 254
diameter, 254-262
influence, 247
INDEX
487
Rockets, 298
equipment, 199
margin, 81
arrangements, 206-207
canoe, 210
cockpit, 183-186
pick-a-back, 212
prone, 190
rearward, 214-215
staggered, 213
tandem, 215
toboggan, 210-211
passenger, 205-206
Sheet-stringer, 92-93
shock)
application, 237-239
choice, 237
flooring, 219
materials, 227-230
weights, 151
wing, 327-331
directional, 404-405
longitudinal, 382-386
Stops, 415
Sweepback, 313-316
wing, 46
airfoils, 388-389
balance, 389-393
butterfly, 409-411
clearances, 403
dihedral, 401
horizontal, 395-403
incidence, 398-400
final, 122-123
Toilets, 219
weights, 111-112
cockpit, 182-183
alternate, 127
calculated, 126
empty, 146
296
floats, 154
fuel, 147
miscellaneous, 150-154
nacelles, 146-147
oil, 147
propeller, 261-262
sources, 139
Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google
spinners, 254
structural, 128
tires, 152-153
variables, 132-139
wheels, 152-153
worksheets, 129-131
position, 376
size, 375-376
toe-in, 376
weights, 152-153
Windshields, 176-181
aero-isoclinic, 316
area, 116-117
construction, 327
cranked, 316
crescent, 315-316
design, 299-356
dihedral, 317-319
fabric-covered, 337-341
fences, 354
489
Wing (Continued):
skin thickness, 90
span, 117
spoilers, 347-354
stringers, 330-331
torsion, 301-302