Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3.

AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS

CONTENTS:
Alternating current  Three-phase systems characteristics

three-phase  Generation of three-phase voltages

 Three-phase loads
circuits  -Y and Y- transformation
 Instantaneous power
 Three-phase power: S, P and Q
 Power measurement. Aaron connection
 Power factor improvement
 Electrical measurements
 Exercises

1 2

Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS

THREE-PHASE SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS THREE-PHASE SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

The electricity grid is made up of four main components:

 GENERATION: production of electricity from energy sources

such as coal, natural gas, hydropower, wind and solar.

 TRANSMISSION: the transmission system carries the electric

power from power plants over long distances to a distribution
system.

 DISTRIBUTION: the distribution system brings the power to the

customers.

 COSTUMERS: these are the consumers of electric power

(industry, service sector and residential uses).

3 4
Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
THREE-PHASE SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS GENERATION OF THREE-PHASE VOLTAGES

 Instantaneous electric power has a sinusoidal shape with double

frequency than voltage or current.
 SINGLE-PHASE AC CIRCUITS: instantaneous electric power is
negative twice a period (power flows from the load to the
generator) and positive twice a period, falling to zero.
 BALANCED THREE-PHASE AC CIRCUITS: instantaneous
electric power is constant. Three-phase power never falls to
zero.  Three-phase generators contain three sinusoidal voltage sources
 Three-phase electric motors perform better than single-phase AC with voltages of the same frequency but a 120º-phase shift with
motors. respect to each other.

 Three-phase power systems allow two voltage levels (L-L, L-N).  This is achieved by positioning three coils separated by 120º
angles. There is only one rotor.
 When electric power is transmitted, three-phase AC systems
require 25% less Cu/Al than single-phase AC systems.  Amplitudes of the three phases are also equal.
5  The generator is then balanced. 6

Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS

INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
R
R

N VTR VRN VRS

120º
S VTN VSN
N
T VST
T S

• N: neutral point
• R S T (or A B C) direct sequence or sequence RST
• VRS, VST, VTR: line voltages or line-to-line voltages
vRN(t) = V0·cos(·t + 90º) V
• VRN, VSN, VTN: line-to-neutral voltages vSN(t) = V0·cos(·t - 30º) V
• Vline = 3 Vline-to-neutral vTN(t) = V0·cos(·t +210º) V
7 8
Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
INTRODUCTION THREE-PHASE LOAD CLASSIFICATION
R
 WYE (two voltages) R
IR
R
Balanced
IN
3-wires
Z Z
N
VTR VRN VRS
4-wires
O=N O=N
120º Z Z IS Z Z

Vline  3.Vline
S
VTN VSN Unbalanced S
N
 
to N
VST phase 3-wires IT

T S T T

4-wires

IR IR
R
R
R R

50 Hz Usual system  DELTA (one voltage) IRS IRS ITR

ITR

Vphase = Vline-to-neutral 230 volt Balanced IS

Z Z IS
ZRS ZTR
S S

Vline 400 volt Unbalanced

I ST I ST
S T S T
Frequency 50 Hz T
IT Z T
IT ZST

9 10

Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS

BALANCED WYE-CONNECTED LOAD BALANCED DELTA-CONNECTED LOAD
 The wye or star connection is made by connecting one end of each of  This connection received its name from the fact that a schematic
the three-phase loads together. diagram of it resembles the Greek letter delta ().
 The voltage measured across a single load or phase is known as the  In the delta connection, the line voltage and phase voltage in the load
phase voltage. are the same.
 The voltage measured between the lines is known as the line-to-line
 The line current of a delta connection is higher than the phase current
voltage or the line voltage.
by a factor of the square root of 3.
 In a wye-connected system, the line voltage is higher than the load
phase voltage by a factor of the square root of 3.
 In a wye-connected system, the phase current and line current are the
same.

11 12
Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
-Y TRANSFORMATION BALANCED THREE/FOUR-WIRE WYE-CONNECTED LOAD
IR
Z 12 ·(Z 13  Z 23 ) Z Y 1, 2  Z 1  Z 2
R V RN V SN V TN
Z between nodes 1 and 2:  Z 1, 2  Y: IR  IS  IT 
Z 12  ( Z 13  Z 23 ) IN
Z Z Z
Z
I N  (I R  IS  I T )  0
1 N
Z 12 ·(Z 13  Z 23 ) R
Z nodes 1-2: (1) Z1  Z 2  O=N
Z 12  ( Z 13  Z 23 ) º
IS Z Z Stotal  3.Sfase  3.V RN .I *R  3.Vlínia .I línia
Z 13 ·(Z 12  Z 23 ) Z1 S
Z nodes 1-3: (2) Z 1  Z 3 
Z 13 Z12
Z 12  ( Z 13  Z 23 )  3.Vlínia .I línia .cos  j 3.Vlínia .I línia .sin
S
Z3 IT      
Z2 P Q
T
Z 23 ·(Z 12  Z 13 )
Z nodes 2-3: (3) Z 2  Z 3 
Z 12  ( Z 13  Z 23 ) 3 2
R
 The three currents are balanced.
T Z23
From expressions (1), (2) and (3) the result is:  Thus the sum of them is always zero.
Z

Z 12 ·Z 13 Z 12 ·Z 23 Z 13 ·Z 23  Since the neutral current of a balanced, Y-

Z1  Z2  Z3  O=N
connected three-phase load is always zero,
Z 12  Z 13  Z 23 Z 12  Z 13  Z 23 Z 12  Z 13  Z 23 Z Z
the neutral conductor may be removed with
S
(1) + (2) - (3) (1) - (2) + (3) -(1) + (2) + (3) no change in the results.

Balanced loads: ZY = Z/3 13 14

T

Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS

BALANCED THREE/FOUR-WIRE WYE-CONNECTED LOAD UNBALANCED FOUR-WIRE WYE-CONNECTED LOAD
Example A three-phase, RST system (400 V, 50 Hz), has a
three-wire Y-connected load for which Z = 1030º · Obtain the IR
V RN
IR 
R
line
R
currents and the complex power consumption· ZR
90º 60º IN
V RN 400/ 3 40 ZR
IR    A N V SN
Z 10 30º
3 IS 
Z
30º 60º
O=N ZS
V SN 400/ 3 40 IS ZS ZT
O=N IS    A V TN
IT 
S
Z Z
Z 10 30º 3
S 210º 180º ZT
V TN 400/ 3 40 IT
IT    A T I N  ( I R  I S  I T )  0
Z 10 30º 3
90º 60º
T
Stotal  3·Sphase  3·V RN ·I *R  3·(400/ 3 )·(40/ 3 )* 
 16000 30º VA  13856.41 (watt)  j8000 (VAr) Stotal  V RN ·I *R  VSN ·I *S  V TN ·I *T
40
Stotal  3·Vl ·I l  3·400·  16000 VA
3
40
Ptotal  3·Vl ·I l ·cos  3·400· ·cos 30º  13856.41watt
3
40 15 16
Q total  3·Vl ·I l ·sin  3·400· ·sin 30º  8000VAr
3
Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
UNBALANCED THREE-WIRE WYE-CONNECTED LOAD UNBALANCED THREE-WIRE WYE-CONNECTED LOAD
V RN V SN V TN
R
IR
I R  IS  I T  0 R
IR
 
ZR ZS ZT
1) V ON 
1 1 1
ZR ZR
 
V RO V SO V TO ZR ZS ZT
IS
O=N   0 IS
O=N
ZS ZT ZR ZS ZT ZS ZT
S S V RO V RN  VON
2) I R  
IT IT ZR ZR
T
V RN  V ON V SN  V ON V TN  V ON T
V SO V SN  VON
  0 IS  
ZR ZS ZT ZS ZS
V TO V TN  VON
V RN V SN V TN IT  
  ZT ZT
ZR ZS ZT V RN ·Y R  V SN ·Y S  V TN ·Y T
V ON  
1 1 1 Y R  YS  Y T 3) Stotal  V RO ·I *R  V SO ·I *S  V TO ·I *T
 
ZR ZS ZT 17 18

Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS

UNBALANCED THREE-WIRE WYE-CONNECTED LOAD BALANCED DELTA-CONNECTED LOAD
Example· A three-phase, RST system (400 V, 50 Hz), has a three-wire IR
unbalanced Y-connected load for which ZR = 100º , ZS = 100º  and ZT = 1030º R
R

· Obtain the line currents and the total complex power consumption. V RS
IR ZR
IRS ITR I RS 
Z
R
IS
ZS 1)
V RN ·Y R  V SN ·Y S  V TN ·Y T
V ON  IS
Z Z I R  I RS  I TR
Y R  YS  Y T
S V ST
S
IT
ON IST  IS  IST  I RS
ZT 230 ·0.1  230 ·0.10º  230 210º ·0.1-30º
90º 0º -30º
Z
T  30 º
 40.93114.89º V I ST
0.1  0.1  0.1
0º 0º S
IT
T
V TR I T  I TR  IST
T Z
I TR 
2) VRO = VRN –VON = 23090º - 40.93114.89º = 193.6484.90º V Z
VSO = VSN –VON = 230-30º - 40.93114.89º = 264,54-35.10º V
º
VTO = VTN –VON = 230210º - 40.93114.89º = 237,18-140.10º V
Stotal  3·Sfase  3·V RS ·I *RS  3·Vlínia ·Ilínia
3) IR = VRO/ZR = 193.6484.90º/100º = 19,3684.90º A  3·Vlínia ·Ilínia ·cos  j 3·Vlínia ·Ilínia ·sin
     
IS = VSO/ZS = 264.54-35.10º/100º = 26,45-35.10º A P Q

IT = VTO/ZT = 237.18-140.10º/1030º = 23.72-170.10º A

Stot = VRO·IR* + VSO·IS* + VTO·IT* = 15619.56 W + j2812.72 VAr 19 20
Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
UNBALANCED DELTA-CONNECTED LOAD UNBALANCED THREE-WIRE -CONNECTED LOAD
IR Example· A three-phase, RST system (400 V, 50 Hz), has an unbalanced -
R
R
connected load for which ZRS = 100º , ZST = 1030º  i ZTR = 10-30º · Obtain
V RS the line currents and the complex power consumption·
I RS 
R
IRS ITR
120º
Z RS V RS 400
IS
ZRS ZTR I R  I RS  I TR I RS   0º
 40120º A V V V RN RS
ZRS 10 TR
S V ST 120º

 IS  IST  I RS
VTN VSN
IST V ST 4000º IR N

IST   30º  4030º A

R VST
I ST ZST R T S

S
IT
T
V TR I T  I TR  IST ZST 10 IRS ITR
I TR 
ZST
T
V TR 400120º
ZTR I TR   30º
 4090º A IS
ZRS ZTR
ZTR 10 S

I R  I RS  I TR  77.29105º A
Stotal  V RS ·I *RS  V ST ·I *ST  V TR ·I *TR
I ST

IS  IST  I RS  77.29  45º A S T

IT ZST
T

I T  I TR  IST  40.00 150º A

Stotal  V RS ·I *RS  VST ·I *ST  V TR ·I *TR  43712.81(W)  j0 (VAr) 
21  43712.81VA 22

Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS

POWER MEASURMENT. Four-wire load POWER MEASURMENT. ARON CONNECTION
Balanced wye-connected, four-wire load General 3-wire load. Two-wattmeter method (ARON connection)
Demonstration done for a balanced 3-wire load R
R W

W = VRN·IR·cos( VRN - IR)

Z
N
Ptotal = 3W LOAD
O=N
V
VTR VRN V
VRS
SR
RT

Z Z
S 120º
,
VTN VSN
N
T V
VST
ST
T S
Unbalanced wye-connected, four-wire load W1  VRT ·IR ·cos( VRT   I R )  V·I·cos(30º  )
R WR
WR = VRN·IR·cos( VRN - IR) W2  VST ·IS ·cos( VST   IS )  V·I·cos(30º  )

Z
WS = VSN·IS·cos( VSN - IS)
R
N
WT = VTN·IT·cos( VTN - IT)
O=N
ZS ZT PTOTAL  W1  W2  V·I·[cos( 30º  )  cos(30 º  )]  3·V·I·cos 
S WS
Ptotal = WR + WS + WT Q TOTAL  3·[W1  W2 ]  3·V·I·[cos( 30º  )  cos(30º  )]  3·V·I·sin
23 24
T WT
Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
POWER MEASURMENT. BALANCED LOAD POWER MEASURMENT: THE TWO-WATTMETER METHOD
Balanced load, general (Y/D, 3/4 wires). Two-wattmeter method Aron cyclic permutations
(ARON connection) W1 W2
V I V I
Ptotal  W1  W2 RT
SR
R
S
ST
TR
S
T
BALANCED
Q total  3·(W1  W2 )
TS T RS R
LOAD
W  W2
  arctg( 3  1 )
,
W1  W2

Unbalanced wye/delta-connected, three-wire load

Q measurement: cyclic permutations
UNBALANCED W

LOAD Ptotal = W1 + W2
V
ST
I
R Q TOT  3W
TR S
RS T
,

25 QTOTAL 26
W  VST ·I R ·cos(VST   IR )  Vline ·I line ·cos(90º- )  Vline ·I line ·sin 
3

Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS

INSTANTANEOUS THREE-PHASE POWER INSTANTANEOUS POWER: SINGLE-PHASE LOAD
Single-phase load: cosA·cosB = 0·5·[cos(A+B) + cos(A-B)]
p(t) = v(t)·i(t) = V0·cos(w·t + V)·I0·cos(wt + )
p(t) =1/2·V0·I0·cos(V - I) + 1/2·V0·I0·cos(2wt + V + I) watt v(t)
Constant Oscillates at twice the mains frequency!

Three-phase wye balanced load:

p(t) = vRN(t)·iR(t) + vSN(t)·iS(t) + vTN(t)·iT(t) =
= 2Vp·cos(wt + V)· 2Ip·cos(wt + )
i(t)
+ 2Vp·cos(wt -120º+ V)· 2Ip·cos(wt -120º+ )
+  2Vp·cos(wt +120º+ V)· 2Ip·cos(wt +120º+ )
=
Vp·Ip·cos(V - I) + Vp·Ip·cos(2wt + V + I)
+ Vp·Ip·cos(V - I) + Vp·Ip·cos(2wt -240º+ V + I) p(t)
Average power = P
+ Vp·Ip·cos(V - I) + Vp·Ip·cos(2wt +240º+ V + I)
= 3/2·Vp·Ip·cos(V - I) = 3/2·Vp·Ip·cos = constant! 27 28
Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
INSTANTANEOUS THREE-PHASE POWER POWER LOSSES: THREE-PHASE/SINGLE PHASE
Single-phase line I
Pload
R1 V  cos
R 2
2 P
v(t) R1
V LOAD Plosses  2·R1 ·I  2·R1 · 2 load 2
N V ·cos 

Three-phase line I
Pload
3·V  cos 2 2
V 2 Pload P
Plosses  3·R2 ·I  3·R2 · 2 2 2
 R 2 · 2 load 2
i(t) ( 3 ) .V ·cos  V ·cos 

l l 1
Supposing same losses 2R 1  R 2  2    S3p  S1p
S1p S3p 2
Single-phase line: 2 conductors of length l and section S1p
p(t) Three-phase line: 3 conductors of length l and section S3p = 1/2S1p
pTOTAL = pR(t) + pS(t) + pT(t) As a result: weight3p-cables = 3/4weight1p-cables
29 30

Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Example 1 Example 2
Three-phase balanced RST system for which A1 = 1.633 A, A2 = 5.773 A, W1 = 6928.2 Three-phase 50 Hz system for which V = 400 V, W1 = -8569.24 W, W2 = -5286.36 W, AS
W, W2 = 12000 W, U = 6000 V and Zline=4+j3 · a) Obtain the complex power in the = 21.56 A. Obtain a) the value of R. b) the reading of AR. c) the value of the inductance
loads, as well as the ammeter A and the voltmeter U1 readings. b) Obtain the value of L W1 W2
C to improve the load’s PF to 1, assuming U = 6000 V.Q   3W  12000VAr R AR V I V I
R
ZL
A
1 1
S W1 AS
V W1 '   W1 RT R ST S
U1 ZL U Q1  12000VAr  3UI1 sin 1 W2 AT and SR S TR T
S T TS T RS R
ZL 1  45º S W2 '   W2
T A1 A2 R L R
R
P1  3UI1 cos 1  12000 W
W1 W2 R T
R
K 400 2
C C a) Pt otal  W1 ' W2 '  13855.6 W  2  resulting in : R  23.095  T S
T S P2  3W2  36000 W  3UI 2 cos  2 R
 2  53.12º VSR 400 60 º V 400 60 º
 17.32 60 º A  17.32  60 º A
Balanced load 1 Balanced load 2
capacitive inductive
C
b) ISR   I RT  RT 
Q 2  3UI 2 sin  2  48000VAr R 23.095 R 23.095
S1 2  (P1  P2 )  j(Q1  Q 2 )  48000  j36000  6000036.87º VA It results : I R  I RT - ISR  3090 º A

ITOTAL  I1  I 2  1.63390 º 45 º  5.77390 º 53.12 º  5.77490 º 36.85 º A VTS 400180º 400
90 º
c) IS  ISR  ITS  17.32 60 º   17.32 60 º  90º
 8.66  j15  j
6000 jX L XL XL
U1, phase  I.ZL  U phase  5.77490 º 36.85 º (4  j 3)   3492.97 90 º V U1  3U1,phase  6050V
3 400 2
IS  21.56 A  8.66 2  (15  )  X L  84.308   2 50L
(6000) 2
Q1C ,  Q/3  -36000/3VAr  - C   1.06F 31 XL 32
1/(2 .50.C  ) The result is : L  0.2684 H
Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
Example 3 Example 4
Varley phase-sequence indicator. Calculate the voltage in each element and deduce A 400 V and 50 Hz three-phase line feeds two balanced loads through a line which has
the practical consequences· Three-phase 400 V/50 Hz system· an internal impedance of ZL=0.5 + j·1 · The -connected load has phase impedances
C = 1F  XC = 3183  whose values are 45+j·30 Ω, whereas the Y-connected load has phase impedances of
15–j·30 Ω· Determine: a) the reading of the ammeter A, b) the reading of the voltmeter
R2bulbs = 2·V2/P = 2·2302/20 = 5290  V and c) the readings of watt-meters W1 and W2.
R ZL
V RN ·Y R  V SN ·Y S  V TN ·Y T W2 A R
V ON  S ZL V
Y R  YS  Y T T ZL
W1
230 /3183  230-30º /5290 0º  230 210º /5290 0º
90º -90º
 T S
1 / 318390 º  1 / 52900 º  1 / 5290 0 º
 171.55171.31º V R ZTOT  ZL  (Z Y / / ZY )  Z L  Z//  (0.5  j·1)  (16.731  j·1.154)  17.365 7.125º 
VRO = VRN –VON = 230 - 171.55171.31º = 265.3450.28º V
90º VR0 90 º
0 VRN 400 / 3
VSO = VSN –VON = 230-30º - 171.55171.31º = 394.78-20.91º V V0N a) I R    13.3082.875 º A W1 W2
ZTOT 17.3657.125 º V I V I
VT0 VS0 RT R ST S
VTO = VTN –VON = 230210º - 171.55171.31º = 144.00-101.86ª V T b) V  3·(I·Z// )  3·(13.30·16.7706)  386.33V SR S TR T
S
TS T RS R
Conductor R is situated where the capacitor is placed, conductor S c) PLOAD  W1  W2  3·13.302 ·16.731 The Aron connection results in:
is situated where the brighter bulb is placed and T is the remaining
Q LOAD  3·(W1  W2 )  3·13.30 ·1.154
2 W1 = 4616,1 W, W2 = 4262,5 W
conductor. 33 34

Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Example 5
Three-phase 400 V-50 Hz line. When switch K2 is closed , WA = 4000 W. When K1 and
K3 are closed, WA = 28352.6 W and WB = -11647.4 W. Determine: a) R2, b) R1 and c) AT.
R WB
a) K2 closed: WA = VST·IS·cos(VST - IS) S WA
AS
4000 = 400·IS·cos(0º+30º)  IS = 11.55 A T AT
N K1
R
R2 = VSN/IS = (400/3)/11.55 = 20 
C1
Question 1
An electrical lineman is connecting three single-phase transformers in a Y(primary)-
Y(secondary) configuration, for a business’s power service. Draw the connecting
wires necessary between the transformer windings, and those required between the
transformer terminals and the lines. Note: fuses have been omitted from this
illustration for simplicity.
K2 K3
R1

T S
b) K1 and K3 closed: R1 R2

PTOT = W1 + W2 = -WB + WA = 40000 W = 2·4002/R1 + 4002/R2  R1 = 10 

W1 W2
V I V I
RT R ST S
c) K1 and K3 closed: SR S TR T
180 º 60 º TS T RS R
VTS VRT 400 400
IT1  ITS  I RT      60  j·34.64A
R1 R1 10 10
180 º
VTS 400
IT2    20  j·0A
R2 20
ITtotal  IT1  IT2  (60  j·34.64)  (-20  j·0)  -80  j·34.64  87.18-156.6º A
35 36
This results in AT = 87.18 A
Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
Question 2 Question 3
Identify the primary-secondary connection configuration of these pole-mounted Identify the primary-secondary connection configuration of these pole-mounted
power transformers (i.e. Y-Y, Y-Delta, Delta-Y, etc.). power transformers (i.e. Y-Y, Y-Delta, Delta-Y, etc.).

HV R S
T

LV

These transformers are connected in a Yy configuration.

37 These transformers are connected in a Yd configuration. 38

Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS

Question 3 Question 4
Identify the primary-secondary connection configuration of these pole-mounted One of the conductors connecting the secondary of a three-phase power distribution
power transformers (i.e. Y-Y, Y-Delta, Delta-Y, etc.). transformer to a large office building fails when open. Upon inspection, the source of
the failure is obvious: the wire overheated at a point of contact with a terminal block,
until it physically separated from the terminal. What is strange is that the overheated
wire is the neutral conductor, not any one of the ”line” conductors. Based on this
observation, what do you think caused the failure?
After repairing the wire, what would you do to verify the cause of the failure?
These transformers are
connected in open-delta
configuration.

 Three single-phase transformers are not normally used because this is more
expensive than using one three-phase transformer.
 However, there is an advantageous method called the open-Delta or V-
connection
 It functions as follows: a defective single-phase transformer in a Dd three-phase
bank can be removed for repair. Partial service can be restored using the open-
Delta configuration until a replacement transformer is obtained.
 Three-phase is still obtained with two transformers, but at 57.7% of the original
power.
39
 This is a very practical transformer application for emergency conditions.
Here’s a hint (“pista”): if you were to repair the neutral wire and take current
measurements with a digital instrument (using a clamp-on current probe, for safety), you
would find that the predominant frequency of the current is 150 Hz, rather than 50 Hz.
This scenario is all too common in modern power systems, as non-linear loads such as
switching power supplies and electronic power controls have become more prevalent.
Special instruments exist to measure harmonics in power systems, but a simple DMM
(digital multimeter) may be used as well to make crude assessments.
40
Unit 3. AC THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
POWER MEASURMENT. ARON CONNECTION
General 3-wire load. Two-wattmeter method (ARON connection)

LOAD

p(t) = vRN(t)·iR(t) + vSN(t)·iS(t) + vTN(t)·iT(t)

p(t) = vRN(t)·iR(t) + vSN(t)·iS(t) + vTN(t)·[-iR(t) - iS(t)]

p(t) = iR(t)·[vRN(t) - vTN(t)] + iS(t)·[vSN(t) - vTN(t)] = vRT(t)·iR(t) + vST(t)·iS(t)

Mean value

Ptotal = W1 + W2 = VRT·IR·cos(VRT-IR) + VST·IS·cos(VST-IS) 41