Workshop on

Modeling and process control

of grate furnaces

Arranged by:

Arranged by:

Jaap Koppejan, TNO Science and Industry, Netherlands

Sjaak van Loo, Chess, Netherlands

September 28, 2005

Hilton Hotel Innsbruck, Austria
 ThermalNet/IEA Bioenergy/Opticomb workshop
Modeling and process control of grate furnaces
September 28, Innsbruck, Austria

Table of contents
Programme........................................................................................................... 3

Report of the workshop ...................................................................................... 4

Annexes
Annex 1. Introduction, Sjaak van Loo
Annex 2. Combustion on a grate: dynamic modelling, process identification and process
control
Robert van Kessel, TNO, the Netherlands
Annex 3. Characterisation of N-release from a biomass fuel layer by pot furnace
experiments and derivation of release functions
Selma Zahirovic, Graz University of Technology, Austria
Annex 4. CFD modelling of NOx formation in biomass grate furnaces with detailed
chemistry
Selma Zahirovic, Graz University of Technology, Austriai
Annex 5. Biomass combustion on grates and NOx formation mechanisms
Claes Tullin, SP, Sweden

2
Programme

30 September 2005, 08:30 – 11:00

Hilton Hotel Innsbruck, Austria

From Topic
8:30 Welcome and introduction
Sjaak van Loo, CombNet Coordinator
8:40 Combustion on a grate: dynamic modelling, process identification and process
control
Robert van Kessel, TNO, the Netherlands
9:10 Characterisation of N-release from a biomass fuel layer by pot furnace
experiments and derivation of release functions
Selma Zahirovic, Graz University of Technology, Austria
9.40 CFD modelling of NOx formation in biomass grate furnaces with detailed
chemistry
Selma Zahirovic, Graz University of Technology, Austria
10:10 Biomass combustion on grates and NOx formation mechanisms
Claes Tullin, SP, Sweden
10:40 Discussion
11:00 Closure

3
Report of the workshop

Introduction, Sjaak van Loo

Sjaak van Loo, coordinator of the combustion technology section of ThermalNet (CombNet),
welcomed all participants (approx. 25) and speakers to the workshop. In this workshop, recent
developments in the modelling and process control of grate furnaces are presented.

This workshop was organised with key inputs from the EU-OptiComb project and IEA
Bioenergy Task 32 (Biomass Combustion and Cofiring). The coordinator of OptiComb
(Robert van Kessel) is also active as expert in CombNet.

Over the whole project duration (2005-2007), CombNet will faciliatate and co-organise at
least three workshops, as shown below:

Organisers Topic Date, venue

ThermalNet Modelling and process September 28, 2005,
Opticomb control of grate furnaces Innsbruck, Austria
IEA Bioenergy Task 32
ThermalNet Small combustion systems October 21, 2005, Paris,
IEA Bioenergy Task 32 France
ThermalNet Biomass/coal co-firing Autumn 2006, Glasgow, UK
IEA Bioenergy Task 32

By far the largest share of all combustion installations for biomass and/or waste are equipped
with a grate furnace. Grate furnaces are appropriate for biomass fuels with a high moisture
content, varying particle sizes (with a downward limitation concerning the amount of fine
particles in the fuel mixture), and high ash content. In practice the variability of the fuel may
however result in fluctuations in combustion conditions, which may in return lead to ash
related problems and fluctuations in steam production.

In order to further lower emissions and costs while increasing combustion efficiency and
stability of the combustion process, it is important that the combustion process is understood
in detail. Recently detailed static and dynamic combustion models have been developed that
describe the combustion of the fuel layer on the grate, as well as the reactions in the gas phase.
Using this knowledge it is possible to design advanced combustion control mechanisms that
significantly improve the combustion process.

Combustion on a grate: dynamic modelling, process

identification and process control
Robert van Kessel, TNO, the Netherlands
Robert van Kessel (R&D manager at TNO Science and Industry, Netherlands) presented the
work done in the European OPTICOMB project, which provided significant inputs to this
workshop, and then focused on work done at TNO. The overhead sheets presented are
included in Annex 2.

4
The EU OptiComb project aims at improving the design of grate furnaces, in order to improve
efficiency, lower emissions and improving controllability of the combustion process. TNO
coordinates this project, in which 7 partners participate, including an equipment manufacturer
Vyncke and an actual combustion unit in the Netherlands. The majority of the work that is
presented in this ThermalNet workshop is derived from this EU project.

TNO’s role in OptiComb is related to the development, validation and application of a

dynamic model for grate systems. TNO has an extensive background and experience on this
topic, particularly in the area of incinerators for municipal solid waste. Having available a
reliable and accurate dynamic model for grate furnaces makes it possible to design more
accurate control systems, leading to stabilized combustion conditions and steam production.

An interesting spin-off of the work done is the development of an on-line calorific value soft
sensor, which can be applied to evaluate the calorific value of the fuel instantaneously as it is
burning on the grate. While conventional control systems are based on the steam production,
having data on the heating value available earlier makes it possible to anticipate future process
variations and effectively interact with the process to further stabilize the process.

Characterisation of N-release from a biomass fuel layer by

pot furnace experiments and derivation of release functions
Selma Zahirovic, Graz University of Technology, Austria
Selma Zahirovic presented the results of experimental work performed on a pot furnace, in
order to derive relations of nitrogen release as a function of different parameters such as
process conditions and fuel composition. This work was done using a pot furnace, to simulate
what is actually happening in a (packed-bed) grate furnace. The work aimed at obtaining
information about the flue gas composition above the fuel layer, and quantifying the rate of
production of flue gas species dependent on variation of bed parameters with special attention
on the release of NOx precursors. The overhead sheets presented are included in Annex 3.

In the experiments, NH3 was found to be the main NOx precursor when MDF board and bark
were used as fuel. In case of sawdust, NH3 and HCN were found to be the main precursors.

Good quality experimental data was obtained that enabled the correlation of release of NOx
precursors as a function of fuel and bed parameters. The empirical N-release functions that
were obtained were of great value to develop both CFD models to describe the gas phase, as
well as the fuel layer models of TU Graz and TNO.

CFD modelling of NOx formation in biomass grate furnaces

with detailed chemistry
Selma Zahirovic, Graz University of Technology, Austria
In her second presentation, Selma Zahirovic presented a 3D CFD NOx postprocessing model
which was developed particularly for biomass grate furnaces. Initially an existing empirical
model for fixed beds was extended by describing release of N species which are relevant for
NOx formation, based on pot furnace experiments. The CFD model that describes the gas
phase formation of NOx in a postprocessing calculation module was based on the Eddy
Dissipation Concept and includes the Kilpinen 92 mechanism.

5
The resulting computer model describes both release of NOx precursors from the fuel bed as
well as NOx formation in the gas phase. Validation of the model using FTIR measurements in
a 440 kWth pilot scale furnace with horizontal boiler passes showed very good agreement of
measured and calculated NOx emissions at the boiler outlet for different primary air ratios.
Validation in a 7.2 MWth industrial scale plant with vertical boiler passes showed that
measured NOx emissions are lower than calculated NOx emissions. An anticipated reason is
be calculation errors in the Eddy Dissipation Model for the primary combustion zone,
resulting in wrong prediction of hot spots which cause thermal and/or prompt NOx. Still,
model prediction showed better results than literature data.

It was concluded that the newly developed NOx postprocessing calculation unit gives results
which are in good qualitative agreement with measurements under different operation
conditions. To shorten calculation time, a reduced NOx mechanism is currently being
developed.

Biomass combustion on grates and NOx formation

mechanisms
Claes Tullin, SP, Sweden
Whereas most of the work on NOx formation in fixed bed furnaces sofar has focused on the
gas phase, Claes Tullin (SP, Sweden) presented recent work done on formation of NOx inside
the fuel bed. An experimental rig was used to describe the properties of the propagating
ignition front in terms of temperature and gas composition inside the bed.

Concentrations of different gas components (both major species as well as nitrogen

compounds) were obtained using a suction probe inside the bed. These measured
concentrations were confirmed by mass balance calculations, assuming that hydrogen,
nitrogen and tar concentrations (which were not measured) close the mass balance.

The measurements concluded that fuel nitrogen is the major source for NOx formation, with
NH3 as major precursor. This observation was also made in the work of TUG. At the
temperatures measured inside the bed, thermal and prompt NOx formation mechanisms are
much less relevant.

6
Annex 1. Introduction,
Sjaak van Loo

Modeling and process control

of grate furnaces
ThermalNet Workshop
September 28, Innsbruck, Austria

Introduction
Deliverables:
• Network
• Publications
• Technical reports
• Technology reviews

CombNet program:
• Joint ThermalNet/IEA workshop
Small combustion systems
October 21, Paris, France
• Joint ThermalNet/IEA
meeting/workshop
Biomass/coal co-firing
Autumn 2006, Glasgow, UK
• Joint TN/Obticomb/IEA workshop
Modeling and process control of grate
furnaces
September 28, Innsbruck, Austria

CombNet, September 27-30, Innsbruck, Austria

Modeling and process control
of grate furnaces
Technical focus:
• Great Grate Combustion of biomass:
Largest share of biomass combustion installations
High fuel flexibility: moisture content
ash content
particle size
• Decrease in emissions and costs
• Increasing in combustion efficiency and stability of the combustion process
Design of advanced combustion control mechanisms

In this workshop, recent developments in the modeling and process control

of grate furnaces are presented

ThermalNet: Non-ThermalNet:
• Science and modeling EU: OptiComb
• Environment, health and safety IEA Task 32
• Gas treatment

CombNet, September 27-30, Innsbruck, Austria

Agenda
8:40 Introduction OptiComb
Robert van Kessel, TNO, The Netherlands

8:50 Biomass combustion on grates and NOx formation

mechanisms
Claes Tullin, SP, Sweden

9:20 Characterization of N-release from a biomass fuel layer

by pot furnace experiments and derivation of release functions
Selma Zahirovic, Graz University of Technology, Austria

9:50 CFD modeling of NOx formation in biomass grate furnaces

with detailed chemistry
Robbert Scharler, Graz University of Technology, Austria

10:20 Combustion on a grate: dynamic modeling,

process identification and process control
Robert van Kessel, TNO, The Netherlands

Discussion

CombNet, September 27-30, Innsbruck, Austria

Annex 2. Combustion on a grate: dynamic modelling, process
identification and process control
Robert van Kessel, TNO, the Netherlands
Combustion on a grate: dynamic
modelling, process identification
and process control
TNO Science and Industry
Robert van Kessel

ThermalNet/OPTICOMB/IEA workshop
ThermalNet Meeting
Innsbruck
September 30, 2005
Contents

• OPTICOMB
• Dynamic model for grate systems
• Validation of dynamic models
• On-line calorific value sensor
• Application dynamic model
• Conclusions

Grate combustion 2
Background OPTICOMB
• Combustion of biomass play important role in sustainable
energy
• At present in grate systems a limited range of fuels can be
used. More vast range of fuels result in a lower availability,
due to limited flexibility of grate systems and control
concepts.
• Improving grate, furnace and control concept design will
improve performance of biomass combustion grate systems

Grate combustion 3
Objectives

• Development and demonstration of advanced control concepts

for biomass combustion grate systems.
• The development of guidelines, including demonstration, to
minimise the important emissions of NOx and CO.
• Improvement of the efficiency (technical and economical) of
biomass combustion plants.
• Design rules for biomass combustion systems and process
control systems.
• The design and testing of a new grate

Grate combustion 4
Project structure
• Started 1-1-2003, End date 1-7-2006
• Partners
• TNO-Science and Industry (NL), co-ordinator
• VT-TUG (A) Selma Zahirovic
• TU/e (NL)
• Vyncke (B)
• IST (P)
• SP (Sweden) Claes Tullin
• BES (NL)

Grate combustion 5
Description of Work
Main research points
• NOx formation mechanisms
• CFD modelling
• Fuel layer modelling
• Dynamic modelling
• Controller design

Grate combustion 6
Description of Work
Experiments in 7.5 MWth Biomass combustion plant at
Schijndel (NL)
• on-line calorific value sensor
• system identification experiments to reveal plant dynamics
• testing of control concept
All experiments with different fuels

Grate combustion 7
Expected results OPTICOMB

• Innovative control concepts for biomass combustion.

• Furnace concept for a new multi fuel biomass combustion
plant
• Reduction of CO and NOx by 20-50%
• Increased energy efficiency and availability
• A new multi fuel grate system
• A 3D-CFD combustion model for biomass fuels

Grate combustion 8
Dynamic model for grate stoker systems

Waste input
(disturbances)

Controller Combustion
system process

Model structure

Grate combustion 9
Modelling of combustion process
Comprises 3 models:
• Fuel layer model (dynamic)
• Gas phase model (stationary)
• Steam system model (dynamic)

Modelling of fuel layer model

Two different treatments

• Simplified model for Model Predictive Control applications
• Detailed modelling of fuel layer (1-D, 2-D)

Grate combustion 10
Application of fuel layer model
1) Dynamic fuel layer model forms the basis for dynamic
model of a grate combustion process

2) Stationary model, which is part of the dynamic model can be

used as boundary condition for CFD calculations (in co-
operation with TU Graz)

Grate combustion 11
 reaction ignition induced by
front grate movement
reaction complete
reaction front complete
combustion combustion
front
char burn char burn cold char burn
cold cold
out out out

evaporation evaporation
primary preheated preheated
front front
air primary air primary air

A: Combustion with no B: Combustion with C: Combustion with

preheated primary air preheated primary air and preheated primary air
no effect of grate including effect of grate
movements movements

Grate combustion 12
Combustion process: steam system
• Model components
• Superheater: flue gas stationary / steam stationary
• Drum: flue gas stationary / steam dynamic
• Economiser: flue gas stationary / steam stationary

Grate combustion 14
Validation of dynamic models (1)

• How to validate dynamic models?

• Step response method
• System identification

• System identification:
• Experimental modeling resulting in dynamic input-output relations
without any physical meaning (black-box modeling)
• Can be used for MIMO systems and for closed-loop systems.

Grate combustion 15
u(t)

y1(t)
t

t Comparison of
Black-box y1(t) and y2(t): Yes
model STOP
Enough
y2(t) Resemblence ?

t No
White-box
model

Adapt parameters
white-box model
and obtain new
response(s) y2(t)

Grate combustion 16
 Validation of dynamic models (3)

e
ex
H

v
r u u* y
C G

Schematic of the controlled process, with:

G incineration process C controller
u output controller u* process input
y output signal v process disturbance
ex excitation signal r reference signal, setpoint

Grate combustion 17
Validation of dynamic models (4)

Waste input as a function of time.

Comparison physical simulation model (-) and real plant data (- -).

Grate combustion 18
Validation of dynamic models (5)
Step applied to waste inlet flow of 10 [% controller scale]
1.2

0.8
steam production [kg/s]

0.6

0.4

0.2

−0.2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
time [min]

Comparison dynamic model and plant results

Grate combustion 19
Grate stoker system

Waste input
(disturbances)

Controller Combustion
system process

Structure Solid fuel combustion process

Grate combustion 20
Validation of controller model
70
modelled controller
measured
60

Dosage [%]
50

40

30

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

time [min]

70
modelled controller & process

60
Dosage [%]

50

40

30

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

time [min]

Grate combustion 21
Grate stoker system

W aste inp ut
(d isturban ces)

C ontroller C om bustion
system process

Structure MSWC process

Grate combustion 22
On-line calorific value sensor (1)

Changing calorific value of the fuel is one of the main problems

in solid fuel (biomass, waste) combustion:
Development of an on-line calorific value sensor

Requirements:
• No energy balance, and
• No mass flows

The patented sensor is based upon a model and the

following measurements:
• H2O, O2 en CO2-concentrations (with IR)
• Relative humidity of the ambient air

Grate combustion 23
 On-line calorific value sensor (2)

13
12

Hafval [MJ/kg]
11
10
9
8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
tijd [dag]
0.4
Xwater [kg/kg]

0.35

0.3

0.25
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
tijd [dag]
40
Hbrand [MJ/kg]

35

30

25

20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
tijd [dag]

Calorific value waste, moisture fraction waste and

calorific value combustible part as function of time
Grate combustion 24
On-line calorific value sensor (3)

105
berekend
gemeten

100

95

90
PHIstoom [t/h]

85

80

75

70

65
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
tijd [dag]

Calculated and measured steam production as a function of time.

Grate combustion 25
On-line calorific value sensor (4)

Possible applications:
• Calorific value sensor as a diagnostic tool
• Continuous determination on-line mass- and energy
balances
• Source of additional information for operators
• Integration of the sensor in the control concept in order to
reduce fluctuations

Grate combustion 26
Application of dynamic combustion model
• Process Analysis
• Simulator
• Optimisation of control concepts

Grate combustion 27
Optimisation of control concept (1)

Different possibilities for optimisation of control concept

by using validated model
• Tuning present control concept
• Testing new classical control concepts
• Development of new advanced control concepts
e.g. Model Predictive Control

Grate combustion 28
Optimisation of control concept (2)
0.12
previous σ = 5.45
tuned σ = 3.63

0.1

0.08
P(x)

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
−40 −30 −20 −10 0 10 20 30 40
Φ −Φ [t/h]
steam,actual steam,set

AVR plant, optimisation by tuning of control parameters

Grate combustion 29
Model Predictive Control
MPC: based upon measurements from the past, a model of the
plant and the control objectives it predicts the plant
behavior in the near future with respect to the constraints
and boundary conditions of the system.
Based upon the control objectives it calculates at every sample
time t, the most optimal control actions for the near future.
At every time sample t this is repeated.

Mathematically: an optimization problem

Grate combustion 30
Conclusions
• Complex processes like solid fuel grate combustion can be
better understood by modelling
• Validation is very important
• On-line calorific value sensor is available
• New control concepts can be tested easily with a process
model
• Will be applied next year in OPTICOMB project at a Dutch
plant

Grate combustion 31
Annex 3. Characterisation of N-release from a biomass fuel layer
by pot furnace experiments and derivation of release
functions
Selma Zahirovic, Graz University of Technology,
Austria

Characterisation of N-
N-release
from a biomass fuel layer by pot furnace experiments
and derivation of N-release functions
Emil Widmann, Selma Zahirovic, Robert Scharler, Ingwald Obernberger

Institute for Resource Efficient and

Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology

International workshop
Modelling and process control of grate furnaces
30 September 2005
Innsbruck, Austria

Institute for Resource Efficient and

Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology Overview

Scope of work
Description of the experimental set-up
Experimental results for fuels tested

Derivation of the N-release functions

Summary and conclusions

 Institute for Resource Efficient and
Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology Scope of work

Experimental investigation of the combustion properties of a packed

bed (fuel-layer) for three biomass fuels in order to
Obtain information about the flue gas composition above the
fuel layer,
Quantify the rate of production of flue gas species dependent
on variation of bed parameters with
Special attention on the release of NOx precursors
Derivation of N-release functions based on experimental data for the
purpose of modelling

Institute for Resource Efficient and Pot furnace experiments vs.

Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology combustion of fuel on the grate
q radiation q radiation
Biomass
t on grate

t burnout
hreactor hgrate

Biomass
Areactor
Aslice

air flow
air flow

Experimental installation was designed in a way to represent combustion

conditions of a biomass fuel layer on a grate as close as possible
Allows to control combustion parameters

Allows access for measurements

 Institute for Resource Efficient and
Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology Experimental set-
set-up
extractive FT-IR

thermocouples

heater elements
section 1

in-situ FT-IR
(NH3 , CO, CO2 ,
CH 4 and H2O)

heater elements insulating firebrick

section 2 fuel bed
(with 6 thermocouples)
oil sealing
air flow
weight balance

B1
Experimental set-up (left) and scheme (right) of the
B2 90
pot furnace reactor B5 B4
Explanations: A...SiC reactor core; B...heater elements; 50
C...heated filter; D...dilution unit; E...extractive FT-IR; F...in-situ B3 10
FT-IR; G...primary air supply; H…sample holder 25 25

Institute for Resource Efficient and Fuel analysis – ultimate analysis

Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology and particle size distribution
Bark average value rms abs particle size mass fraction
C 49.50 [wt% d.b.] 0.47 [%] < 2 [mm] 0.08 [-]
H 5.60 [wt% d.b.] 0.09 [%] 2 [mm] - 4 [mm] 0.13 [-]
N 0.27 [wt% d.b.] 0.01 [%] 4 [mm] - 8 [mm] 0.30 [-]
O (calc.) 40.10 [wt% d.b.] 0.57 [%] 8 [mm] - 12.5 [mm] 0.26 [-]
ash 4.50 [wt% d.b.] 0.01 [%] 12.5 [mm] - 16 [mm] 0.07 [-]
water 7.40 [wt% w.b.] 0.16 [%] > 16 [mm] 0.16 [-]

MDF average value rms abs particle size mass fraction

C 46.20 [wt% d.b.] 0.9 [%] < 2 [mm] 0.06 [-]
H 6.60 [wt% d.b.] 0.5 [%] 2 [mm] - 4 [mm] 0.06 [-]
N 6.90 [wt% d.b.] 0.2 [%] 4 [mm] - 10 [mm] 0.25 [-]
O (calc.) 38.40 [wt% d.b.] 0.6 [%] 10 [mm] - 16 [mm] 0.29 [-]
ash 1.90 [wt% d.b.] 0.1 [%] 16 [mm] - 40 [mm] 0.26 [-]
water 7.50 [wt% w.b.] 0.1 [%] > 40 [mm] 0.09 [-]

Sawdust average value rms abs particle size mass fraction

C 49.10 [wt% d.b.] 1.1 [%] < 0.4 [mm] 0.06 [-]
H 6.60 [wt% d.b.] 0.5 [%] 0.4 [mm] - 0.63 [mm] 0.13 [-]
N 0.06 [wt% d.b.] 0.004 [%] 0.63 [mm] - 1.0 [mm] 0.26 [-]
O (calc.) 44.20 [wt% d.b.] 0.6 [%] 1.0 [mm] - 1.6 [mm] 0.30 [-]
ash 0.20 [wt% d.b.] 0.0 [%] 1.6 [mm] - 2.5 [mm] 0.15 [-]
water < 0.10 [wt% w.b.] - [%] > 2.5 [mm] 0.09 [-]
 Institute for Resource Efficient and Comparison with FID
Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology measurements
Release of hydrocarbons measured with extractive FT-IR (for different fuels and
combustion conditions) was cross-checked with measurements performed with
FID equipment:

3.50E-03
FID: Carbon release in
CxHyOz
3.00E-03
C release in CxHyOz [mol/s]

FTIR: Carbon release in

2.50E-03 CxHyOz

2.00E-03

1.50E-03

1.00E-03

5.00E-04

0.00E+00
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
time [s]

Institute for Resource Efficient and Elemental recovery rates

Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology for reference experiments

Elemental recovery rate rj relates the measured (flue gas concentration) yield of
each element to the total amount of the element in the experiment (fuel analysis):
140.0
sawdust bark MDF
120.0
recovery rates [wt%]

100.0

80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0
r-tot r-C r-H r-O
 Institute for Resource Efficient and Results –
Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology reference experiment bark

1400

1200

1000
temperatur [°C]

800

600

400

200

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
time [s]

TC - flue gas (averaged) TC - Bed1 (h = 90 mm) TC - Bed2 (h = 50 mm)

TC - Bed3 (h= 10 mm) TC - Bed4 (h = 50 mm) TC - Bed5 (h = 50 mm)

Institute for Resource Efficient and Results –

Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology reference experiment MDF
180

160

140

120
sample mass [g]

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
time [s]
1200

1000
Temperatur [°C]

800

600

400

200

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
time [s]

TC - flue gas (averaged) TC - Bed1 (h = 90 mm) TC - Bed5 (h=50 mm)

TC - Bed4 (h = 50 mm) TC - Bed2 (h = 50 mm) TC - Bed3 (h = 10 mm )
 Institute for Resource Efficient and Results –
Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology reference experiment sawdust
140

120

100

80
[g]

60

40

20

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
time [s]
900

800

700
temperatur [°C]

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
time [s]

TC - flue gas (averaged) TC Bed1 (h = 90 mm) TC Bed5 (h = 50 mm)

TC Bed3 (h = 10 mm) TC Bed2 (h = 50 mm) TC Bed4 (h = 50 mm)

Institute for Resource Efficient and Conversion rates

Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology for different fuels

Conversion rate ui relates the yield of each nitrogen species (with exception of
N2) to the total amount of nitrogen in the fuel:
90
reference experiment sawdust
80
reference experiment bark
69.4
nitrogen conversion rate [%]

70 reference experiment MDF board

60

50 43.3

40
30.9
30
18.3 15.7
20
8.2
6.7
10 4.3 3.5 2.7 3.2 1.7 0.4
0.1 0.4
0
u NO u NH3 u HCN u NO2 u N2O
 Influence of the fuel N content
Institute for Resource Efficient and on the total conversion rate
Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology for different fuels

Conversion rate uTFN relates the yield of all nitrogen species (with exception of
N2) to the total amount of nitrogen in the fuel:
120

100
waste wood
conversion rate TFN [%]

80
bark

60
sawdust

40
MDF board

20 fibreboard

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
nitrogen content [wt% d.b.]

Modelled release of N species

Institute for Resource Efficient and based on experimental data –
Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology sawdust
250

experiment NH3 modelled

concentration [ppmV d.b.]

NH3 experiments
200

150

ui = ki + d i 100

50

0
model 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
normalised length on grate [-]
140
160
HCN modelled
120 NO modelled
HCN experiments
concentration [ppmV d.b.]

140
NO experiments
concentration [ppmV d.b.]

100 120

80 100

60 80

60
40
40
20
20
0
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
normalised length on grate [-]
normalised length on grate [-]
 Institute for Resource Efficient and
Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology Summary and conclusions I

Fuel analysis was performed for bark, MDF and sawdust.

Good quality of the experiments performed at the pot furnace was

achieved: high elemental recovery rates and good agreement of
results of two different measurement systems for the detection of
hydrocarbons.

Species release rates were determined for all fuels under different
combustion conditions.

NH3 was found to be the main NOx precursor for MDF board and bark.

NH3 and HCN were found to be the main precursors for sawdust.

Total conversion rates drop with increasing content of fuel N.

Institute for Resource Efficient and

Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology Summary and conclusions II

Experimental data was applied for the derivation of empirical N-release

functions for different fuels as a function of stoichiometric ratio.

The empirical N-release functions have been implemented in an

empirical fuel layer model of TUG and are currently being implemented
in the fuel layer model of TNO.

The model validation in both cases is based on the data gained from
the pot furnace experiments.

The fuel layer models developed provide a valuable basis for CFD
simulations of gas phase combustion and NOx formation.
Annex 4. CFD modelling of NOx formation in biomass grate
furnaces with detailed chemistry
Selma Zahirovic, Graz University of Technology,
Austriai

CFD modelling of NOx formation in

biomass grate furnaces with detailed chemistry

Robert Scharler, Selma Zahirovic, Emil Widmann, Ingwald Obernberger

Institute for Resource Efficient and

Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology

International workshop
Modelling and process control of grate furnaces
30 September 2005
Innsbruck, Austria

Institute for Resource Efficient and

Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology Overview

Scope of work

Modelling

Empirical fixed bed modelling

Modelling of turbulent reactive flow – basic combustion modelling

CFD NOx postprocessing

Test of the CFD NOx postprocessor – methodology and discussion of results

Simulation of a 440 kWth pilot-scale plant (fibre board as fuel)

Simulation of a 7.2 MWth industrial-scale plant (waste wood as fuel)

Summary and conclusions

 Institute for Resource Efficient and
Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology Scope of work

Development of a 3D CFD NOx formation model (postprocessor)

including detailed reaction kinetics for biomass grate furnaces
must be applicable to engineering problems
with reasonable accuracy
with reasonable calculation time

Test of the CFD NOx postprocessor

Simulation of a pilot-scale biomass grate furnace and comparison with
measurement data taken during two test runs with fibre board as fuel
Simulation of an industrial-scale biomass grate furnace and
comparison with measurement data taken during normal boiler
operation with waste wood as fuel

Institute for Resource Efficient and Empirical fixed bed model –

Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology basic version

Definition of profiles for the distribution of primary air and recirculated flue gas as well as
drying and thermal decomposition of the solid biomass (C, H, O) along the grate on the
basis of test runs

Definition of conversion parameters for CH4, H2, CO, CO2, H2O, and O2 in the flue gas
released based on literature data and lab-scale experiments

Stepwise balancing of mass, species and energy

1600 16
Temperature
wt% H2O (w. b.)
Temperature [K]

wt% H2O (w. b.)

1200 12

800 8

400 4

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Length on grate [m]
Example: Calculated profiles of temperature and H2O concentration in the flue gas along the grate
 Institute for Resource Efficient and Extension of the fixed bed model –
Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology release of N species
The empirical fuel bed combustion model was extended in order to describe the
release of N species (NO and NH3 as well as HCN) which are relevant for the formation
of fuel NOx in biomass grate furnaces (fibre board, waste wood, bark)

Conversion functions (as a function of local ) were defined for the investigated fuels
based on lab-scale pot furnace (batch) reactor experiments; NH3 showed to be the
predominant NOx precursor, HCN was found only in very low concentrations
0.40 0.08 0.08 0.05

NH3 NH3

[wt% NH3, HCN - wet flue gas]

[wt% NH3, HCN - wet flue gas]

0.35 0.07 0.07

HCN HCN

[wt% NO - wet flue gas]

gas]
0.04

fluegas]
0.30 NO 0.06 0.06 NO

wetflue
0.25 0.05 0.05 0.03

NO--wet
0.20 0.04 0.04

0.03 0.02
[wt%NO
0.15 0.03
[wt%

0.10 0.02 0.02

0.01
0.05 0.01 0.01

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 1 2 3 4 5
length on grate [m] length on grate [m]

Example: calculated profiles of NH3, HCN and NO concentration in the flue gas along the grate
(left...pilot-scale plant; fuel: fibre board; right...industrial-scale plant; fuel: waste wood)

Institute for Resource Efficient and

Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology CFD models
Modelling of turbulent reactive flow – basic combustion simulation

Turbulence Realizable k- model

Gas phase combustion Eddy Dissipation model

(Amag = 0.6, Bmag = 0.5) /
global methane 3-step mechanism
(CH4, CO, CO2, H2, H2O und O2)

Radiation Discrete Ordinates model

Modelling of NOx formation – postprocessing mode

Eddy Dissipation Concept (EDC)

Kilpinen 92 mechanism (50 species, 253 reactions)

ISAT (In-Situ Adaptive Tabulation) algorithm for reaction kinetics

 Institute for Resource Efficient and
Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology Eddy Dissipation Concept

Eddy Dissipation Concept (EDC) – implementation in Fluent 6.1 based on

Gran and Magnussen (1996)
2 ~
Net production rate Ri [kg/m3s] R = Y* Y
i * 1 3 i i
… time averaged (-) density [kg/m3]
*… residence time fine structures [s] = f(tk) = f( , ) modelled
… length scale of fine structure regions [-] = f(k, , ) modelled
Y i… Favre-averaged (~) and fine structure values (*) of species mass fraction Yi [-] of species i [-]

Empirical expression; reactions occur mainly in the smallest length scales of the
turbulent energy cascade (fine structures) where turbulent energy is dissipated

EDC assumes that the fluid state is determined by the fine structure state (*), the
surrounding state (~) and the fractions of the fine structure ( 3)

Fine structures are treated as ideal reactors (in FLUENT… plug flow reactor) =>
integration of reaction kinetics / closure of equation system

Institute for Resource Efficient and Test runs –

Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology 440 kWth pilot-scale plant
Conventional flue gas analysis at boiler outlet
(NOx, CO, O2, CO2)
CFD model boundary/furnace outlet
In-situ FT-IR measurement ports I - III
(CH4, CO, CO2, H2O, NH3) –
case A: port III; case B: port II
Temperature measurements (thermocouples T1 – T3)
Additionally: data from literature, experience and lab-
scale pot furnace experiments concerning
relevant species concentrations (NO, NO2, HCN, NH3)

operation data case A case B

fuel fibre board fibre board
water content 10.60 10.60 wt% d.b.
nitrogen content 3.06 3.06 wt% d.b.
fuel power related to NCV 456 448 kWth
lambda fuel bed eff 0.78 1.50 -
lambda primary eff 0.97 1.63 -
total air ratio 1.41 1.61 -
flue gas recirculation ratio 0.49 0.46 -
PCZ…primary combustion zone
adiabatic flame temperature 933 888 °C
SCZ…secondary combustion zone measured NOx emissions 264 303 ppmv
 Institute for Resource Efficient and Simulated NH3 profiles –
Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology 440 kWth pilot-scale plant
NH3 is consumed not immediately above the fuel bed but somewhere in the furnace
depending on the stoichiometry (earlier for higher ) =>
confirmation by in-situ FT-IR measurements and pot furnace experiments
NH3 and HCN concentrations at furnace outlet are very low => confirmation by literature
data and experience (with extractive FT-IR measurements at outlet of various boilers)

Case A… prim <1 Case B… prim >1

NH3 mole fraction [-] profiles in the symmetry plane of the pilot-scale biomass grate furnace

Institute for Resource Efficient and Simulated NO profiles –

Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology 440 kWth pilot-scale plant
Simulated NOx emissions consisted mainly of NO; NO2 concentrations were very low
(between 5 and 10 ppmv) =>
confirmed by experience (with conventional flue gas analysis and extractive FT-IR
measurements at the outlet of various boilers) and literature

Case A… prim <1 Case B… prim >1

NO mole fraction [-] profiles in the symmetry plane of the pilot-scale biomass grate furnace
 Institute for Resource Efficient and NOx emissions –
Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology 440 kWth pilot-
pilot-scale plant
Very good agreement of measured NOx emissions at boiler outlet and simulations
Simulated NOx emissions at furnace outlet are lower for case A =>
confirmed by conventional flue gas analysis at boiler outlet
Case A: simulated NOx emissions based on the release of NH3 from the fuel bed as predominant
NOx precursor (lab-scale experiments) are closer to the NOx measurements at boiler outlet than
based on a release of NH3 and HCN in similar concentrations (literature data)

source data NOx emissions [ppmv]

empirical fixed
bed model case A case B
measured 264 303

calculated TU Graz 287 332

literature 335 -

Explanations: Case A… prim < 1; case B… prim > 1;

literature data…NH3 and HCN in concentrations with same order of magnitude;
experimental data TU Graz…NH3 predominant species, HCN is negligible

Institute for Resource Efficient and Test runs –

Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology 7.2 MWth industrial-scale plant

Conventional flue gas analysis at boiler outlet

(NOx, CO, O2, CO2)

SCZ SCZ
Additionally: data from literature, experience and
lab-scale pot furnace experiments concerning
relevant species concentrations
(NO, NO2, HCN, NH3)
secondary air
CFD model boundary/
operation data
PCZ -
cooled walls furnace outlet fuel waste wood
flue gas water content 17.70 wt% d.b.
recirculation
above the grate PCZ nitrogen content 1.20 wt% d.b.
PCZ fuel power related to NCV 7,570 kWth
lambda fuel bed eff 1.12 -
biomass fuel
bed lambda primary eff 1.29 -
1
flue gas recirculation
2 3 4
total air ratio 1.75 -
primary air
below the grate flue gas recirculation ratio 0.18 -
adiabatic flame temperature 1,120 °C
PCZ…primary combustion zone measured NOx emissions 140 ppmv
SCZ…secondary combustion zone
 Institute for Resource Efficient and NOx emissions –
Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology 7.2 MWth industrial-scale plant
Larger deviations between measured and simulated NOx emissions than for the pilot-scale plant
Simulated NOx emissions based on a release of NH3 from the fuel bed as predominant NOx
precursor (lab-scale experiments) are closer to the NOx measurements at boiler outlet than based
on a release of NH3 and HCN in similar concentrations (literature data)
Simulated NOx emissions decline with reduced temperatures in the primary combustion zone

source data
NOx emissions
empirical fixed note
[ppmv]
bed model
measured 140

calculated TU Graz 233

literature 293
lowered temperature
TU Graz 213
peaks

Explanations: Literature data…NH3 and HCN in concentrations with same order of magnitude;
experimental data TU Graz…NH3 predominant species, HCN in low concentrations;
lowered temperature peaks...peak values of mean flue gas temperature in the primary
combustion zone were lowered with a damping function

Simulated
Institute for Resource Efficient and temperature and NO profiles –
Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology 7.2 MWth industrial-scale plant
Very high fine scale temperatures => possible errors of fixed bed modelling and basic
combustion simulation with the EDM
Simulated NOx emissions decrease with reduced temperatures in the primary combustion zone
=> predicted “hot spots” may cause thermal and prompt NOx

Profiles of fine scale temperature [°C] (left) and NO mole fraction [-] (right) in the symmetry plane
of the industrial-scale biomass grate furnace
 Institute for Resource Efficient and
Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology Summary I

Lab-scale pot-furnace experiments revealed that NH3 is the dominating species released
from the fuel bed for fibre board, waste wood and bark =>
the results are an important basis for CFD NOx postprocessing

3D simulations of biomass grate furnaces with the new CFD NOx post-processor including
detailed chemistry were performed for the first time

Simulation time: between 1 and 3 weeks; a reduction by parallel processing and a recently
improved ISAT algorithm is expected

Both furnaces: good qualitative agreement of simulation results concerning relevant

species concentrations (NO, NO2, HCN, NH3) with measurements under different operating
conditions as well as with data from lab-scale experiments, experience and literature

Institute for Resource Efficient and

Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology Summary II

Pilot-scale plant: very good agreement of NOx measurements after boiler

outlet and simulation results for air lean and air rich conditions in the primary
combustion zone (deviation about +10 % in both cases)

The effect of air staging was correctly reproduced in the simulations

Industrial-scale plant: reasonable agreement of NOx measurements and

simulation results, but larger deviations than for the pilot-scale plant
(+50% to +65%)

Failings of the empirical fixed bed model and the basic combustion
simulation with the EDM are responsible for the larger deviations;
e.g. calculated NOx formation rates above the fuel bed were too high due to
over-predicted flue gas temperatures (“hot spots”)
 Institute for Resource Efficient and
Sustainable Systems
Graz University of Technology Conclusions

The newly developed NOx postprocessor has been successfully tested

The NOx postprocessor for biomass grate furnaces is a powerful tool for the
design and optimisation of furnace geometries and process control

Further comparisons with measurements are necessary in order to improve

and validate the model

Improvements concerning fixed bed modelling and combustion modelling

(test of advanced models) are in progress

A reduced NOx mechanism is being developed in order to reduce

calculation time for engineering applications and to overcome failings of
basic combustion simulation with a coupled simulation of the combustion
process and NOx formation
Annex 5. Biomass combustion on grates and NOx formation
mechanisms
Claes Tullin, SP, Sweden

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

Biomass Combustion on Grates
and
NOx-formation mechanisms
Claes Tullin
Marie Rönnbäck
Jessica Samuelsson

Outline SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

• Introduction
• What goes on in a fixed biomass bed?
• N-conversion in a fixed biomass bed
 Do we know enough? Available data and models

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

Boundary conditions Nitrogen chemistry

Reasonable Fair
knowledge knowledge

Limited Very limited

knowledge knowledge

Combustion processes:
Drying
Devolatilisation and gas phase combustion
Char combustion

Issues in grate combustion

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

• Fuel homogenity and feed control
• Evenly distributed fuel bed
• Fuel transportation control
• Air distribution control ( p over grate)
• Air stoichiometry
• Secondary combustion
• …..
 Part 1

Videoanalysis of a fuel bed in a 12 MW boiler

What goes on in a biomass fuel bed?

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute
Video

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

Gas composition in a fixed bed of biofuel
- measurements in and above a downward
SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute
propagating ignition front
Propagation of ignition front

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

Experimental rig and fuel

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

Fuel: pellets of
compressed sawdust
diameter 8 mm
moisture 11 %
Purpose

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

To describe the properties of the ignition front in
terms of gas composition

To confirm the measured gas composition by

closing the mass balance

Experimental rig –
ignition front counter-current to the air flow

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

Grate: 0.35 m x 0.35 m, height 0.7 m

Measurement set-up

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

Results: Measured concentrations for a batch
Superficial velocity 0.14 m/s, pellet with moisture 11 %

30 50

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

N2 N2
25 N2
gas)

40
gas)

wetgas)
wetgas)

O2
20
(Vol-%,wet

H2O
(Vol-%,wet

CO 30
Nitrogen(Vol-%,
Conc.(Vol-%,

15 CO2 H2 H2
20
10 H2
Nitrogen
Conc.

5 10
THC
CH4
0 0
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Time (min)
Results: Measured concentrations in the front
Superficial gas velocity 0.14 m/s, pellet with moisture 11 %

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

Position in conversion front (mm)
0 15 30 45 60
25
O2
gas)
wet gas)

20 H2O
(Vol-%, wet

15 CO2
Conc. (Vol-%,

10 CO H2
Conc.

5
THC
CH4
0
55 60 65
Time (min)

Nitrogen and hydrogen

Comparison exp data and mass balance calculations

80

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

gas)
wetgas)

60
N2
(Vol-%,wet
(Vol-%,

40
N2N2

20
H2,H2,

H2

0
50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (min)
Thin lines:
results from mass balance
Thick lines:
measured with bag sampling
Results: Tar

0.2

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

0.15
Tar (kg/kgs)
(kg/kg)

0.1
Tar

0.05

0
50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (min)

Tar (kg tar/kg devolatilized fuel)

All hydrocarbons that condense > 190 °C)

Part 2 SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

NOx-formation mechanisms

NOx mechanisms

Primary NOx-reduction methods

Secondary NOx-reduction methods

 NOx-mechanisms

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

• Fuel-N oxidation
• Thermal NOx
• Prompt NOx

Conversion of Fuel-N to NOx

80 % O2

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

Fuel-N Vol-N NHi NO
NO
NHi
~20 %
Char-N N2

Fuel-N is the major source for NOx during

biomass combustion
Important parameters:
- Fuel-N content
- Temperature
- O2
 Oxidation of N2 in air – Equilibrium
1
O2 + 12 N 2 NO

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

2
4
10

3
10

2
10
NO
ppm
ppm

1
10

0
10 21 % O2
10
-1
1
10
500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900
Temperature [ C]

Equilibrium concentrations of NO in a gasmixture of O2 and N2.

Thermal NOx – Oxidation of air N2

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

21% O2
800 10
700 1
Extended Zeldovich mechanism
600

N2 + O NO + N 500
ppm/s

400
N + O2 NO + O 300
200
N + OH NO + H 100
0
1300 1500 1700
Temperature [ C]

Formation of thermal NOx negligeable at T < 1400 °C.

 Prompt NOx – Oxidation of N2 in air

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

What is prompt NOx?

1. Oxidation of nitrogen in air involving hydrocarbon radicals

CH + N 2 HCN + N

2. Reaction via N2O

N2 + O + M N 2O + M
N 2O + O NO + NO

(3. Thermal NOx at supercritical equilibrium concentrations of

radicals)

T < 1400 °C Negligeable formation of prompt NOx

Fuel-N conversion to NOx

– a very complex process

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

How is the nitrogen bound in the fuel?
In biomass - N bound mainly in proteins
Fate of N in the fuel during pyrolysis/devolatilisation and
char combustion?
Solid phase reactions
Protein depolymerisation
Char formation
Emitted from fuel particles as NH3, HCN, HNCO,
NO … or N2
Heterogeneous (char catalysed) reactions
Influence of inorganic material
…..
Complex homogenous gas phase chemistry

NOx emissions = NOx formed – NOx destroyed

 Methods for NOx-reduction

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

Primary methods
Combustion control O2
Air staging NO
NHi NO
Fuel staging
N2
Flue gas recirculation

Secondary methods
SCR – Selective Catalytic Reduction
SNCR – Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction

Measurements in burning fuel bed

Major species:

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

O2, H2O, CO2, CO, H2,
N2, THC
Nitrogen compounds:
NH3, HCN, NO, NO2,
N2O

Absorption

Tar trap Filter

Suction probe

Cooler Mass flow

controller Cooler

Heated filter
Dry air FTIR

NO THC
CO2 CO/ O2 bag
CH4
Heated sampling line
”Low” T´s indicate that thermal NOx is not
important

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

1200

1000

800

C
600
0.07
400 0.14
0.21
200 0.31
0.35
0
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10
min
Temp in reaction front at
different air flows (m/s)

Gas composition in a fuel bed

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

300
NH3
200
ppm

100 NO
HCN
0
H2O CO
20
O2
15
%

10
CO2
5 THC
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
min
 Conclusions- Processes within
a biomass fuel bed

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

Gas concentrations of all major species in and above an
ignition front propagating counter-current to the air were
successfully measured

The measured composition was confirmed by closing the

mass balance

Concentrations of hydrogen, nitrogen and tar, that are

commonly not measured, can be calculated for
combustion of biofuel for this combustion case

Conclusions- Nitrogen chemistry

in biomass fuel beds

SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute

Fuel nitrogen is the major source for NOx-formation on
grates

Thermal and/or prompt NOx only forms at high

temperatures

NH3 a major precursor for NOx

Nature is on our side, i.e. NOx emissions can be decreased

by primary measures

Well known methods available for secondary NOx reduction