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X. POWER CONSTRAINTS: THE EMTP LOAD FLOW

The steady-state phasor solution for initial conditions of the electric network can be
determined so as to observe power constraints at one or more busses. By analogy with the
dominant steady-state program of system planning departments, this has been named the "load
flow" feature of the EMTP. In effect, it is multi-phase load flow capability (albeit in somewhat
restricted form) that is available to the EMTP user.

X-A. Background Information about the EMTP Load Flow

Each single-phase node of a network involves four real variables of interest. There are real
power injection PK, reactive power injection QK, phasor voltage magnitude VK, and phasor
voltage angle THETAK. Since there is one real-power and one reactive-power constraint
equation for the node, this implies that two of these variables can be specified quite arbitrarily,
and the other two then can be determined by numerical computation. Before the load flow was
available, EMTP users could apply only the special zero-power constraint (with both PK = 0 and
QK = 0, meaning no connection). Control of non-zero power was only indirect, and by trial and
error. But now, thanks to the new EMTP load flow, the user can choose among the following
three constraints for an EMTP source node. The user can:

a) specify PK and QK at the node. The EMTP then will solve for VK and THETAK. This
is ordinary load modeling of conventional, single-phase load flow usage by system planning
departments. Or, alternatively,

b) specify PK and VK. The EMTP then will solve for QK and THETAK. This is ordinary
generator modeling of conventional, single-phase load flow usage by system planning
departments. Or, alternatively,

c) Specify THETAK and This third and final option is QK. The EMTP then will solve for
PK and VK. This third and final option is seldom used.

There is no limit on the number of busses that are so constrained, although at least one
source should be unconstrained. The unconstrained source commonly is taken as the reference
for other phasors (THETAK for this node is fixed at zero). In the terminology of conventional,
single-phase load flows, this is called the "slack bus".

For those who intend to terminate execution once the load flow is complete (i.e., for
TMAX non-positive), life is particularly simple. No EMTP source cards are required, and power
constraints can be applied to any node of the network. The only program limitation is that the
source table (List 4) must be sized to equal or exceed the total number of power-constrained
nodes of the network. This is because one source is automatically, internally defined for each
power-constraint card as it is read in overlay 9.
 Page 10-2

When a transient simulation is to follow the EMTP load flow ( i.e., if TMAX is positive),
the user should understand that his power constraints forgotten once the time-step loop is entered
.With power constraints only to nodes with Type-14 voltage sources, the angle and/or magnitude
of this source will be automatically adjusted prior to entry into the time-step loop, and adjusted
to correspond to the load flow solution. This may or may not result in approximate continued
observance of the steady-state power constraints during the transient simulation, of course. The
result is a function of nonlinearities, and of unpredictable transients, which are quite beyond any
general summary. The user should simply keep in mind that load flow constraints only provide
for the automatic, internal setting of constants (e.g., generator angles) at time zero, and have no
other direct effect on any subsequent simulation.

As presently implemented, power constraints are only allowed at nodes of known voltage,
or at the armature nodes of rotating ac machinery. Such constraints can not be applied to current
sources. For cases without any associated transient simulation, this is not a restriction, since the
required voltage sources are defined internally, to whatever nodes the user wants to apply power
constraints. But for cases involving transient simulation, current sources are simply not allowed
(i.e., the user can not apply a power constraint to a current source). Perhaps the EMTP could be
generalized to handle such cases in the future (Vol. XIII, 23 July 19831 Section II-A, page
VDEL-3, middle paragraph), although no plans have been made as of April, 1984, as this page is
being written.

A power constraint of the EMTP load flow may only be applied at a network bus. The user
can not constrain a line flow, nor can he constrain a group of line flows (the familiar area
interchange control), directly. Neither is there any automatic adjustment of transformer or phase
shifter taps at the present time. But certain limits on voltage magnitude and angle at a power-
constrained node can be observed. First, at a load bus that normally would have both PK and QK
fixed, the reactive-power constraint will only be maintained within user-specified limits on
voltage VK, and the real-power constraint will only be held within user-specified limits on the
angle THETAK. Second. generator bus that normally would have both PK and VK fixed, the
real-power constraint will only be held within user-specified limits on the angle THETAK. Third
and finally, at a bus that normally would have both QK and THETAK fixed (who knows a good ,
short name for such a bus?), the reactive power constraint will be held only within user-specified
limits on voltage VK. Conspicuous by its absence in this list is the popular choice of system
planners for generators: the maintenance of voltage VK with limits on reactive power QK.

Thus far, there has been a mixture of talk about network busses and individual nodes.
These may or may not be synonymous, for purposes of EMTP load flow usage. The possible
difference is due to multi-phase constraints. The user can gang three nodes together, and control
them as a unit, if he likes. In this case, all three voltages are assumed to be balanced, positive-
sequence phasors. Any specified real or reactive power is a total 3-phase injection, which will be
split equally among the three phases only if the rest of the problem is balanced. But if either the
network or some excitation is unbalanced, note that the 3-phase injections will not be balanced,
either. In addition to this conventional 3-phase usage, it is possible to drop the third phase (phase
"c", which lags phase "a" by 240 degrees), so that only phases "a" and "b" are ganged together.
This could be of use to those studying outages (the loss of one phase).
 Page 10-3

For each network bus that is to have a power constraint, there is one EMTP data card that
specifies the associated local control parameters. Following the last such data card, there is an
extra card of overall control parameters, which shall be called the miscellaneous data card of the
load flow. This data structure is summarized as follows:
Card for first power constraint of load flow
< < Etc. > >
Card for last power constraint of load flow
Miscellaneous data card for load flow
One 3-phase bus requires only one source card, if the user accepts the 3-phase logic that this
implies. Alternatively, each phase could be controlled separately, thereby requiring three EMTP
data cards. In any case, taken together, all such cards constitute data peculiar to the EMTP load
flow --- data that affects no other aspect of the simulation. This data follows the blank card
ending sources (Section VII), and it precedes the initial condition cards for the electric network
(if any; see Section XI) and the node voltage output requests (Section XII).

If the user wants such EMTP load flow capability, he must declare his intention early,
before the miscellaneous data cards. This is done using a special-request card reading “FIX
SOURCE” (see Section II-A).

All data for the EMTP load flow are read within overlay 9 by the single EMTP load flow
module, SUBROUTINE FXSOUR. Module "FXSOUR" contains all logic for the network
solution that observes the user-specified power constraints. An impedance matrix algorithm is
used, but with a complete simultaneous solution (rather than the adjustment of one equation at a
time), which allows the exploitation of the already-calculated and triangularized nodal
admittance matrix [Y]. The solution is iterative, then, with convergence less than certain, and not
always speedy. But, for practical, realistic cases of common interest, performance has been
found to be good, so any user who really wants to begin his transient simulations with given
power flows is urged the EMTP load flow a try. As long as X/R ratios are reasonable (do not try
the EMTP load flow for purely resistive networks!), and a solution exists, and the guess is not
unreasonable, then there would seem to be a good chance of success.

Iterative convergence of the EMTP load flow is monitored on LUNIT6, where the largest
correction of each iteration is displayed, 20 numbers per line, as these are calculated .There also
is an option (see the load flow miscellaneous data parameter NNNOUT) for the parallel output
of the numbers of the power constraints that produced these largest corrections. Numbering of
this identification corresponds one-for-one with the user-inputted data cards. As an example of
such output, consider the first eight columns of the first two rows of twenty, which might appear
as follows (taken from BENCHMARK DC-26):

Max del-V: .2192 .2158 .1861 .1597 .137 .1176 .1013 .0896
Source No . -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -3
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The variable changes are always positive (absolute values are used), negative sign shifted
to the integer 2nd row where there is more room. This was the case for DC-26 (the largest initial
corrections were in fact negative as shown). Note that convergence is slow (a characteristic of
the "crummy Z-matrix iteration that is used), and that the generator having the worst correction
is always the same (DC-26 involves just a single load flow source). If program output goes to the
disk, then the user will not see such output until later, so timing is irrelevant. But if LUNIT6
output goes to a computer monitor, then the timing of the display is important. At most 20
iterations (a full line) will occur between such load flow outputs, thereby assuring the user that
the computation is progressing. The user has control over the frequency of this output (variable
NFLOUT of the load flow miscellaneous data card which will be described shortly). For some
computers (those allowing overprinting with the "lH+" carriage control characters), the user can
see the result at the end of each iteration, when one more number is added to the output buffer (a
full output line) .

It is important that the load flow user check for convergence, since as presently
implemented, the EMTP simulation will continue whether the iteration has converged or not!
Should not all of the user-supplied control tolerances be met, a warning message will be printed.
But execution will not be stopped.

The load flow user may have special interest in knowing the solution at his power-
constrained busses. Such special output is possible via variable NPRINT of the load flow
miscellaneous data card (the final card of load flow data). Such output precedes the phasor
branch flows, with the following being a representative sample taken from the solution to
BENCHMARK DC-26. Note convergence in 133 iterations, and truncation on the right (the
reactive power column is missing):

Exit the load flow iteration loop with counter NEKITE = 133. If no warning
Row Node Name Voltage mag Degrees Real power Reactive power
4 8 Al 0.1l3901E+02 -30.0002 0.399872E+02 -0.450736E+0l
5 9 Bl 0.113901E+02 -150.0002 0.399872E+02 -0.450736E+01
6 10 Cl 0.ll3901E+02 89.9998 0.399872E+02 -0.450736E+01

Yet there really is nothing special to see, since such phasor values have always been
available via the regular steady-state printout (e.g., by the display of injections which follow
phasor branch flows) .

Examples of EMTP load flow usage can be found in standard test.cases BENCHMARK
DC-25 and DC-26, which involve synchronous machines. Since the Type—59 S.M. is
represented by nothing other than three Type-14 sinusoidal sources in the steady-state, it is trivial
to apply power constraints to these using EMTP load flow capability. The U.M. is not quite so
simple, due to its generality; but it, too, is now compatible with the EMTP load flow for
induction and synchronous modes, as documented in Prof. Lauw's paper (Ref. 22, May 1984).
 Page 10-5

X-B. Formats for EMTP Load Flow Data Cards

First, there must be one data card for each power constraint. Ordering of these cards is
arbitrary. Each such data card is to be keyed according to the following rules:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
12345678 901234 567890 1234567890123456 7890123456789012 34567890 12345678 901234 567890

I2 A6 A6 A6 E16.0 E16.0 E8.0 E8.0 E6.0 E6.0

NK BUS1 BUS2 BUS3 PK or QK QK or VK VMIN VMAX THMIN THMAX

NK (columns 1-2) is the type code of power constraint. Choose among :"0" to constrain
PK and QK ( (with unknown QK and THETAK); "1" to constrain PK and VK (with unknown
QK and THETAK); "2" to constrain QK and THETAK (with unknown PK and VK).

BUSl (columns 3-8) is the first of up to three names of network nodes that are involved in
this power constraint. For single-phase usage, leave BUS2 and BUS3 blank. But for 3-phase
usage (the other common case), name the three nodes in natural, positive-sequence order: first
"a", then "b" , and finally "c" .

BUS2 (columns 9-14) is the 2nd of up to three names of network nodes that are involved in
this power constraint. See BUSl.

BUS3 (columns 15-20) is the 2nd of up to three names of network nodes that are involved
in this power constraint. See BUSl.

PK or THETAK (columns 21-36) is the first of two constraint values. In case injected real
power PK is to be constrained ( for constraint type NEK = 0 or 1), key the desired value in units
of power (units of voltage times units of current, whatever that might be for the user's problem).
For a multi-phase constraint, this is the total of the two or three individual injections bus of
interest. Alternatively, for the remaining, less-common case having constraint type NEK = 2, key
the desired fixed phase angle THETAK in units of [degrees] .

QK or VK (columns 37-52) is the second of two constraint values. In case injected reactive
power QK is to be constrained ( for constraint type NEK = 0 or 2), key the desired value in units
of power (units of voltage times units of current, whatever that might be for the user's problem).
For a multi-phase constraint, this is the total of the two or three individual injections at the bus of
interest. Alternatively, for the remaining, case having constraint type NEK = 1, for fixed VK,
key the desired value in units of peak voltage.

VMIN (columns 53-60) is the minimum voltage VK, for those cases where voltage is not
fixed .That is, this input is used for constraint type NEK = 0 or 2. The keyed value is to be in
units of peak voltage. A blank or zero means that no minimum will be imposed.
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VMAX (columns 61-68) is the maximum voltage VK, for those cases where voltage is not
fixed .That is, this input is used for constraint type NEK = 0 or 2. The keyed value is to be in
units of peak voltage. A blank or zero means that no maximum will be imposed (internally,
infinity becomes the limit).

THMIN (columns 69-74) is the minimum angle THETAK for those cases where the angle
is not fixed .That is, this input is used for constraint type NEK = 0 or 1. The keyed value is to be
in units of [degrees] .A blank or zero means that no minimum will be imposed ( internally,
THMIN is set to minus infinity).

THMIN (columns 75-80) is the maximum angle THETAK for those cases where the angle
is not fixed. That is, this input is used for constraint type NEK = 0 or 1. The keyed value is to be
in units of [degrees] .A blank or zero means that no maximum will be imposed ( internally,
THMIN is set to infinity).

The interpretation of this power constraint card confirms only the first 4 of 6 total floating
point parameters (columns 21-68) .The following illustration has been taken from the 1st half of
BENCHMARK DC-25:

C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
C 34567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456
C-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------
FIX. 2.803E+09 1.383E+09 2.000E+04 2.500E+04 | MACA1 MACB1 MACC1 2803

After the last such power constraint card, add the following miscellaneous data card of the
load flow, which is recognized by the leading blank field (cols. 1-8 unused) :

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12345678 90123456 78901234 56789012 34567890 12345678 90123456 78901234

I8 I8 I8 I8 E8.0 E8.0 E8.0

NNNOUT NITERA NFLOUT NPRINT RALCHK CFITEV CFITEA

NNNOUT (columns 9-16) is a binary flag for control of additional interactive output
during the load flow iteration. A value of unity will add variable identification in parallel with
the always-present interactive output of the largest variable correction at each iteration. The
preceding explanation of convergence monitoring illustrated such usage. But if no such
identification of the worst corrections is desired, and if the sign of the corrections is of no
interest, key zero or blank .

NITERA (columns 17-24) is a bound on the number of iterations of the load flow. Any
non-positive entry will be given a default value of 500.
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NFLOUT (columns 25-32) is the buffer size for accumulating the output that is associated
with the interactive convergence monitoring (the correction at each iteration) .Any non-positive
value, or any value in excess of 20, will be set equal to the default value of 20. Since exactly 20
numbers fit on a line, a value of 20 corresponds to waiting for a line to be filled before the user is
shown any of the contents. Positive values less than 20 generally should be used only for
computers having electronic monitors that honor the "lH+" carriage control (for overprinting),
since this is the device that is used to avoid line feeds after outputs of partial lines. A value of 20
is always best for solutions that the user is not watching.

NPRINT (columns 33-40) is a binary flag that allows for the selection or suppression of
special tabular printout for the nodes with power constraints .Key unity to obtain output of such
values (VK, THETAK, PK, QK), or zero (or blank) to suppress it.

RALCHK (columns 41-48) is a relative convergence tolerance that controls the accuracy
of the solution. For termination of the iteration, all power mismatches must be less than
RALCHK times the largest scheduled power (either PK or QK) of the network. A non-positive
value will be taken as a request for the default tolerance 1/100.

CFITEV (columns 49-56) is an acceleration factor associated with the conversion of a

change in reactive power to a change in voltage magnitude .See Ref. 43 for a more precise
definition. In the absence of knowledge about this parameter, leave the field blank (which
represents a request for the default value of 2/10). CFITEA (columns 57-64) is an acceleration
factor associated with the conversion of a change in real power to a change in voltage angle. See
Ref. 43 for a more precise definition. In the absence of knowledge about this parameter, leave
the field blank (which represents a request for the default value of 2.5).

The interpretation of this miscellaneous data card of the load flow confirms only the first 5
of 7 total parameters (through column 48). The following illustration has been taken from the 1st
half of BENCHMARK DC-25:

C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
C 34567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456
C ------------------------------------------------|-------------------------
Load flow iter. 1 500 20 0 0.10E-02 | 1