So far

• First-order systems (linear)

• Second-order systems (linear)

Today

• Higher-order systems (linear)

– when can we approximate as second-order?
• Nonlinear systems
– Review of cases we’ve seen
– Linearization
• Example: pendulum
– DC motor nonlinearities
• Example: load connected with gears; saturation, dead zone,
backlash

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 09 – Wednesday, Sept. 26

The effect of multiple poles
A
C(s) = +
s
B (s + ζωn ) + Cωd
2 +
(s + ζωn ) + ωd2
D
.
s + αr

Images removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see: Fig. 4.23 and 4.24 in Nise, Norman S. Control Systems Engineering. 4th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2004.

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 09 – Wednesday, Sept. 26

 Linear vs Nonlinear (revisited)
f (t) f (t)
Linear spring: Nonlinear spring:
f (x(t)) = Kx(t) f (x(t)) = K(x)x(t)
K(x2 )
K ≡ slope K(x1 )

x(t) x1 x2 x(t)

f (t) f (t)

fc
v(t) ≡ ẋ(t) v(t) ≡ ẋ(t)
fv
Viscous friction:
f (v(t)) = −fv v(t)

Coulomb friction: f (x(t)) = −fc sgn (x(t))

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 09 – Wednesday, Sept. 26

 Linear vs Nonlinear (revisited)
e.g., linear spring e.g., nonlinear spring

Linear system: f (x(t)) = kx(t) Nonlinear system: f (x(t))

p 6= kx(t)
e.g., f (x(t)) = k x(t).
Consider linear combination of inputs
Consider same linear combination of inputs
a1 x1 (t) + a2 x2 (t)
a1 x1 (t) + a2 x2 (t)
Then output is same
linear combination of outputs Then output is not the same
linear combination of outputs
f (a1 x1 (t) + a2 x2 (t)) = k (a1 x1 (t) + a2 x2 (t)) = p
f (a1 x1 (t) + a2 x2 (t)) = k (a1 x1 (t) + a2 x2 (t)) 6=
a1 (kx1 (t)) + a2 (kx2 (t)) = a1 f (x1 (t)) + a2 f (x2 (t)) . p p
a1 kx1 (t) + a2 kx2 (t) = a1 f (x1 (t)) + a2 f (x2 (t)) .

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 09 – Wednesday, Sept. 26

Linearization

f (x) δf (x)

~~f (x)

f (x0) A Images removed due to copyright restrictions.

δx
Output

Please see Fig. 2.48 and 4.24 in Nise, Norman S. Control Systems Engineering.
4th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2004.

x
0 x0 x
Input

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Example
f (x) ≈ f (x0 ) + ma (x − x0 ) Linearize f (x) = 5 cos x near x = π/2.
Answer: We have f (π/2) = 0, ma = −5, so
where ³
¯ π´
f (x) ≈ −5 x − (x ≈ π/2)
df ¯¯ 2
ma = ¯ .
dx x=x0

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 09 – Wednesday, Sept. 26

Linearizing systems : the pendulum

2
L Jd θ MgL sin θ
T 2 dt2 2
T
Mg cos θ
θ Mg θ θ
L
2

Mg sin θ

Mg

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

The equation of motion is found as
M gL
J θ̈ + sin θ = T. (We cannot Laplace transform!)
2
For small angles θ ≈ 0, we have
¯
d sin θ ¯¯
sin θ ≈ × θ = cos θ|θ=0 × θ = 1 × θ = θ.
dθ ¯θ=0

Therefore, the linearized equation of motion is

M gL M gL
J θ̈ + θ = T ⇒ Js2 Θ(s) + Θ(s) = T (s).
2 2

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 09 – Wednesday, Sept. 26

 Some common nonlinearities Case study: motor with gear load
Motor circuit
XLa Ra = 8Ω
Km = 0.5N · m/A
+ + Rotor Kb = 0.5V · sec/rad
Kb = 0.5V · sec/rad
• Saturation ea(t) Armature v (t)
b
circuit
ia(t)
- -
Tm(t)
θm(t)
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.
• Dead zone Motor loading
Tm (t) θm (t)

Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Jm

Please see Fig. 2.46 in: Nise, Norman S. Control Systems Dm
Engineering. 4th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2004. Figures by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Motor loaded with gears N

N11 :: N
N22 =
= 25
25 :: 250
250
Ja = 0.02kg · m2
N1
JL = 1kg · m2
Motor
• Backlash Da = 0.01kg · m2 /sec
Ja , Da DL = 1kg · m2 /sec

N2 JL
DL

Ωo (s) 0.2083 Θo (s) 0.2083

= ; =
Vs (s) s + 1.71 Vs (s) s (s + 1.71)

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 09 – Wednesday, Sept. 26

Saturation

Images removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see Fig. 4.29 in Nise, Norman S. Control Systems Engineering. 4th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2004.

System TF
0.2083
s + 1.71
Input Step function
1
u(t) ↔
s

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 09 – Wednesday, Sept. 26

Dead zone

Images removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see: Fig. 4.30 in Nise, Norman S. Control Systems Engineering. 4th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2004.

System TF
0.2083
s (s + 1.71)

Input Sinusoid

5 sin (2πt) u(t)

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 09 – Wednesday, Sept. 26

Backlash

Images removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see: Fig. 4.31 in Nise, Norman S. Control Systems Engineering. 4th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2004.

System TF
0.2083
s (s + 1.71)

Input Sinusoid

5 sin (2πt) u(t)

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 09 – Wednesday, Sept. 26

 Case study solution \1: electro-mechanical model
Motor circuit
KVL around the DC motor circuit loop
(neglecting the inductance La ) yields
XLa Ra = 8Ω

+ + Rotor
Ra Ia (s) + Vb (s) = Ea (s).
ea(t) Armature v (t)
b
circuit Substituting Ia , Vb from the motor equations,
ia(t)
- -
Tm (s)
Tm(t) Ra + Kb sΘm (s) = Ea (s).
θm(t) Km
Figures by MIT OpenCourseWare.
Recall DC motor equations Tm (t) θm (t)
(in the Laplace domain)
Jm

Figures by MIT OpenCourseWare. Dm

Tm (s) = Km Ia (s);
Vb (s) = Kb Ωm (s).
Assume an equivalent load of inertia Jm and
˙ (t) ⇔ Ωm (s) = sΘm (s),
Since ωm (t) = θm damping Dm , subject to the motor’s torque Tm (s).
we can rewrite the second motor equation as Torque balance on this system yields
Tm (t) = Jm θ¨m (t) + Dm θ̇m (t) ⇒
Vb (s) = sKb Θm (s). Tm (s) = Jm s2 Θm (s) + Dm sΘm (s).
To find an equation relating the source Ea (s) Substituting into the electrical equation from above,
to the motor output angle Θm (s),
· ¸
we must relate the source Ea (s) to the torque Tm (s), Ra ¡ 2
¢
and the torque Tm (s) to the angle Θm (s). Jm s + Dm s + Kb s Θm (s) = Ea (s)
Km

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 09 supplement – Wednesday, Sept. 26

 Case study solution \2: load model
Motor loaded with gears N1 : N2 = 25 : 250
Ja = 0.02kg · m2 Recalling the gear loading relationships from lecture 2,
JL = 1kg · m2 µ ¶2 µ ¶2
Da = 0.01kg · m2 /sec N1 N1
DL = 1kg · m2 /sec Jm = Ja + JL ; Dm = D a + DL .
Motor N1 N2 N2
Ja , Da
Also note that the load shaft angle is related to the
N2 JL motor shaft angle via
DL µ ¶
N1
Θo (s) = Θm (s).
Figures by MIT OpenCourseWare. N2
The last equation from the previous page After substituting the numerical values, we find
can be rearranged and rewritten as a transfer function that the transfer function is of the form
Kt
Θm (s) K 0.2083
Θm (s) Ra Jm = = ,
= " Ã !# Ea (s) s (s + p) s (s + 1.71)
Ea (s) 1 K m Kb ¡ ¢
s s+ Dm + where the system gain K = 0.2083rad/ V · sec2
Jm Ra
and the system pole p = −1.71Hz.
We must now relate the equivalent loads Jm , Dm The extra s in the transfer functions’ denominator
to the actual load that consists of the motor’s own indicates that the system includes an integrator.
armature inertia Ja and compliance Da , We can also obtain the TF for Ωo (s) = sΘo (s)
as well as the load’s inertia JL and compliance DL .
Ωm (s) K 0.2083
The load is connected to the motor via a gear—pair = = .
Ea (s) s+p s + 1.71
of ratio N1 : N2 .
2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 09 supplement – Wednesday, Sept. 26
Case study solution \3: torque-speed curve
Recall the relationship we obtained from KVL
X
La Ra = 8Ω and the motor equations,
+ + Rotor
Ra
Tm (s) + Kb sΘm (s) = Ea (s) ⇒
ea(t) Armature v (t) Km
b
circuit
ia(t) Ra
Tm (s) + Kb Ωm (s) = Ea (s).
- - Km
Tm(t)
θm(t) Inverse Laplace—transforming,
Figures by MIT OpenCourseWare.
Ra
Tm (t) + Kb ω(t) = ea (t) ⇒
Km
Kb Km Km
Tm = − ωm + ea .
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Ra Ra

Please see: Fig. 2.38 in Nise, Norman S.

This relationship on the ωm − Tm plane represents
Control Systems Engineering. 4th ed.
a straight line called torque—speed curve,
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2004.
with slope −Kb Km /Ra and offset Km /Ra .

Km
ωm = 0 ⇔ Tstall = ea Stall torque;
Ra
ea
Tm = 0 ⇔ ωno−load = No—load speed.
Kb

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 09 supplement – Wednesday, Sept. 26