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Earthquake Resistant Design of Reinforced Concrete Buildings PDF
Earthquake Resistant Design of Reinforced Concrete Buildings PDF
Earthquake Resistant Design of Reinforced Concrete Buildings PDF
Invited Paper
Abstract
This paper briefly reviews the development of earthquake resistant design of buildings. Measurement of ground accel-
eration started in the 1930s, and response calculation was made possible in the 1940s. Design response spectra were
formulated in the late 1950s to 1960s. Non-linear response was introduced in seismic design in the 1960s and the capac-
ity design concept was generally introduced in the 1970s for collapse safety. The damage statistics of reinforced con-
crete buildings in the 1995 Kobe disaster demonstrated the improvement of building performance with the development
of design methodology. Buildings designed and constructed using out-dated methodology should be upgraded. Per-
formance-based engineering should be emphasized, especially for the protection of building functions following fre-
quent earthquakes.
London in 1749 and 1750 attracted the interest of scien- the fault-line, and the stresses thus induced were the
tists. forces which caused the sudden displacements, or elas-
The first scientific investigation about earthquake tic rebounds, when the rupture occurred....” Reid did not
phenomena is believed to have been carried out by explain what causes the external forces acting along
Robert Mallet, who initiated the physico-mechanical fault lines.
investigation of earthquake wave propagation. He in- Recent developments in geophysics are fascinating;
vestigated the earthquake phenomena of the 1857 especially research on the relationship between plate
Naples Earthquake, and used such technical terms as tectonics and earthquakes. Alfred Wegener presented the
“seismology,” “hypocenter,” “isoseismal,” and “wave theory of continental drift (Wegener, 1915). He pro-
path” in his report (Mallet, 1862). vided extensive supporting evidence for his theory such
The measurement of earthquake ground vibrations as geological formations, fossils, animals and climatol-
must have been a challenge for scientists. Chan Heng, in ogy. He claimed that a single mass, called Pangaea,
132 A.D. in China, developed an instrument to detect drifted and split to form the current continents. Wegener,
earthquakes and point out the direction of the epicenter. however, had no convincing mechanism to explain the
Mallet also invented an instrument to record the inten- continental drift. Exploration data regarding the earth's
sity of ground motion by measuring the direction and crust, notably the ocean floor, increased in the 1950s;
distance of a particle moved by the motion. Many at- e.g., American physicists M. Ewing and B. Heezen dis-
tempts were made to develop seismometers (seismo- covered the great global rift (the Mid-Ocean Ridge in
graphs) that could record ground movement during the Atlantic Ocean). On the basis of such exploration
earthquakes. Luigi Palmieri developed an electromag- data, H. Hess, professor of Geology at Princeton Uni-
netic seismograph in 1855. One was installed near versity, proposed the theory of sea-floor spreading in
Mount Vesuvius, and another one at the University of 1960, which provided a mechanism to support
Naples. The Ministry of the Interior of Japan adopted Wegener’s continental drift. Plate tectonics can describe
Palmieri-type seismometers in 1875. the accumulation of strains at the boundaries of adjacent
The first seismological society in the world, the Seis- plates or within a plate due to plate movements at the
mological Society of Japan, was founded in 1880 when earth's surface, which cause earthquakes.
European and U.S. engineering professors, invited to the Major earthquakes occur along the boundary of mov-
College of Engineering in Tokyo, were interested in the ing tectonic plates when the strain energy, accumulated
1880 Yokohama earthquake (M5.5), which caused mi- by the resistance against inter-plate movement, is sud-
nor damage to buildings, but collapsed a chimney. John denly released. This type of inter-plate earthquakes oc-
Milne, professor of Geology and Mining at the Engi- curs repeatedly at a relatively short interval of 50 to 200
neering College, was the leader in scientific and engi- years. Seismically blank regions, where seismic activity
neering research. Milne, together with J. A. Ewing and T. is quiet for some time along the tectonic plate boundary,
Gray, developed a modern three-directional seismome- are identified as the location of future earthquake oc-
ter in 1881. Important research findings were published currences. However, it is not possible at this stage to
in the transactions. For example, Milne introduced Mal- accurately predict the time, location and magnitude of
let’s work on seismology and Ewing noted the differ- earthquake occurrences.
ence between primary and secondary waves in the re- Another type of earthquakes occurs within a tectonic
corded ground motion. plate when the stress accumulated within a plate by the
The University of Tokyo was renamed as the Imperial pressure of peripheral plate movements, exceeds the
University in 1886. Kiyokage Sekiya, who worked resisting capacity of the rock layers at the fault. The
closely with Ewing and Milne, became the first profes- epicenter is relatively shallow within 30 km from the
sor of seismology chair at the Faculty of Science. earth surface. The fault in a plate remains as a weak spot
Fusakichi Omori who succeeded him in 1897, was ac- after an earthquake, and earthquakes occur repeatedly at
tive in experimental as well as theoretical research for the same location if stress accumulates up to the failure
earthquake disaster mitigation. level. The location of many active faults has been iden-
The relation between fault movements and earth- tified by geologists, and is taken into consideration in
quakes was pointed out by Grove K. Gilbert, a U.S. ge- developing a seismicity map for structural design. If an
ologist, who reported in 1872 that earthquakes usually intra-plate earthquake occurs near a city, the disaster in
centered around a fault line. Clear relative movement densely populated areas can be significant. It should be
was observed across the San Andreas Fault after the noted that this type of intra-plate earthquakes occurs at a
1906 San Francisco Earthquake (Ms 8.3). This earth- long interval of 1,000 to 3,000 years. Therefore, it is
quake caused 700 to 800 deaths and destroyed 28,188 more difficult to accurately predict the time, location
buildings. The main source of disaster was fire. Harry F. and magnitude of intra-plate earthquakes.
Reid, Professor at Johns Hopkins University, presented We need to emphasize the need for disaster mitigation
the “Elastic Rebound Theory” in 1908 to describe the measures in society focusing on optimum use of seis-
process of an earthquake mechanism; “... external forces mology and geophysics data.
must have produced an elastic strain in the region about
S. Otani / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 2, No. 1, 3-24, 2004 5
design. He assumed a building to be rigid and directly frame buildings was further extended by K. Muto at the
connected to the ground surface, and suggested a seis- Imperial University of Tokyo (Architectural Institute of
mic coefficient equal to the maximum ground accelera- Japan, 1933). Lateral stiffness of columns was theoreti-
tion normalized to gravity acceleration G. Although he cally evaluated taking into account (a) flexural stiffness
noted that lateral acceleration response might be ampli- of the column, (b) stiffness of adjacent girders immedi-
fied from the ground acceleration with lateral deforma- ately above and below the column, and (c) support con-
tion of the structure, he ignored the effect in determin- ditions at the column base. Story shear was distributed
ing the seismic coefficient. He estimated the maximum to each column in accordance with its lateral stiffness.
ground acceleration in the Honjo and Fukagawa areas The moment distribution of the column was determined
on alluvial soft soil in Tokyo to be 0.30 G and above on by the column shear and the height of inflection point,
the basis of the damage to houses in the 1855 Ansei-Edo which was evaluated taking into account (a) the relative
(Tokyo) Earthquake, and that in the Yamanote area on location of story, (b) the stiffness of adjacent girders
diluvial hard soil to be 0.15 G. Sano also discussed immediately above and below the column, (c) changes
earthquake damage to brick masonry, steel, reinforced in the stiffness of the adjacent girders, and (d) the dif-
concrete and timber houses and buildings and proposed ference in inter-story height immediately above and
methods to improve the earthquake resistance of such below the column. The sum of column end moments at
structures. a joint was distributed to girder ends in proportion to the
girder stiffness. Various factors were prepared in table
3.3 Structural analysis methods format for practical use.
Building structures are highly statically indeterminate. The use of digital computers for the analysis of stati-
Actions and stresses in a building must be calculated cally indeterminate structures began in the mid-1960s.
before seismic forces can be utilized in design. Funda- The enhanced memory, the increased speed of computa-
mental studies of structures were developed in the mid- tions and input-output processes, and the efficient use of
dle of the nineteenth century. J. C. Maxwell in 1864 and graphics made it possible to use digital computers in
O. Mohr in 1874 separately developed the unit load routine structural design practices. The finite element
method to determine the deflection of elastic trusses and method for the analysis of continuum structures was
the flexibility method to determine redundant forces in made possible in the early 1960s.
statically indeterminate trusses. L. M. H. Navier was the
first to use the stiffness method of analysis in the prob- 3.4 Seismic design in Urban Building Law of
lem of two-degree-of-kinematic indeterminacy in 1826. Japan
The well-known Castigliano’s theorems were presented The first Japanese building code, the Urban Building
in 1879. Law, was promulgated in 1919 to regulate buildings and
The application of the stiffness method and the slope city planning in six major cities. Structural design was
deflection method to plane frames originated with A. specified in Building Law Enforcement Regulations; i.e.,
Bendixen in 1914, and was also used by W. Wilson and quality of materials, allowable stresses of materials,
G. A. Maney in 1915. A set of linear equations had to be connections, reinforcement detailing, dead and live
solved before the moment distribution could be deter- loads, and method of calculating stresses were specified,
mined. The practical method of structural analysis was but earthquake and wind forces were not. Allowable
introduced later; the moment-distribution method was (working) stress design, whereby the safety factor for
presented by Hardy Cross (1930). uncertainties was considered in the ratio of the strength
Tachu (Tanaka) Naito at Waseda University intro- to the allowable stress of the material, was in common
duced the slope-deflection method in Japan in 1922. He use at this time in the world.
was interested in developing a simple procedure for The 1923 Kanto (Tokyo) earthquake (M 7.9) caused
practical use. Naito (1924) analyzed a series of rectan- significant damage in the Tokyo and Yokohama areas,
gular frames under horizontal forces to study the lateral killing more than 140,000, damaging more than 250,000
stiffness of columns and the height of inflection points. houses, and burning more than 450,000 houses. More
He proposed lateral force distribution ratios (D-value) than 90 percent of the loss in lives and buildings was
for interior (1.0) and exterior (0.5) columns, and for caused by fire. The damage to reinforced concrete
flexible frames (1.0) and shear walls (8 to 20) and the buildings was relatively low although no seismic design
height of inflection points in columns to determine the regulations were enforced before the earthquake. The
bending moment from the known shear. Another impor- damage was observed in reinforced concrete buildings
tant contribution of Naito was the introduction of rein- provided with (a) brick partition walls, (b) little shear
forced concrete shear walls in the Industrial Bank of walls, or constructed with (c) poor reinforcement de-
Japan Building (an 8-story steel reinforced concrete tailing, (d) short lap splice length, (e) poor
building completed in 1923) as earthquake resisting beam-column connections, (f) poor construction, or de-
elements. The effectiveness of structural walls was signed with (g) irregular configuration, and (h) poor
demonstrated in the 1923 Kanto Earthquake. foundation.
Naito’s D-value method of structural calculation for The Building Law Enforcement Regulations were re-
S. Otani / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 2, No. 1, 3-24, 2004 7
vised in 1924 to require seismic design using seismic earthquake resistant building design without knowing
coefficients of 0.10 for the first time in the world. From the probable intensity and characteristics of design
the incomplete measurement of ground displacement at earthquake motions.
the University of Tokyo, the maximum ground accelera-
tion was estimated to be 0.3 G. The allowable stress in 4. Accelerograph and response spectrum
design was one-third to one-half of the material strength
in the design regulations. Therefore, the design seismic The Earthquake Research Institute was established at
coefficient 0.1 was determined by dividing the esti- the University of Tokyo in 1925, taking over the func-
mated maximum ground acceleration of 0.3 G by the tions of the Earthquake Disaster Prevention Investiga-
safety factor of 3 of allowable stresses. tion Council. Many new efforts were made to under-
stand earthquake phenomena and also to develop tech-
3.5 Seismic design in U.S. Uniform Building nology to reduce earthquake disasters. M. Ishimoto de-
Code veloped an accelerograph in 1931; accelerograph re-
The first edition of the Uniform Building Code in 1927, cords were used to study the dominant period of ground
a model code in the United States published by the Pa- motion at different sites, but not for structure response
cific Coast Building Officials Conference, adopted the calculation.
seismic coefficient method for structural design in seis- K. Suyehiro, first director of the Earthquake Research
mic regions based on the experience from the 1925 Institute, was invited by the American Society of Civil
Santa Barbara, California, earthquake. The seismic co- Engineers to give a series of lectures on engineering
efficient was varied for soil conditions between 0.075 seismology at U.S. universities in 1931 (Suyehiro 1932).
and 0.10; although buildings on soft soil were known to He pointed out the lack of information about earthquake
suffer larger damage, this was the first time for a build- ground acceleration and emphasized the importance of
ing code to recognize the amplification of ground mo- developing accelerographs for engineering purposes.
tion by soft soil. At the U.S. Seismological Field Survey (later known
After the 1933 Long Beach, California, earthquake, as the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey), established in
seismic design using a seismic coefficient of 0.02 was 1932, F. Wenner and H. E. McComb worked on the de-
made mandatory in California by the Riley Act, and velopment of the first strong motion accelerograph
higher seismic safety, using a seismic coefficient of 0.10, (Montana model) in the same year. An accelerograph at
was made mandatory for school buildings by the Field Mt. Vernon station measured the motion during the 1933
Act. Long Beach, California, earthquake, but the amplitude
The 1935 Uniform Building Code adopted variations exceeded the capacity of the instrument.
in design seismic forces in three seismic zones, recog- Acceleration records of strong earthquake motions
nizing different levels in seismic risk from one region to were recorded during the 1935 Helena, Montana, earth-
another. quake and the 1938 Ferndale, California, earthquake
with peak amplitudes of 0.16 to 0.18 G, respectively.
3.6 Seismic design in Building Standard Law of The well-known El Centro records were obtained during
Japan the 1940 Imperial Valley earthquake. The El Centro
The Building Standard Law, applicable to all buildings records have been studied extensively and considered as
throughout Japan, was proclaimed in 1950. Technical standard acceleration records for a long time. An earth-
issues were outlined in the Building Standard Law En- quake acceleration signal is not harmonic, but is quite
forcement Order (Cabinet Order). Horizontal earthquake random in nature, containing high-frequency compo-
force Fi at floor level i was calculated as nents. Thus acceleration signals differ greatly from dis-
placement signals in terms of frequency content.
Fi = Z G K Wi (2) M. A. Biot (1933) from the California Institute of
Technology suggested in 1933 that earthquake response
where Z : seismic zone factor (0.8 to 1.0), G :
amplitude of simple systems to transient impulses
soil-structure factor (0.6 to 1.0), K : seismic coefficient
should vary with their natural periods, and introduced
(0.20 to height of 16 m and below, increased by 0.01 for
the concept of a response spectrum. He suggested the
every 4.0 m above), and Wi : weight of story i includ-
use of an electric analyzer. Biot (1941), who later went
ing live load for earthquake inertia part. Soil-structure
to Colombia University, developed a mechanical ana-
factor G was varied for soil conditions and for con-
lyzer (torsional pendulum) to calculate the response of
struction materials; e.g., for reinforced concrete con-
linearly elastic systems to an arbitrary exciting function;
struction, the coefficient was 0.8 on rock or stiff soil,
the 1935 Helena, Montana, earthquake and the 1938
0.9 on intermediate soil, and 1.0 on soft soil. The seis-
Ferndale, California earthquake records were used to
mic zone factor was based on the seismic hazard map
develop the first earthquake response spectra. No
prepared by H. Kawasumi from the Earthquake Re-
damping was used in the calculation. He proposed that
search Institute at the University of Tokyo and pub-
the undamped response spectrum peaked at 0.2 s with a
lished in 1946.
maximum amplitude of 1.0 G, and decayed inversely
At this stage, researchers and engineers discussed
8 S. Otani / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 2, No. 1, 3-24, 2004
proportional to the period of systems. He pointed out 5.1 Newmark’s design criteria
that the response amplitudes could be reduced by the Veletsos and Newmark (1960) reported the relation be-
effect of hysteresis of a structure in an inelastic range or tween the maximum response of linearly elastic and
damping associated with the radiation of kinetic energy elasto-plastic simple systems under earthquake ground
to the foundation (K. Sezawa and K. Kanai, 1938). motions; i.e., for the linearly elastic and elasto-plastic
Biot’s finding that the earthquake force decreased systems having the same initial period, the strain energy
with the fundamental period was first recognized in the stored at the maximum response was comparable in a
City of Los Angeles Building Code in 1943; i.e., the short period range and the maximum response dis-
design seismic coefficient Ci at floor i was defined as placement amplitudes were comparable in a long period
range. On the basis of their observations, Newmark
0.60 proposed that an elastic-plastic single-degree-of-freedom
Ci = (3)
N + 4.5 (SDF) system having ductility capacity µ (ultimate
deformation divided by the yield deformation) should
where N: the number of stories above the story under be provided with minimum base shear coefficient C y
consideration. The maximum number of stories was to resist a ground motion that produced elastic response
limited to 13. The requirement also indicated the in- base shear coefficient Ce ;
crease of seismic coefficients with the height from the
ground reflecting the deflected shape under dynamic Ce
excitation. The 1949 edition of UBC specified similar Cy = for short period systems (6)
2µ − 1
design seismic forces as follows:
Ce
0.15 Cy = for long period systems (7)
Fi = Z Wi (4) µ
N i + 4.5
The elastic base shear coefficient can be found from
where, N : number of stories above, Z: seismic zone the linearly elastic response spectra of an earthquake
factor, and Wi: dead and live loads at level i. motion; the plot of maximum response amplitudes with
The joint committee of the San Francisco section of respect to the elastic period of systems for different
the American Society of Civil Engineers and the Struc- damping factors. A structure could be designed for
tural Engineers Association of Northern California smaller resistance if the structure could deform much
recommended a model code in which the design seismic beyond the yielding point. “Ductility” became an im-
coefficients were determined inversely proportional to portant word in seismic design and a large emphasis was
the estimated fundamental period of the structure (Joint placed on developing structural detailing to enhance
Committee, 1951) and the lateral force was distributed deformation capability.
linearly from the base to the top. The base shear V was Newmark’s design rules opened a new direction in
defined by the following equation: seismic design by providing a means to define the lat-
eral resistance required for survival of a structure. For
V = CW the precise application of Newmark’s rules, plastic
0.015 (5) hinges in a multi-story building must simultaneous yield
C= 0.02 ≤ C ≤ 0.06
T to form a plastic mechanism. Due care must be exer-
cised for the concentration of plastic deformation at
where C : base shear coefficient, W : sum of dead and limited localities where early yielding develops during
live load, and T : natural period of a building evaluated earthquakes.
by a simple expression. Blume, Newmark and Corning (1961) wrote a “clas-
The period effect on the amplitude of seismic design sic” design manual for multistory reinforced concrete
forces was not considered in Japan until 1981. buildings, published by the Portland Cement Associa-
tion. The manual was the state of the art in earthquake
5. System ductility engineering and earthquake resistance for reinforced
concrete buildings. The design was based on the 1959
With the development of digital computers in the late SEAOC recommendations in terms of design earth-
1950s and with the accumulation of strong motion re- quake forces, but the design of reinforced concrete was
cords, it became possible to calculate linearly elastic as based on the allowable stress procedure of the 1956
well as nonlinear response of simple structural systems American Concrete Institute Building Code; the ulti-
under strong earthquake motions. N. M. Newmark made mate strength design procedure was treated as alterna-
a significant contribution to earthquake engineering and tive method in the code. It should be noted that the
structural mechanics by developing in 1959 a numerical manual discussed the advantage of weak-beam
procedure to solve the equation of motion on digital strong-column systems. Evaluation of strength, ductility
computers (Newmark, 1959). This method is exten- and energy absorption of reinforced concrete members
sively used in current response analysis programs. was discussed, elaborating on such issues as the mo-
ment-curvature relation of sections to failure, the effect
S. Otani / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 2, No. 1, 3-24, 2004 9
of compressive longitudinal reinforcement and confin- of any other more rigid elements was capable of resist-
ing reinforcement on deformation capacity, the interac- ing 100% of the total required lateral forces in the frame
tion of ultimate moment and axial force, and the effect alone, and 1.0 for all other building frame systems.
of reversed loading. Good reinforcement details were The commentary of the 1967 SEAOC code explicitly
suggested to improve ductility and energy absorption. stated that “... structures designed in conformance with
Studies on earthquake response of structural systems the provisions and principles set forth therein should be
slowed down in Japan during and after the Second able to:
World War. As economic conditions stabilized and im- 1. Resist minor earthquakes without damage;
proved during and after the Korean War (1950-1953), 2. Resist moderate earthquakes without structural
some research funds were made available to research damage, but with some nonstructural damage;
communities. The Strong Motion Accelerograph Com- 3. Resist major earthquakes, of the intensity of sever-
mittee (SMAC) was formed in 1951 and developed a ity of the strongest experienced in California,
series of SMAC-type seismometers that were installed without collapse, but with some structural as well
throughout the country. The Strong Earthquake Re- as nonstructural damage.”
sponse Analysis Computer (SERAC) was built at the This concept has been generally accepted by re-
University of Tokyo (Strong Earthquake Response searchers and engineers in the world.
Analysis Committee, 1962) under the leadership of K. Figure 2 shows schematically the expected perform-
Muto. This was an electric analog computer capable of ance of a building under earthquake motions. The level
calculating the elasto-plastic response of up to a of minimum lateral resistance should be determined (a)
five-mass spring system. This analog computer was to control the serviceability of buildings from minor but
replaced as the result of the development of digital more frequent earthquake motions and (b) to protect the
computers approximately five years later, but produced occupants’ life by limiting nonlinear deformation from
useful information about the nonlinear earthquake re- very rare but maximum probable earthquake motions.
sponse of multi-degree-of-freedom systems, data that Architectural elements, such as non-structural curtain
would be of benefit for the construction of high-rise walls, partitions and mechanical facilities, must be pro-
buildings in an earthquake prone country such as Japan. tected for the continued use of a building after more
The reduction of design seismic forces relying on duc- frequent earthquakes. It should be noted that the struc-
tility was not considered in Japan until 1981. ture of higher resistance suffers no damage from infre-
quent earthquakes while the structure of low resistance
5.2 Nonlinear effect in SEAOC Code suffers some structural damage and associated non-
The Seismological Committee of the Structural Engi- structural damage, which must be repaired before use is
neers Association of California (SEAOC) published a resumed.
seismic design model code in 1957, which was formally The 1966 SEAOC code implicitly assigns expected
adopted in 1959 (Seismological Committee, 1959). The ductility of a building according to its framing system,
code represented the state of the art in earthquake engi- and much larger variation was adopted in horizontal
neering at the time. The minimum design base shear V force factor K. More strict structural detailing require-
for buildings was expressed as ments were specified for framing systems using a small
horizontal force factor.
V = KCW (8)
where horizontal force factor K: the type of structural 5.3 Allowable stress design to ultimate strength
systems, and W: the weight of a building. Seismic coef-
ficient C is inversely proportional to the cubic root of
fundamental period T of structures, but is limited to C Brittle but strong structure
Resistance
0.10;
0.05 A: Response from frequent motions
C= (9)
3
T B: Response from infrequent motions
C: Response from very rare motions
The code recognized different performance of struc-
tural systems during an earthquake. Horizontal force B
B C
factor K was 1.33 for buildings with a box system, and
0.80 for buildings with a complete horizontal bracing
system capable of resisting all lateral forces. The latter Ductile building
A
system included a moment resisting space frame which,
when assumed to act independently, was capable of re-
sisting a minimum of 25% of the total required lateral
force. K was 0.67 for buildings with a moment resisting Deformation
Deformation
space frame which when assumed to act independently
Fig. 2 Performance objectives of building.
10 S. Otani / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 2, No. 1, 3-24, 2004
∆ max ∆ max
∆ max
θ max θ max
but minor yielding of some columns in a story should be the bending resistance of a girder with deformation; i.e.,
tolerated as long as the column can support the gravity the width of slabs effective to the flexural resistance of a
load. yielding girder becomes wider with a widening of flex-
ural cracks at the critical section;
(3) Resistance at yield hinges (d) Bi-directional earthquake motion develops higher
A nonlinear analysis (commonly known as push-over actions in vertical members than uni-directional earth-
analysis) under monotonically increasing lateral forces quake motion normally assumed in a structural design;
is carried out until the planned yield mechanism (nor- and
mally the weak-beam strong-column yield mechanism) (e) Actual amount of reinforcement may be increased
develops the acceptable damage at critical regions. The from the required amount for construction reasons.
lateral force distribution is taken similar to the first The level of additional resistance must be determined
mode shape. The contribution of higher modes should in the development of design requirements using a se-
be considered, especially in the displacement response ries of nonlinear response analyses of typical buildings
of high-rise buildings, in selecting the distribution pat- under credible earthquake motions.
tern of lateral forces for high-rise buildings. The resis-
tance at the yield mechanism formation should be (5) Limitation
greater than the required resistance. When the survival of a structure under a severe earth-
quake motion is the design objective, the weak-beam
(4) Assurance of planned yield mechanism strong-column design is probably most desirable. How-
In order to ensure the planned yield mechanism during ever, it should be noted that the weak-beam
an earthquake, extra resistance should be provided in strong-column mechanism requires a significant number
the region where yielding is not desired and against un- of localities to be repaired after an earthquake. This is
desired brittle modes of failure, such as shear failure and the problem after an infrequent medium-intensity
bond splitting failure along the longitudinal reinforce- earthquake; i.e., the repair of yielding and associated
ment. The members and regions that are not part of the damage at many localities results in significant cost for
planned yield mechanism should be protected from the continuing use.
action calculated in the pushover analysis by the fol-
lowing reasons: 7.2 1981 Building Standard Law Enforcement
(a) Horizontal force distribution during an earthquake order
can be significantly different from that assumed in the The Ministry of Construction of Japan organized an
pushover analysis due to higher mode contribution; integrated technical development project entitled “De-
(b) Actual material strength at the expected yield velopment of New Earthquake Resistant Design
hinge can be higher than the nominal material strength (1972-1977).” The Enforcement order of the Building
used in design; therefore, the actions in non-yielding Standard Law was revised in July 1980 following the
members may be increased at the formation of a yield recommendations of the development project and was
mechanism with enhanced resistance at each yield enforced from June 1981. The major revision points are
hinge; listed below.
(c) Additional contribution of slab reinforcement to (1) Design and construction of a building is made
S. Otani / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 2, No. 1, 3-24, 2004 13
Acceleration (m/s/s)
limit states under two levels of design earthquake mo- 6
tions; i.e., (a) damage-initiation limit state and (b)
life-safety limit state. 4
The properties should be protected under normal
gravity loading and in events that may occur more than
2
once in the lifetime of the building; i.e., the damage
Damping Factor
Damping = 0.05
Factor=0.05
must be prevented in structural frames, members, inte-
0
rior and exterior finishing materials in events with re- 2 3 4 5 6 78 2 3 4 5 678 2 3 4 5 6 78
turn periods of 30 to 50 years. The damage-initiation 0.1 1.0 10.0
Period (s)
Period(s)
limit state is attained when the allowable stress of mate-
rials is reached in any member or when the story drift
Fig. 4 Design earthquake acceleration response spec-
reaches 0.5 percent of the story height at any story. The
trum on exposed engineering bedrock for life-safety limit
initial elastic period is used for a structure. The allow-
state.
able stresses of concrete and reinforcement are
two-thirds nominal compressive strength and yield
stress, respectively. cation of ground motion by surface geology is evaluated
For the protection of human life, no story of the using the geological data at the site and an equivalent
building should collapse even under extraordinary linear multi-mass shear-spring model. The shear
loading conditions, such as an event with a return period modulus reduction factors and damping factors are
of several hundred years. The life-safety limit state is specified for cohesive and sandy soils at various shear
attained when the structure cannot sustain the design strain levels.
gravity loads in a story under additional horizontal de-
formation; i.e., when a structural member has reached (3) Demand spectrum
its ultimate deformation capacity. The ultimate defor- The design spectrum is transformed to “Demand Spec-
mation of a member must be calculated as the sum of trum” by plotting a diagram with design spectral accel-
flexure and shear deformations of the member and de- eration S A (T , h) in the vertical axis and spectral dis-
formation resulting from the deformation in the connec- placement S D (T , h) in the horizontal axis (Fig. 5).
tion to adjacent members. When a viscous damping of a linear system is small, the
response spectral displacement is approximated by the
(2) Design earthquake forces expression below:
The seismic design response acceleration spectrum 2
S A (T ) of free surface ground motion at a 5% damping T
S D (T , h) = S A (T , h) (18)
factor is represented as follows; 2π
S A (T ) = Z ⋅ Gs (T ) ⋅ S0 (T ) (17) Demand spectrum for an equivalent damping ratio
heq can be obtained by reducing the spectral accelera-
where Z : seismic zone factor, Gs (T ) : amplification tion and displacement ordinates at 0.05 damping factor
factor by surface geology, S0 (T ) : response spectral by the following factor Fh ;
acceleration ordinate of ground motion at exposed en-
gineering bedrock, and T : period of a building ex-
pressed in seconds at the damaged state. Seismic zone h
Spectral Acceleration
1.5
Fh = (19) Spectral Acceleration
1 + 10heq
gers brittle failure of the other members because the structural analysis although they can contribute signifi-
structural members are normally designed under the cantly to the stiffness of the framing system. The exis-
same specification; i.e., if a member fails in a brittle tence of these high-stiffness nonstructural elements can
manner, the other members may fail in a similar mode. cause irregular stiffness distributions in plan or along
Collapse of a building in a story occurs by progressive the height.
brittle failure of vertical members. Nonstructural elements are commonly neglected in
Failure of vertical members does not simply results in modeling and analysis in design calculations, but are
the reduction of lateral resistance, but also results in loss placed for the purpose of building function, for example,
of vertical load carrying capacity. The gravity load sup- partition walls. When stiff and strong nonstructural
ported by the failing member must be transferred to elements are placed in contact with structural elements,
adjacent vertical members. The failure of gravity load the interaction can leads to the damage in nonstructural
transfer causes partial collapse around the failing verti- and structural elements. A typical example is a captive
cal member. column, where deformable length is shortened by span-
drels directly attached to the column.
(5) Concentration of damage
The concentration of structural deformation and associ- (9) Pounding of adjacent buildings
ated damage to limited localities should be avoided if Pounding of adjacent buildings causes structural dam-
the deformation capacity at expected damage locations age. Proper distance should be maintained between ad-
is limited, especially in reinforced concrete buildings. jacent buildings. In the case of a series of buildings con-
Collapse of a building is normally caused by the failure structed side-by-side in some localities, the edge build-
of vertical load carrying members of a story. In order to ings are often pushed outward and suffer severe damage
protect vertical members in a multi-story construction, while inner buildings are protected from excessive lat-
they should be provided with higher strength than con- eral deformation.
necting horizontal members so that damage should be
directed to the horizontal members. (10) Deterioration with age
Deterioration of structural materials due to aging and
(6) Vertical irregularities aggressive environmental conditions reduces the seis-
When the stiffness and associated strength are abruptly mic performance potential of a building. Prior earth-
reduced in a story along the height, earthquake-induced quake damage, unless properly repaired and strength-
deformations tend to concentrate at the flexible and/or ened, has the same effect. It is important either to main-
weak story. The concentration of damage in a story tain the structure at regular intervals or follow rigid
leads to large deformation in vertical members. The construction specifications for durability of the struc-
excessive deformation in vertical members often leads ture.
to the failure of these members and the collapse of the
story. (11) Foundation
Soft/weak first stories are especially common in The failure of foundations is caused by: (a) liquefaction
multi-story residential buildings in urban areas, where and loss of bearing or tension capacity, (b) landslides,
the first story often is used for open space, commercial (c) fault rupture, (d) compaction of soils, and (e) differ-
facilities or garages. For example, structural walls that ential settlement. It is normally difficult to design and
separate residential units in levels above may be discon- construct a safe foundation to resist ground movement
tinued in the first story to meet flexible usage require- immediately above the fault rupture. Although founda-
ments. The first-story columns during strong earthquake tion failures normally do not pose a life threat, the cost
shaking must resist a large base shear, inevitably leading of damage investigation and repair work is extremely
to large story drift concentrated in that story. high. Therefore, it is advisable to reduce the possibility
of foundation failure.
(7) Horizontal irregularities
If, for example, structural walls are placed on one side (12) Nonstructural elements
of a building while the other side has open frames, the Damage of nonstructural or architectural elements, such
eccentricity between the centers of mass and resistance as partitions, windows, doors and mechanical facilities,
causes torsional vibration during an earthquake. Larger interrupts the use of a building. The cost of repair work
damage develops in members away from the center of on a building is often governed by the replacement of
resistance. The structural wall is effective reducing lat- the damaged nonstructural elements, rather than the
eral deformation and resisting large horizontal forces, repair work on structural elements. Damage of non-
especially when they are distributed in plan. structural elements may create a falling hazard for peo-
ple in, or escaping from, the building; furthermore,
(8) Contribution of nonstructural elements fallen elements may block evacuation routes in a se-
Nonstructural elements, such as masonry or concrete verely damaged building.
infill walls and stairways, are normally disregarded in
18 S. Otani / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 2, No. 1, 3-24, 2004
8.2 Damage in structural members place at the bend and the region becomes less ductile.
Failure types of members may be different for columns, The reinforcing steel capable of developing high tough-
beams, walls and beam-column joints. It is important to ness and ductility before fracture must be used for lat-
consider the consequence of member failure on struc- eral reinforcement.
tural performance; e.g., the failure of vertical members
often leads to the collapse of a building. Failure modes (3) Shear failure of flat-plate construction
in flexure and shear of a member and bond failure along A flat plate floor without column capitals is popular in
the longitudinal reinforcement are reviewed. some regions because it does not have girders below a
slab level. The critical part of the flat slab system is the
(1) Flexural compression failure of columns vertical shear transfer between the slab and a column.
A reinforced concrete member subjected to axial force The shear failure at the connection leads to “the
and bending moment normally fails in compression of pan-cake collapse” of the building, leaving no space
concrete after the yielding of longitudinal reinforce- between the adjacent floors after the collapse. Serious
ment; this failure mode is normally called flexural com- failure was observed in the 1985 Mexico City earth-
pression failure. The deformation capacity of a column quake.
is influenced by the level of axial force in the column
and the amount of lateral reinforcement provided in the (4) Bond splitting failure
region of plastic deformation. The level of axial force is The bond stresses acting on deformed bars cause ring
limited in design to a relatively low level under the tension to the surrounding concrete. High flexural bond
gravity condition. During an earthquake, however, exte- stresses may exist in members with steep moment gra-
rior columns, especially corner ones, are subjected to dients along their lengths. If the longitudinal reinforce-
varying axial force due to the overturning moment of a ment of a beam or column is not supported by closely
structure; the axial force level in these columns may spaced stirrups or ties, splitting cracks may develop
become extremely high in compression, leading to flex- along the longitudinal reinforcement, especially when
ural compression failure. It is often difficult to distin- the strength of concrete is low, when large diameter
guish shear compression failure and flexural compres- longitudinal bars with high strength are used, or when
sion failure, as both failures takes place near the column the concrete cover on the deformed bars is thin. These
ends and involves concrete crushing. The lateral con- splitting cracks result in loss of bond stress, limiting the
fining reinforcement can delay the crushing failure of flexural and/or shear resistance at a small deformation
concrete under high compressive stresses.
(5) Splice failure of longitudinal reinforcement
(2) Shear failure of columns Longitudinal reinforcement is spliced in various ways,
The most brittle mode of member failure is shear. Shear including lap splices, mechanical splices and welded
force causes tensile stress in concrete in the diagonal splices. Splices should be located in a region where ten-
direction to the member axis. After the concrete cracks sile stress is low. Splices in older buildings were located
under the tensile stress, the stress must be transferred to in regions of higher tensile stresses because the implica-
the lateral reinforcement. Brittle shear failure occurs in tions for earthquake performance were inadequately
the diagonal tension mode when the minimum amount understood. Splice failure reduces flexural resistance of
of lateral reinforcement (size, spacing and strength of the member often before yielding.
shear reinforcement) is not provided in the member.
When the minimum amount of lateral reinforcement (6) Anchorage failure
is provided in a member, the shear failure is developed The force in the longitudinal reinforcement in beams
in the form of diagonal compression failure of concrete and columns must be anchored within a beam-column
after the yielding of lateral reinforcement. This mode of connection or foundation. Connections of older building
failure is not as brittle as the diagonal tension failure, construction may be without joint transverse reinforce-
but the deformation capacity is limited. If an excessive ment, in which case the column and beam reinforcement
amount of lateral reinforcement is provided, diagonal is anchored in essentially plain concrete. If the beam
compression failure of concrete takes place prior to the longitudinal reinforcement is not fully anchored in a
yielding of lateral reinforcement. Therefore, there is an beam-column joint, the bar may pull out from the joint;
upper limit in the amount of lateral reinforcement effec- e.g., beam bottom reinforcement, in non-seismic design,
tive for shear resistance. After the compressive failure is embedded a short distance into the beam-column
of concrete, the vertical load carrying capacity of the joint.
column is lost, leading to the collapse in the story.
Because the lateral reinforcement resists tensile force (7) Beam-column joint failure
under shear, the ends of rectilinear lateral reinforcement When a moment-resisting frame is designed for
should be anchored in the core concrete with 135-degree weak-beam strong-column behavior, the beam-column
bend, or they should be welded together. When a rein- joint may be heavily stressed after beam yielding and
forcing bar is bent, permanent plastic deformation takes diagonal cracking may be formed in the connection.
S. Otani / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 2, No. 1, 3-24, 2004 19
Beam Yielding
My1
h
VD = (My1+ My2)/h
My2
Beam Yielding
or welded closed-shape hoops and spiral reinforcement proximately 92,800 buildings and houses, and damaging
be used. Note that the shear resisting mechanism of a approximately 192,700 buildings and houses. Approxi-
reinforced concrete member was not understood at the mately 90 percent of the deaths were caused by the col-
time. lapse of houses and buildings.
The Law Enforcement Order was revised in 1971 as The damage to reinforced concrete buildings may be
an emergency measures to prevent shear failure of col- characterized by (a) collapse in a middle story in office
umns; i.e., (a) diameter of hoops was set at 6 mm or buildings, (b) collapse in the first story in apartment and
larger, and (b) spacing had to be 15 cm or less (10 cm or condominium buildings, (c) significant loss incurred by
less within a range twice the smallest dimension of the damage of non-structural members, (d) fracture at
column section above and below the face of horizontal the splice of longitudinal reinforcement by
members) and 15 times or less of the diameter of the gas-pressured welding technique, (e) damage in lightly
smallest longitudinal bar. reinforced beam-to-column connections, and (f) failure
The AIJ revised the RC Standard in May 1971 to its of foundation and piles.
present form. The allowable shear resistance of beams
and columns was derived on the basis of statistical 10.1 Damage statistics of new construction
analysis of experimental data on ultimate shear resis- Many reinforced concrete buildings collapsed during the
tance. Design shear force VD of a column may be cal- 1995 Kobe earthquake due to brittle shear failure of
culated by one of the following procedures (Fig. 9); i.e., columns. The same failure mode was observed in school
(a) shear force at the simultaneous flexural yielding at buildings after the 1968 Tokachi-oki earthquake in Ja-
the top and bottom of the column, (b) shear force calcu- pan. The Building Standard Law of Japan was revised in
lated by assuming flexural yielding at a column end and 1971 to require close spacing of lateral reinforcement
flexural yielding at the beam ends connected to the (ties) in columns. The Building Standard Law was fur-
other end of the column, or (c) 1.5 times column shear ther revised in 1981 to require higher lateral resistance
under the design loads and forces. Note that the shear from a building irregular in the distribution of stiffness
design is based on the capacity design concept in deter- in plan or along height in addition to the examination of
mining shear resistance as well as design shear force by lateral load resistance of each story at the formation of
this revision. The size of hoops and stirrups should be the yielding mechanism under earthquake loading; the
not smaller than 9 mm in diameter. Spacing should be required level of lateral load resistance was varied in
not less than 10 cm; however, the spacing could be in- accordance with the expected deformation capacity of
creased to 15 cm in a region 1.5 times the maximum yielding members.
section dimension away from the column top and bot- The Architectural Institute of Japan investigated the
tom ends. The spacing could be relaxed to 20 cm if lar- damage level of all buildings in Nada and Higashi-Nada
ger bars were used for shear reinforcement. The mini- districts in Kobe City where the seismic intensity was
mum shear reinforcement ratio was 0.2 percent. In a highest; 3,911 buildings in total were investigated
column where shear force was expected to increase (Concrete Structures Committee, 1996). Seventy-five
during an earthquake, the use of welded closed-shape percent were residential buildings (including those used
ties and hoops was recommended. partially as offices or shops) in the area. Forty-eight
percent were built in conformance with the 1981 Build-
10. Building damage in 1995 Kobe ing Standard Law.
earthquake disaster The damage level was classified as operational dam-
age (no damage, light damage and minor damage),
The 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake, commonly heavy damage (intermediate damage and major damage),
known as the Kobe Earthquake, hit a populated area of and collapse (including those already removed at the
Kobe City, killing more than 5,500, collapsing ap- time of investigation). Buildings with operational dam-
S. Otani / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 2, No. 1, 3-24, 2004 21
2000 200
1800 180
Number of buildings
140
Number of buildings
800 80
600 60
40
400
20
200
0
0
-1971 1971-81 1981-
-1971 1971-81 1981-
Construction age
Construction age
Fig. 10 Damage of reinforced concrete buildings with Fig. 11 Damage of soft first-story buildings with construc-
construction age. tion age.
age could be occupied immediately after the earthquake. and 1981, and after the 1981 revision of the law. Almost
Buildings with heavy damage needed some or major one half of the soft first-story buildings constructed be-
repair work for occupancy to resume. fore the 1971 revision suffered severe damage or col-
The ratio of buildings suffering heavy damage and lapse. Note a significant improvement in the safety of
collapse decreased with construction age (Fig. 10). the soft first-story buildings with the revisions of the
Among the 2,035 buildings constructed before the 1981 Building Standard Law. The ratio of heavier damage of
Building Standard Law, 7.4 percent suffered heavy soft first-story buildings is much larger compared with
damage and 8.3 percent collapsed. Among the 1,859 that of normal buildings. We need the improvement in
buildings constructed using the current Building Stan- design of these buildings either by limiting the deforma-
dard Law, 3.9 percent suffered heavy damage and 2.6 tion of the first story with the use of vibration control
percent collapsed. The 1981 Building Standard Law devices or by providing first-story columns with en-
enhanced significantly the performance of reinforced hanced deformation capacity.
concrete buildings against earthquake attack. Ninety
three and a half percent of the reinforced concrete 11. Future role of earthquake engineering
buildings survived this strong earthquake motion with
operational damage. During the twentieth century, earthquake engineering
We may say that the reinforced concrete building de- concentrated on the development of technology to pro-
signed using the state of the art and practice is reasona- tect human lives from earthquake disasters. The damage
bly safe against earthquakes. Approximately 15 percent, statistics of reinforced concrete buildings in the 1995
or possibly 20 percent, of those buildings constructed Kobe earthquake disaster clearly showed the reduction
before the 1981 Building Standard Law need strength- of heavy damage in buildings with the development of
ening in Japan for preparation against future earthquake seismic design requirements. Six and a half percent of
events. those reinforced concrete buildings designed and con-
One characteristic failure of reinforced concrete structed in accordance with the state-of-the-art suffered
buildings in Kobe was the collapse of soft (weak) heavy damage or collapse, but 93.5 percent of them
first-story buildings. This type of failure was observed survived with just operational damage, even in the areas
in many apartment and condominium buildings, where that suffered the largest ground shaking. The author
residential units are separated by reinforced concrete believes that the state-of-the-art has reached a stage ca-
structural walls, which effectively resist earthquake pable of protecting human lives in engineered buildings.
forces without causing much deformation. The ground This statement is true only when the state-of-the-art in
floor is normally used for garage or stores. Therefore, earthquake resistant technology is applied in design and
no partition walls were placed in the ground floor. In construction. Those existing buildings that do not satisfy
other words, the upper stories are generally strong with the state-of-the-art should be retrofitted to attain the
ample structural walls whereas the ground floor is bare same level of safety.
against earthquake attack. Collapse took place in the The Structural Engineers Association of California
ground floor in the form of shear failure of columns. (SEAOC) published “Vision 2000 - A Framework for
Figure 11 compares the damage of soft first-story Performance Based Engineering (Vision 2000 Commit-
buildings with construction age; i.e., before the 1971 tee, 1995)” in 1995. Performance-based design aims to
revision of the Building Standard Law, between 1971 construct a building that satisfies the planned perform-
22 S. Otani / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 2, No. 1, 3-24, 2004
ance of a structure under a given set of loading condi- such damage may be reduced by providing some gap
tions. Extensive research is needed to achieve this de- between the brick wall and columns.
sign methodology. The response (acceleration or velocity) of a structure
Safety in the event of major earthquakes is one per- must be controlled to prevent heavy furniture and
formance objective. The importance of ductility has equipment from overturning on the floor or to prevent
been emphasized for the survival of a building; i.e., a heavy equipment from falling off shelves; otherwise the
structure should be capable of resistance after develop- contents of a building should be properly fastened to the
ing plastic deformation (damage). At the same time, structure.
ductility was used as a means to reduce design seismic Earthquake resistant design technology has pro-
forces. The author is concerned that damage may de- gressed significantly in the last few decades. Damage
velop in a structure even during frequent minor earth- investigations have demonstrated the poor performance
quake motions because the structure is designed for too of older buildings designed using out-dated technology.
low lateral load resistance relying on large ductility. It is The retrofitting of deficient buildings is an urgent task
costly to repair structural as well as non-structural for owners, who are responsible for maintaining the
damage after minor but more frequent earthquakes, and performance of their buildings to the existing code level.
the building cannot be used during the repair period. A An efficient and reliable seismic assessment procedure
structural engineer should advise a building owner should be employed to identify probably deficient
about the possible cost of repairs and losses associated buildings. New structural walls may be added to en-
with having to cease building operation during repair hance the lateral resistance of weak buildings as long as
work if a building is designed with low lateral resis- the foundation has sufficient capacity to support the
tance. additional weight caused by the walls. Steel bracings
The damage level of structural and non-structural can be installed if the foundation defective. The ductility
elements is known to be closely related to story drift of columns can be improved by steel plate jacketing or
(inter-story deformation). Structural damage to a brittle carbon-fiber plastic sheet wrapping.
but high resistance building is much smaller under more
frequent earthquake motions than damage to a ductile 12. Summary
structure. A number of damage investigations reported
the effectiveness of structural walls in reducing the This paper briefly reviews the development of earth-
damage in structural members as well as non-structural quake resistant design of buildings. Measurement of
elements. The importance of limiting story drift during ground acceleration started in the 1930s, and response
an earthquake by providing large stiffness and high lat- calculation was made possible in the 1940s. The design
eral resistance should be emphasized in earthquake en- response spectra were formulated in the late 1950s to
gineering. 1960s. The development of digital computers made it
The non-structural elements, such as windows, parti- possible to calculate the nonlinear response of simple
tions, doors and architectural facilities, are essential systems in the late 1950s. Nonlinear response was in-
parts of a building's functions. Even if structural mem- troduced in seismic design in the 1960s and the capacity
bers suffer no or slight damage, if partitions are broken design concept was introduced in the 1970s for collapse
in a residential building, the unit may not be occupiable safety. Earthquake engineering struggled to develop
until such damage is repaired or replaced. If the com- methodology to protect human lives in buildings
puter facilities are damaged in the computer and infor- throughout the twentieth century. The damage statistics
mation center of a company, even though the building is of reinforced concrete buildings in the 1995 Kobe dis-
free of structural damage, the function of the building is aster demonstrated the improvement in building per-
lost. The cost of repair and recovery work is often gov- formance resulting from the development of design
erned by the replacement of the non-structural elements methodology. Buildings designed and constructed using
rather than repair work on structural elements. out-dated methodology should be upgraded. The author
Falling of broken non-structural elements is danger- believes that the state-of-the-art has reached a stage ca-
ous for people escaping from the building, and falling or pable of protecting human lives in engineered buildings.
overturned objects may block evacuation routes in a Those existing buildings that do not satisfy the
building. The non-structural elements must be protected state-of-the-art should be retrofitted to attain the same
from minor frequent earthquakes to reduce the financial level of safety.
burden on the building owner as well as to maintain the The significance of the performance-based engineer-
function of the building. Controlling inter-story drift ing should be emphasized; a building should satisfy the
through the use of structural walls or structural control planned performances of a structure corresponding to a
devices and improving the method to fasten given set of loading conditions. Damage control and
non-structural elements to the structure may reduce maintenance of building functions after an earthquake
damage to partitions. Stiff, weak and brittle brick walls, will become a major issue in the future. For this purpose,
filled in a flexible moment-resisting frame, fail at an new materials, structures and construction technology
early stage even during medium-intensity earthquakes; should be utilized.
S. Otani / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 2, No. 1, 3-24, 2004 23