INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE TEMPERATURE

MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES AND COMPARISON
Undertaken at

DESIGN AND INNOVATION CENTRE, UIET

(A project sponsored by MHRD)

SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT
OF REQUIREMENT OF
SIX MONTHS INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY
KAPIL SHARMA
UE145047

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Mr MANOJ SHARMA

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
PANJAB UNIVERSITY, CHANDIGARH

2018
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UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

PANJAB UNIVERSITY, CHANDIGARH

CANDIDATES’ DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work embodied in this project entitled “PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES AND COMPARISON”, as
requirements of six months Industrial Training for the award of the degree of Bachelor of
Engineering in Electronics And Communication Engineering, is a bonafide piece of work,
carried out by me under the supervision of Mr Manoj Sharma, Associate Professor UIET, P.U..
The work presented in this project has not been submitted by me for the award of any other degree
of this or any other university. I have taken care in all respects to honour the intellectual property
right and I have acknowledged the contribution(s) of others for using them for this academic
purpose.

Date:

KAPIL SHARMA (UE145047)

Place: Chandigarh

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr KAPIL SHARMA completed his six months Industrial Training under
my supervision and the above statement made by the student is correct and true to the best of my
knowledge.

(Mr. MANOJ SHARMA)

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR

UIET, P.U.

Date:

Place: Chandigarh
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Foremost, I would like to express my sincere thanks and deep gratitude to my supervisor Manoj
Sharma for the continuous support throughout the work, for his patience, motivation, enthusiasm,
and immense knowledge. It has been an absolute privilege to work under his supervision. I feel a
great personal appreciation for him and I deeply admire him as a human being.

This acknowledgement would be incomplete if I do not express my deep sense of gratitude towards
my family as no words describe their incessant encouragement and motivation throughout my
training.

Last, but not the least I would like to thank the omnipresent God for providing me the strength and
ability to complete this work.

Date: KAPIL SHARMA (UE145047)

Place: Chandigarh.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Candidates’ Declaration and Certificate 2

Acknowledgement 3

Table of Contents 4

List of Figures and Tables 6

List of Abbreviations 7

Chapter 1. Design and Innovation Centre, UIET 8-11

1.1 Design and Innovation Centre 8

1.2 Hub and Partners 9
1.3 Theme: Energy Harvesting and Management Technologies 11

Chapter 2. Solar Energy as Power resource 12-16

2.1 Global Energy Use 12

2.2 Solar Resource 12
2.3 Photovoltaic Module and Power Generation 14
2.3.1 Types of PV Cells 15
2.4 Need of Temperature Measurement 15
2.4.1 Hotspots and their consequences 16
2.4.2 Identifying Hotspots 16

Chapter 3. Temperature Measurement Sensors and Techniques 17-27

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3.1 PT-100 17
3.1.1 Various techniques of using PT-100 as temperature sensing
device 19
3.2 DS18B20(One Wire Digital Wire Transfer) 19
3.2.1 Block Diagram 21
3.2.2 Arduino Code 23
3.3 Optical Sensor for temperature measurement 24
3.3.1 FBG Technology 24
3.3.2 FBG sensors 25
3.3.3 Conclusion 25
3.4 Thermal Imaging 25
3.4.1 Thermal imaging problems 26
3.4.2 Solar Thermography benefits 27

Chapter 4. Conclusion 28

References 29
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List of Figures and Tables

Figure 2.1 Human Energy use (in TW)

Figure 2.2 World human population (in millions)
Figure 2.3 Solar insolation throughout the globe
Figure 2.4 Solar supply well matched to future energy demands

Figure 2.5 Basic PV module working

Figure 2.6 Hotspot identification
Figure 3.1 PT-100 sensor probe with connector
Figure 3.2 Types of variations using PT-100
Figure 3.3 Image of variations

Figure 3.4 DS18B20 Interfaced with Arduino

Figure 3.5 System Flow Diagram
Figure 3.6 Block Diagram of sensor working process

Figure 3.7 Placement of NTC Temperature Sensors

Figure 3.8 Comparison of four sensors on a single panel
Figure 3.9 FBGs sensors on the glass cover of the PV module
Figure 3.10 Flir cameras used

Figure 3.11 Image captured using Flir Thermal camera

Figure 3.12 Viewing angle recommended (green) and to be avoided (red) during
inspection
Figure 3.13 Angle dependence of the emissivity of glass
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List of Abbreviations

PV: Photovoltaic

Voc: Open circuit voltage

FBG: Fiber Bragg Grating

NTC: Negative Temperature Coefficient

R-T: Resistance temperature

HVAC: Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning

NOCT: Nominal Operating Cell Temperature

RTD: Resistance Temperature Detector

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Chapter 1

DESIGN AND INNOVATION CENTRE, UIET

1.1 DESIGN AND INNOVATION CENTRE

The Ministry of Human resource Development, Govt. of India, as a part of its 12 th Five year plan
(2012-17) has taken a national initiative to set up a network of Design Innovation Centres (DICs)
across the country. One Open Design School and a National Design Innovation Network will link
these DICs to evolve a nationwide ecosystem of resource and knowledge sharing to impart
education and training to foster the innovative culture of designing products, processes and
technologies of need to society. The MHRD has approved the establishment of a DIC at Panjab
University, Chandigarh to focus on innovations around engineering products, add value to the
available engineering designs and promote early stage start up companies. Several ideas are being
perused for developing a new pedagogy in teaching and training in design, new fabrications and
innovations. A number of design technologies for smart cities, biomedical devices, advanced
materials, navigational and tourism aids, green environment, energy & traffic management,
communication etc will be taken up at the DIC at PU.

The following four technology areas are currently in progress.

a. Traffic Sensing & Information Technologies.

b. Medical Devices & Restorative Technologies.

c. Energy Harvesting and Management Technologies.

d. Transparent Ceramic Materials & Technologies.

1.2 Hub and Partners

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Hub: University Institute of Engineering and Technology (UIET)

University Institute of Engineering and

Technology (UIET) was established by Panjab
University as a constituent institute in 2002.
With the vision to be the front runner in
engineering education and research, the mission
of University Institute of Engineering and
Technology (UIET) is to produce professionally
competent students for careers in engineering
and technology by providing value-based quality
education.

It offers four years Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.), Master of Engineering (M.E.) and full time
PhD in Biotechnology, Computer Science and Engineering, Information Technology, Electrical
and Electronics, Electronics and Communication, and Mechanical Engineering. It offers 8 Post
graduate Programmes in Biotechnology, Computer Science, Information Technology, Electrical,
Electronics and Communication, Mechanical, Material Science and Microelectronics. Five UG
Programs have got N B A accreditation namely Biotechnology, Computer Science and
Engineering, Electrical and Electronics, Electronics and Communication and Mechanical
Engineering. UIET has MOUs with industry leaders and academia like Infosys, Spice Digital
Limited, PGIMER, CSIO, C-DAC, The University of Western Australia, IIT Kanpur, IIT Roorkee,
DRDO, MHRE, NIWE, NISE, etc.
Students are taught by excellent faculty members who attract students with high rankings in
JEE(Mains). We provide holistic education to our students so that they excel in their jobs,
entrepreneurship initiatives and higher studies.
Presently UIET is a centre of Technical Education Quality Improvement Programme (TEQIP-
II) with the World Bank assistance of Rs. 15 crores. The main emphasis of this project is to
improve the overall quality of existing Engineering Education. In addition to the TEQIP, 28
research projects supported by DST, DBT, DRDO, UGC are in progress.
Armed with highly qualified and experienced faculty and top ranked students, UIET is one of the
best constituents Institute of Panjab University, Chandigarh. With an aim to be ranked among the
likes of IITs, NITs etc., teachers, students and staff strive hard so that students are placed in reputed
companies.

Partners:

Dr Harvansh Singh Judge Institute of Dental Sciences, Panjab

University Chandigarh

In view of the imminent need for providing a public funded quality

education and health care and open avenues for research in the field
of oral health, Dr Harvansh Singh Judge Institute of Dental Sciences
was established in April’2006 under the aegis of Panjab University.
The institute aims at providing oral health care facilities to the public
and training to the students at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels. The institute attends a
large number of patients every day in its various clinics. A fully equipped diagnostic lab is
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functional at the institute which carries out bio-chemical, histopathological and microbiological
tests at the institute itself. The institute runs BDS and MDS courses in five specialities namely
Prosthodontics, Orthodontics, Periodontics, Conservative Dentistry and Oral Surgery. Faculty
members are involved in various clinical and basic sciences research projects. The major focus
area of the institute is to provide good and affordable dental treatment in various specialities to
general public, carry out clinical and bench research including surveys, diagnostic and randomized
controlled clinical trials, conduct outreach programs to enhance oral health awareness in
population.
The institute works in collaboration with other institutes like PGIMER, GMCH-32 etc. The dental
institute has been ranked Number One in the region consecutively for three years (2012-2014) by
‘The Tribune’ The dental Institute has been granted research funding by government agencies like
DST, UGC, IUSSTF and by industry as well. The publication profile of the dental institute is
amongst the best in the country and includes publications in high impact factor journals like
Journal of Immunology, Cytokine, and Circulation.

PEC University of Technology

The PEC University of Technology, Chandigarh (PEC)

was originally established as Mugalpura Engineering
College at Lahore (now in Pakistan) on November 9,
1921. In 1994, this institution was adjudged as the best
technical college in India by the National Foundation of
Engineers. It was renamed as PEC University of
Technology in 2009. PEC gives excellent teaching and
training in Civil, Electrical, Mechanical, Aeronautical,
Electronics & Electrical Communication, Metallurgy,
Production and Computer Science Engineering. There are eleven post-graduate courses leading to
Masters of Engineering degree in Highways, Structures, Hydraulics and Irrigation, Rotodynamic
Machines, Electrical Power Systems, Environmental Engineering (Interdisciplinary), Electronics
Metallurgical Engineering and C.I.M. Facilities for post-graduate studies for regular as well as part
time students. The institute has developed innovative competencies towards research, especially
in ergonomics and materials at its Centre of Excellence.

Central Scientific Instrumentation Organization (CSIO)

Central Scientific Instruments Organization (CSIO)

Chandigarh is a constituent unit of Council of Scientific
& Industrial Research (CSIR). This premier national
laboratory is dedicated to science and technology
development, technology dissemination, human resource
development and catering to research and technology
needs relevant to society and defense sector. It
contributes national planning for instrumentation
activities in order to sustain instrumentation and allied sectors.
The laboratory abodes high-end sophisticated analytical instruments and highly qualified and well
trained staff in the areas of Biomedical Instrumentation, Optical Devices and Systems, Precision
Mechanical Systems, Ubiquitous Analytical Techniques, Computational Instrumentation, Medical
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Instrumentation, Prosthetic Devices, Advanced materials based Transducers, Agrionics etc. A

large number of instruments have been designed and developed by CSIO and know-hows have
been passed on to the industry for commercial exploitation. In its XIIth five year plan, the CSIR-
CSIO has program on Opto-Mechatronics Technologies for next Generation Sensors and
Applications (OMEGA) and Advanced Instrumentation Solutions for Health Care and Agro-based
applications (ASHA). The scientists of CSIO have more than 80 granted patents, about 170 filed
patents, more than 500 publications since 2000 and many prestigious awards have been received
to the scientists of CSIR-CSIO.

1.3 Theme: Energy Harvesting and Management Technologies

Research areas under Energy theme:

• Small Energy Harvesting & Storage management.
• Developing smart applications for Monitoring and Control of Electrical Systems.
• Renewable Energy Integration through Microgrid formation and their dynamic
performance analysis.
• Design & performance studies of Power Distribution System with DG.
• Energy Policy, Energy Economics and Electricity Market design.
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CHAPTER 2
SOLAR ENERGY AS POWER RESOURCE

2.1 GLOBAL ENERGY USE

Humans transfer and transform energy from the environment into forms useful for human
endeavors. Currently, the primary sources of energy used by humans include fuels, like coal, oil,
natural gas, uranium, and biomass. All these fuels—except biomass—are nonrenewable. Primary
sources of energy also include renewables, such as sunlight, wind, moving water, and geothermal
energy.

Fossil fuels contain energy captured millions of years ago from sunlight by living organisms. The
energy in fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas, and coal comes from energy that producers (plants and
algae) captured from sunlight long ago. Energy stored in these fuels is released by burning them, which
also releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Fig -2.1 Human Energy Use (in TW) Fig-2.2 World Human Population(in millions)

As shown in figures above, fig-2.1 represents increasing world energy usage in terawatts which is
clear indication of increasing need of renewable energy resources to cover human needs. Fig-2.2 above
represents ever growing human population which demands more and more energy.

2.2 SOLAR RESOURCE

Solar energy is the technology used to harness the sun's energy and make it useable. It uses solar
panels that are often arranged on a building or concentrated in solar farms to facilitate a reaction that
converts sun’s light radiation into electricity.
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Fig-2.3 Solar Insolation throughout the globe.

As shown in fig-2.3 above solar insolation is not constant throughout the world, it is more towards
the equator which shows India is a very good contender for solar power generation.

Fig- 2.4 Solar supply well matched to future energy demands

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Fig-2.4 shows that solar supply is well matched to future energy demands of developing nations
like India etc.

2.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE AND POWER GENERATION

A PV cell (can be called as a solar cell) is a semiconductor device that converts the sunlight energy
into electricity without going through any energy conversion steps. This conversion takes place by
photovoltaic effect and hence they are called Photovoltaic (PV) cells. It generates voltage and
current at its terminals when sunlight incident on it.

The more is the power generated, if higher is the light intensity. If the area of the cell is more, the
power generated is also more. And the optimum power is generated by it when light falling is
perpendicular to the front side of the cell.

Irrespective of the technology and material used, every solar cell has two terminals (positive and
negative terminals) so as to take the electric current from it. Typically, a solar cell consists of front
contact at the top, PN junction in the middle and back contact at the bottom.

Basically, the sunlight consists of bundles of photons, where each photon has a finite amount of
energy. To generate the electricity from a solar cell, these photons must be absorbed by it. The
energy of the photon and also the band-gap energy of semiconductor material decide the absorption
of a photon.

Fig-2.5 Basic PV Module Working

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The amount of the electric energy produced by Photovoltaic cells is in proportion to the power and
the angle of the light that comes to the unit area.
• The light that comes with a right angle provides more power generation
• The light that comes from a higher level provides more power generation
Today, the sun cells which have the best conversion rate work with 15-40% efficiency. For
example, let's assume that on a PV with a 10cm2 surface area, a light with 10W of power falls.
The maximum electric power that this cell can produce would be 3W.

2.3.1 TYPES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SOLAR CELLS

There are 4 types of PV cells according to their manufacturing technology.

1. Single or Mono Crystalline Cells: Monocrystalline cells, which are made of pure silicon
surface and a thin structure, are known to have high efficiency. They have two different
manufacturing technologies - Si (Silicon) and Gallium Arsenide (GaAs). The PV cells with
the highest efficiency today are those made of Gallium Arsenide.
2. Polycrystalline: Has a crystalline structure. It has a manufacturing technology in the form
of a thin-film. Cadmium telluride (CdTe) or Copper indium diselenide (CIS) is used in the
structure. Efficiency is not more than 10%.
3. Amorphous silicon: Has a non-crystalline structure. Rate of efficiency is not very high. It
is used in small devices such as calculators and digital dictionaries.
4. Hybrid Solar Cell: It is one of the newest technologies. Organic and chemical substances
are used together in its structure. Even though it has quite a high rate of energy efficiency,
it is not yet in the industrial manufacturing phase.
Photovoltaic Solar Cells Efficiency Comparison

• Monocrystalline Cells (Silicon): 15 – 20%

• Monocrystalline Cells (Gallium Arsenide): 20 – 35%
• Polycrystalline: 10%
• Amorphous: 7 – 10%
• Hybrid: 30 – 45%
2.4 NEED OF TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
The increase in temperature can cause efficiency losses in the PV model. It is estimated that in a
new panel, the generated output power is reduced at a rate of 0.5% per degree Celsius. In PV
models installed in ambient temperature conditions, the heating can be caused by weather
conditions, energy production (PV module temperature) or even due to electrical or mechanical
degradation of cells, leads and terminals.
The PV module performance is strongly affected by the solar irradiance and its temperature.
Therefore, it is important to know the temperature of a solar PV model to predict its power output.

The measurement of temperature in photovoltaic models plays an essential role in testing technical
standards for characterization and approval of panels (IEC 60904 and 61215), in the identification
of generation profiles on installed panels in different climate regions and in determining the
electrical degradation rate of the cells.
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2.4.1 HOTSPOTS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES

There are generally two consequences of hotspots:
• The electricity yield decreases, as individual cells or the entire module are consuming electricity
instead of generating it.
• Unwanted electricity consumption heats up the cells and modules. Aside from the damage to
individual cells and a further reduction in the electricity yield, this can also lead to a real fire risk.

2.4.2 IDENTIFYING HOTSPOTS

In general, faults in the operation of PV systems as of solar radiation of approx. 600 W/m² can be
quickly diagnosed from changes in the thermal properties showing up on a thermal imager. These
kinds of changes occur, for example, due to:
• Defective bypass diodes
• Contact faults and short circuits in solar cells
• Moisture penetration, dirt.
• Cracks in cells or in the module's glass
• Non-functioning or disconnected modules
• So-called mismatches, i.e. loss of performance due to different capacities of individual
modules
• Faulty wiring and loose contacts
• Wear and tear

Fig -2.6 Hotspot Identification

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CHAPTER 3
Temperature Measurement Sensors and
Techniques
It may seem somewhat unreal, but efficiency of a solar panel reduces with increase in temperature.
Standard test condition(STC) specifies which Photovoltaic modules are to be tested at cell
temperature of 25-degree C and an irradiance of 1000W/m2 with air mass of 1.5. Higher
temperature leads to increase in carrier concentration which results in higher recombination rates
and thus overall efficiency is reduced[5].
Hence the need of implementing temperature measurement system which was highly precise, easy
to connect, immune to noise and low in cost arose. Digital sensor-based temperature measurement
systems using sensors like Pt-100, DS18B20, thermocouple is used for nearly accurate results.
Also, temperature measurement using optical sensors working on Fiber Gratings technique has
proved to be an effective way of measuring temperature variations.
Temperature measurement to find hotspots present on the panel is very crucial for proper
functioning of PV module. The electricity yield decreases, as individual cells or the entire module
are consuming electricity instead of generating it. Unwanted electricity consumption heats up the
cells and modules. Beside the harm to singular cells and a further decrease in the power yield, this
can likewise prompt a genuine fire chance. This report shows comparison between different
temperature measurement techniques and sensors used in respective techniques. Temperature
sensors briefly discussed in this report are:
1. PT100(Platinum Resistance thermometers or RTD sensors)
2. DS18B20(One wire digital temperature sensor)
3. Optical Sensor for temperature measurement
4. Thermal Imaging

3.1 PT-100

Fig-3.1 PT-100 Sensor Probe with connector

Platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs) offer excellent accuracy over a wide temperature range
(from –200 to +850 °C). Standard sensors are available from many manufacturers with various
accuracy specifications and numerous packaging options to suit most applications. Unlike
thermocouples, it is not necessary to use special cables to connect to the sensor.
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The principle of operation is to measure the resistance of a platinum element. The most common
type (PT100) has a resistance of 100 ohms at 0 °C and 138.4 ohms at 100 °C. There are also
PT1000 sensors that have a resistance of 1000 ohms at 0 °C [1].
The relationship between temperature and resistance is approximately linear over a small
temperature range: for example, if you assume that it is linear over the 0 to 100 °C range, the error
at 50 °C is 0.4 °C. For precision measurement, it is necessary to linearize the resistance to give an
accurate temperature. The most recent definition of the relationship between resistance and
temperature is International Temperature Standard 90 (ITS-90). For a PT100 sensor, a 1 °C
temperature change will cause a 0.384-ohm change in resistance, so even a small error in
measurement of the resistance (for example, the resistance of the wires leading to the sensor) can
cause a large error in the measurement of the temperature. For precision work, sensors have four
wires- two to carry the sense current, and two to measure the voltage across the sensor element. It
is also possible to obtain three-wire sensors, although these operate on the (not necessarily valid)
assumption that the resistance of each of the three wires is the same.
The current through the sensor will cause some heating: for example, a sense current of 1 mA
through a 100-ohm resistor will generate 100 µW of heat. If the sensor element is unable to
dissipate this heat, it will report an artificially high temperature. This effect can be reduced by
either using a large sensor element, or by making sure that it is in good thermal contact with its
environment.
Using a 1 mA sense current will give a signal of only 100 mV. Because the change in resistance
for a degree Celsius is very small, even a small error in the measurement of the voltage across the
sensor will produce a large error in the temperature measurement. For example, a 100 µV voltage
measurement error will give a 0.4 °C error in the temperature reading. Similarly, a 1 µA error in
the sense current will give 0.4 °C temperature error.
Because of the low signal levels, it is important to keep any cables away from electric cables,
motors, switchgear and other devices that may emit electrical noise. Using screened cable, with
the screen grounded at one end, may help to reduce interference. When using long cables, it is
necessary to check that the measuring equipment is capable of handling the resistance of the cables.
Most equipment can cope with up to 100 ohms per core.
RTD VS THERMOCOUPLE OR THERMISTOR
Each type of temperature sensor has a particular set of conditions for which it is best suited.
RTDs offer several advantages:
• A wide temperature range (approximately -200 to 850°C)
• Good accuracy (better than thermocouples)
• Good interchangeability
• Long-term stability
With a temperature range up to 850°C, RTDs can be used in all but the highest-temperature
industrial processes. When made using metals such as platinum, they are very stable and are not
affected by corrosion or oxidation. Other materials such as nickel, copper, and nickel-iron alloy
have also been used for RTDs[4]. However, these materials are not commonly used since they
have lower temperature capabilities and are not as stable or repeatable as platinum.
Surface Temperature measurement: Measuring the temperature of a surface can be one of the
most difficult to make accurately. There are a wide variety of styles to choose from, depending on
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how you want to attach the sensor, how sensitive to changes in temperature the sensor has to be,
and whether the installation will be permanent.

3.1.1 VARIOUS TECHNIQUES OF USING PT-100 FOR TEMPERATURE SENSING

1.Cell temperature measurement via cell-attached Pt-100 foil-sensors, laminated inside the
module.
2.Surface measurements via attached Pt-100 sensors (with and without heat conductive paste).
3.Surface measurements via an attached Pt-100 sensor with different thickness of layers of
fixation tape to prevent cooling of sensor from ambient.

Fig-3.2 Types of variations using PT-100 Fig-3.3 Image of Variations.

Conclusion on using PT-100 temperature sensing technique:
1. The reported methods for temperature measurements via the backside of the module are not
convincing, the appropriate method is the Voc-method at least for radiation levels above 200
W/m2.
2. The monitoring of the modules temperatures will be continued in order to work out a real
long-term effect for the relation of measured vs. predicted yields with respect to NOCT.
3. For thin film modules (and glass-glass modules in general) the measured NOCT is in the same
range as for modules with a back sheet, but junction temperature is clearly increased.

3.2 DS18B20(One Wire Digital Wire Transfer)

The DS18B20 digital thermometer provides 9-bit to 12-bit Celsius temperature measurements and
has an alarm function with nonvolatile user-programmable upper and lower trigger points. The
DS18B20 communicates over a 1-Wire bus that by definition requires only one data line (and
ground) for communication with a central microprocessor. In addition, the DS18B20 can derive
power directly from the data line (“parasite power”), eliminating the need for an external power
supply.

Each DS18B20 has a unique 64-bit serial code, which allows multiple DS18B20s to function on
the same 1-Wire bus. Thus, it is simple to use one microprocessor to control many DS18B20s
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distributed over a large area. Applications that can benefit from this feature include HVAC
environmental controls, temperature monitoring systems inside buildings, equipment, or
machinery, and process monitoring and control systems.

Fig-3.4 DS18B20 Interfaced with Arduino

The block diagram of the proposed temperature measurement system is given in Fig. 3.5. The
system consists of 9 NTC thermistor sensors that measure temperature of the photovoltaic module.
The temperature acquisition unit is a device used for collect the temperature reading from NTC
thermistor as demonstrated in Fig. 3.4. The temperature acquisition unit consists of a
microcontroller and a temperature measurement circuit board. The microcontroller receives these
temperature readings, digitizes them and sends them serially via its USB protocol to the end user
computer in real time[2]. Matlab software is used to develop an interactive graphical interface to
display the heat distribution of the solar module under test.

Fig-3.5 System Flow Diagram

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The Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistor is a ceramic oxide semiconductor, which
can meet the requirement of high-precision temperature measurement, and thus chosen for use in
this project over the traditional Positive Temperature Coefficient thermistors like the Pt100. The
functional relationship between NTC thermistor resistance and temperature obeys a negative
exponential function of R-T (resistance-temperature) equation. As a result, the NTC thermistor is
primarily used as both a resistive temperature sensor and a current limiting device.

3.2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig-3.6 Block Diagram of sensor working process

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Fig.3.7 illustrates how the 9 NTC temperature sensors are positioned at the back surface of the
mono crystalline PV module. The temperature sensors are placed in such a way that they are evenly
spaced from one another and are labeled T1 to T9 respectively.

Fig-3.7 Placements of NTC Temperature sensors

Fig 3.8: Comparison of four sensors on a single panel

The above graph represents comparison of four temperature sensors on a single panel placed on
different cells.
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3.2.2 ARDUINO CODE

Program code on Arduino for acquisition of data from four sensors on a SD card for further
processing is shown below in fig-3.9.
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3.3 OPTICAL SENSOR FOR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

The literature registers an ever-growing number of publications in the study of fiber Bragg gratings
(FBG) as sensor elements in several areas of the energy sector.
3.3.1 FIBER BRAGG GRATINGS TECHNOLOGY
The FBG is a periodic modulation of the core refractive index along an optical fiber, and it operates
as a filter that reflects a sharp spectral peak at a particular wavelength, that is close to the Bragg
wavelength (λB). Due to the thermo-optic coefficient and photo-elastic constant, when a fiber
Bragg grating is subject to temperature changes (ΔT) or longitudinal mechanical stress (Δl), such
disturbances in the FBG result in a shift in the Bragg wavelength (λB) which can be detected by
an interrogator. For an FBG of Bragg wavelength at 1550 nm (nanometer), the sensitivity of a
single mode ordinary fiber a deformation of 1μƐ (micro strain) results in a shift of 1.3pm
(picometer) and a 1°C variation causes the Bragg wavelength to shift 10 pm[3]. The shift in Bragg
wavelength (Δ𝜆𝐵) with strain and temperature changes can be expressed using Equation (1) where
the first term corresponds to strain and the second term corresponds to temperature changes.

... (1)
Due to the small size of the fiber, to the possibility of sensor multiplexing, response to linear
behavior, high accuracy and sensitivity and immunity to electromagnetic interference (EMI), fiber
sensors have attracted an considerable interest from the researchers, thus FBGs are widely used as
sensor elements, Also, FBGs are also designed for applications in the measurement at high
temperatures (1100ºC), such as boilers, pipes and even nuclear reactors , and measurement at low
temperatures (-253ºC), such as in the monitoring of cryogenic systems.

Fig 3.9 FBGs sensors on the glass cover of the PV module

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During the test in open circuit voltage, as seen in, it should be observed that both the PT100 sensor
and FBGs sensors results exhibit similar trend curves for average temperature[6].

Research and development in the optical sensor field is motivated by the expectation that optical
sensors have significant advantages compared to conventional sensor types, in terms of their
properties. Below is given list of some of the advantages of optical over non-optical sensors.
1.) Greater sensitivity
2.) Electrical Passiveness
3.) Freedom from Electromagnetic interference
4.) Wide dynamic range
5.) Both points and distributed configuration Multiplexing capabilities.

Data analysis was performed comparing the measurements obtained by the optical fiber sensors to
the PT100 sensor data and to thermal imaging obtained with the infrared camera. This analysis
also sought to highlight the behavior of sensors while detecting temperature variations with the
PV module.
3.3.2 FBGS SENSORS VERSUS PT100
During the test in open circuit voltage, it is observed that both the PT100 sensor and FBGs sensors
results exhibit similar trend curves for average temperature.
3.3.3 CONCLUSION
The use of FBGs sensors was proven to be an attractive option to monitor thermal variations of
the PV module. The monitoring process performed along several hours or days does not require
the constant presence of the operator to capture thermal images during data collection.
Due to the fragility of FBGs sensors for use in usual weather conditions, the sensors must be
packaged. The use of small metal tubes for packaging did not cause shadings in the cells, allowing
stable and consistent measurements of the surface temperature of the module, proving to be an
attractive option for this type of application.

3.4 THERMAL IMAGING

Thermal imaging cameras can be used for diagnostics on solar outdoor installations. With
sufficiently high sensor resolution and low thermal sensitivity, smallest defects can be detected in
a time-saving manner.
If parts of the solar panel are hotter than others, the warm areas will show up clearly in the thermal
image. Depending on the shape and location, these hot spots and areas can indicate several
different faults. If parts of the solar panel are hotter than others, the warm areas will show up
clearly in the thermal image. Depending on the shape and location, these hot spots and areas can
indicate several different faults.
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Fig-3.10 Flir Hand Gun Camera(above) and mobile phone enhancement(below) used to click images below
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Fig-3.11 Image captured using Flir Thermal camera on 25 April- 4:45 PM and 12:50 PM
respectively
The above shown figure is captured during experiment at solar panels on UIET Block-1 rooftop.
3.4.1 THERMAL IMAGING PROBLEMS
1.) To achieve sufficient thermal contrast when inspecting solar cells in the field, a solar
irradiance of 500 W/m2 or higher is needed. For the maximum result a solar irradiance of 700
W/m2 is advisable. The solar irradiance describes the instantaneous power incident on a surface
in units of kW/m2, which can be measured with either a pyranometer (for global solar irradiance)
or a pyrheliometer (for direct solar irradiance). It strongly depends on location and local weather.
Low outside temperatures may also increase thermal contrast.
2.) Positioning the camera: take into account reflections and emissivity Even though glass has an
emissivity of 0.85–0.90 in the 8–14 μm waveband, thermal measurements on glass surfaces are
not easy to do. Glass reflections are specular, which means that surrounding objects with different
temperatures can be seen clearly in the thermal image. In the worst case, this results in
misinterpretations (false "hotspots") and measurement errors.
In order to avoid reflection of the thermal imaging camera and the operator in the glass, it should
not be positioned perpendicularly to the module being inspected. However, emissivity is at its
highest when the camera is perpendicular and decreases with an increasing angle. A viewing angle
of 5–60° is a good compromise (where 0° is perpendicular).

Fig 3.12 Viewing angle recommended (green) and to be avoided (red) during thermographic inspections.
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3.) When undertaking thermographic inspections, the sky should be clear since clouds reduce solar
irradiance and also produce interference through reflections. Informative images can, however, be
obtained even with an overcast sky, provided that the thermal imaging camera used is sufficiently
sensitive.

Fig-3.13 Angle dependence of the emissivity of glass

3.4.2 SOLAR THERMOGRAPHY BENEFITS

• Early identification of faults, avoidance of yield loss
• Increasing operational safety, prevention of fire danger
• Fast, safe inspections
• Identification of hotspots, modules at open circuit, short circuits, delamination, cell rupture,
corroded and loose contacts, overheated connection sockets
• Creation of added value for solar engineers and plant operators
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CHAPTER 4
CONCLUSION
The objectives of this report were to evaluate and compare different types of temperature sensors
for long term outdoor monitoring of PV modules, to evaluate the difference between temperature
measurement at the back sheet of PV module, back surface of cells and calculation from VOC, to
evaluate the feasibility of digital temperature sensors DS18B20 for long term PV temperature
monitoring to which following results were concluded:
1. Temperature calculated from Voc give very accurate results at irradiances above 200
W/m2 if parameters of PV module at STC conditions are known.
2. Among sensors attached at the back side, covered PT and TC sensors delivers the best
results in range of 1-2 degree Celsius of lower temperature in average.
3. DS sensors exhibit similar results to PT if they are properly isolated and are more suitable
for simultaneous temperature acquisition at many locations.
4. Thermal imaging is very much dependent on weather conditions around the PV module.
Low outside temperature may also increase thermal contrast.
5. Optical fiber sensors are best in environment having large electromagnetic interference
and show great sensitivity and electrical passiveness.

Comparison PT-100 DS18B20 OPTICAL THERMAL

Basis SENSOR CAMERA
Precision ±0.25ºC ±0.5ºC ±0.1ºC ±2ºC
Economic Provide high Not as accurateViable for lab or Good for large scale
Viability accuracy with as PT-100 but industry solar energy plants
great good for conditions. and places with proper
affordability multiple Not affordable for solar irradiance
sensing. residential
installation
Robustness Proper As robust as Free from external Has very good life and
packaging with PT-100 EM fields and can be used over years
waterproof electrical but its operation needs
material will passiveness. proper weather
make system conditions.
robust
Installation Uses external Uses multiple Uses Optical No need of installation
microcontroller sensors and sensing can be used whenever
for operation microcontroller instruments for needed, uses a battery
with external for operation data analysis, not which has to be
power. very easy to install charged.
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