lUNIT-V

CORROSION
Definition
“Corrosion is defined as the gradual destruction (or) deterioration of metals (or) alloys by
the chemical (or) electrochemical reaction with its environment.
Basic reason for metallic corrosion.
Metals are exposed to environment, such as moisture, gases, liquids etc the
exposed metal surfaces begin to decay due to formation of their oxides, carbonates, sulphides,
chlorides and silicates.
1. Noble state
Metals those occurring in nature in native (or) free (or) uncombined state are non-reactive
with the environment. They are noble metals they do not undergo corrosion.
Ex: Au, Pt, Ag
2. Combined state
Expect noble metals ,all other metals are reactive & react with environment and form stable
compounds as oxides, sulphides ,chlorides and carbonates. They exist in the form of stable
compounds called ores& minerals.
Ex: Fe2O3, ZnO, PbS, CaCo3 etc.
CONSEQUENCES OF CORROSION
1. Due to the formation of corrosion product over the machinery, the efficiency of the
machine get lost.
2. The products gets contaminated due to corrosion.
3. The corroded equipments must be replaced frequently.
4. Plant get failure due to corrosion.
5. It is necessary for over design to compensate for the corrosion.
6. Corrosion releases toxic products, health hazard, etc
Reason for corrosion
The metals are extracted from their ores by
reduction. During extraction of metals, energy is
supplied.
Pure metals in excited state (higher energy
content) are unstable, reverse to combined state
(lower energy state) by oxidation process, resulting
corrosion takes place. Due to corrosion, some of the
useful properties of metals such as electrical.
 Classification [Theories of corrosion]
Corrosion is classified into two types
(i) Chemical (or) Dry corrosion
(ii) Electro chemical (or) wet corrosion
Chemical (or) dry corrosion
This type of corrosion is due to the direct chemical attack of metal surfaces by atmospheric
gases such as 02, H2S, S02, N02. There are 3 main types of dry corrosion.
1. Oxidation corrosion
2. Corrosion by hydrogen
3. Liquid – metal corrosion

1. Oxidation corrosion :
Oxidation corrosion is brought by the direct attack of oxygen at low (or) high
temps on metal surfaces in the absence of moisture alkali metal and alkaline earth (Mg, Ca, Sn)
metals are rapidly oxidized at low temp – At high temp almost all metals except Ag, Au, and Pl are
oxidized.

M – M n+ + ne-
n/2 02 + 2 ne- → N0 2−
M n+ + NO 2− → M2 On

metal oxide

Oxidation corrosion mechanism:

(i) Oxidation occurs first at the surface of the metal, resulting in the formation at metal ions (M
2+
), which occurs at the metal / oxide interface
M → M 2+ + 2e-
(ii) Oxygen changes to ionic form (O 2-) due to the transfer of e- from metal, which occurs at the
oxides film / environment interface.
½ 02 + 2e - → O 2-
(iii) Oxide ions reacts with the metal ion to form the metal – oxide film
M + ½ 02 → M 2+ + O 2- = MO [metal oxide film]
One the metal surface is converted to a monolayer of metal – oxide, for further corrosion
(oxidation) to occur, the metal ion diffuses outward through the metal – oxide barrier. Thus the
growth of oxide film commences perpendicular to the metal surface
(Fig).
Nature of oxide film The nature of oxide film formed on the
metal surface plays an important role in oxidation corrosion.
(i) Stable oxide layer
A stable oxide layer is a fine – grained in structure and gets
adsorbed tightly to the metal surface such a larger is unaffected in
nature and stops further oxygen attack through diffusion. Such a film
behaves as a protective coating and no further corrosion can develop.
Ex: Oxides of Al, Sn, Pb, cu etc., are stable oxide layers.
(ii) Unstable oxide layer
Unstable oxide layer is mainly produced on the surface of noble metals, which decomposes
back into the metal and oxygen
Metal oxide ↔ metal + oxygen
Ex: Oxides of Pt, Ag, etc are unstable oxide layers
(iii) Volatile oxide layer
The oxide layer volatilizes as soon as it is formed leaving the metal surface for further
corrosion.
Ex: Molydenum oxide (MOO3) is volatile.

(iv) Protective (or) non-protective oxide film (Pilling bed worth rule)
a) According to pilling bed worth rule, if the volume of the oxide layer formed is less than the
volume of the metal, the oxide layer is porous and non-protective.
Ex: The volume of oxides of alkali and alkaline earth metals such as Na, Mg, Ca etc is less
than the volume of the metal consumed.
Hence the oxide layer formed is porous and non-protective
b) On the other hand, if the volume of the oxide layer formed is greater than the volume of the
metal, the oxide layer is non-porous and protective.
Ex: The volume of oxides of heavy metals such as Pb, Sn, etc is greater than the volume of
the metal. Hence the oxide layer formed is non-porous and protective.

Pilling – bed worth ratio

The ratio of the volume of the metal oxide formed to the volume of the metal consumed is
called “pilling – bed worth ratio”.
PB Ratio = Volume of metal oxide
Volume of metal consumed
If the PB ratio is slightly greater than 1, the metal oxide layer will be protective and non-
porous.
2. Corrosion by hydrogen
(i) Hydrogen embrittlement
Contact of metals with H2S at ordinary temp causes evolution of atomic hydrogen.
Fe + H2 S → FeS + 2 H
Atomic hydrogen diffuses into the metal and collects in the voids, where it recombines in
to molecular hydrogen.
H + H → H2
Collection of these gases in voids develop very high pressure, which causes cracks and
blisters in the metal is called “Hydrogen embrittement”.
(ii) Decarburization
At higher temp atomic hydrogen is formed by the thermal decomposition of
molecular hydrogen.
H2 → 2 H
When steel is exposed to the environment, atomic hydrogen combines with carbon of steel to
produce methane gas.
C + 4H → CH4
 Accumlation of these gases leads to high pressure which causes cracking. The process of
decreases in carbon content of steel is called “Decarburization of steel”
3. Liquid – metal corrosion
It is due to the chemical action of flowing liquid metals [Ex:- Hg mercury] at high temp
with solid metal (or) alloys.]
Corrosion reaction involves
(i) Dissolution of solid metal by liquid metal
(ii) Liquid metal penetrating into solid metal
Wet corrosion [Electrochemical corrosion] conditions
(i) When two dissimilar metals (or) alloys are in contact with each other in the presence of a
aqueous solution (or) moisture.
(ii) When a metal is exposed to varying concentration of oxygen (or) an electrolyte .
Mechanism
Under these conditions one part of the metal becomes anode and another part becomes
cathode.
(i) At anode
i) In the anodic part, oxidation (or) dissolution of metal occurs.
M → M 2+ + 2e-
At cathode
(ii) In the cathodic part, reduction occurs, which depends on the nature of the corrosive
environment.
Acidic environment
a) If the corrosion environment is acidic, hydrogen evolution occurs.
2 H+ + 2e- → H2
Neutral Environment
b) If the corrosive environment is slightly alkaline (or) neutral, hydroxyl ion is formed
½ 02 + 2 e− + H2O → 2OH-
The metal ions from the anodic part and non-
metallic ions from cathodic part diffuse towards
each other through conducting medium and form a
corrosion product between anode and cathode.
(i) Hydrogen evolution corrosion
All the metals above hydrogen in the
electrochemical series have a tendency to dissolve
is acidic solutions with evolution of hydrogen
gas at the cathode.
Ex: When ion metal contacts with non-
oxidising acid like HCl, H2 evolution occurs.
At anode:
Iron undergoes dissolution to give Fe 2+ion
with the liberation of e−s.
Fe → Fe 2+ + 2e-
At cathode:
Liberated electrons flow from anodic to
catalyst part where H+ is reduced.
2H+ + 2e – → H 2 (reduction)
 (ii) Adsorption of oxygen (or) formation of hydroxide ion type corrosion:
The surface of iron is generally coated with a thin film of oxide. However, if the oxide film
develops some crack, some anodic areas will be created on
the surface and the remaining part act as cathode.
Ex: When iron metal contacts with a neutral (or)
slightly alkaline sol of an electrolyte is presence of 02, OH−
ions are formed.
At anode:
Iron dissolves as Fe2+ with the liberation of electrons.
Fe → Fe 2+ + 2e -
At Cathode:
Liberated e-s flow from anodic to cathodic part
through metal where they are taken up by dissolved oxygen
to form OH- ions.
½ 02 + H20 + 2e → 2OH−
Net corrosion reaction is
Fe 2+ + 2OH−→ Fe(OH)↓
If enough oxygen present, rust formation takes place.
4 Fe(OH)2+ O2+ H2O → 4Fe(OH)3 (rust).

Difference between chemical and electro chemical corrosion

Sl. Chemical corrosion Electro chemical corrosion
No.
1. It occurs only in dry condition It occurs in presence of moisture (or)
electrolyte
2. It is due to the direct chemical attack of the It is due to the set up of a large number of
metal by the environment. cathodic and anodic areas.
3. Even a homogenous metal surface gets Heterogeneous surface (or) Bimetallic
corroded contact is the condition
4. Corrosion products accumulate in the same Corrosion occurs the anode, while
place, where corrosion occurs . products formed elsewhere
5. Chemical corrosion is self-controlled Electrochemical corrosion is continuous
process
6. It follows adsorption mechanism It follows electrochemical reaction
Ex: Formation of mild scale on iron Ex: rusting of iron in moist
surface atmosphere
 Types of electrochemical corrosion
1. Galvanic corrosion
When two different metals are in contact with each other in presence of an aqueous
solution (or) moisture, galvanic corrosion occurs. Here, the more active metal [with more negative
electrode potential] acts as cathode.
Zn – Fe couple
Fig (a) rep Zn-Fe couple, in which zinc
(more active) dissolves in preference to iron (less
active metal) (i.e.,) Zn acts as anode of
undergoes corrosion and Fe acts as cathode.
Cu – Fe couple
Fig (b) rep Fe – cu couple, in which Fe
(more active compared to cu) dissolves in
preference to copper (less active) – Fe acts as
anode and undergoes corrosion and Ca acts as
cathode.
Examples:
1. Steel screw in a brass marine hardware
2. Bold and nut made of the same metal is preferred.
Prevention
Galvanic corrosion can be minimized by providing an insulating material between the two
metals.
Differential aeration (or) concentration cell corrosion
This type of corrosion occurs when a metal is exposed to varying concentration of oxygen
(or) any electrolyte on the surface of the base metal.
Example:
Metals partially immersed in water (or) conducting solution (called water line corrosion).

If a metal is partially immersed in a conducting

solution the metal part above the solution is more
aerated and hence become cathodic.
On the other hand, the metal part inside the
solution is less aerated and thus, become anodic and
suffers corrosion.
At anode (less aerated) corrosion occurs
M → M 2+ + 2e ─
At cathode (more aerated part) OH─ ions are produced
½ 02 + H20 + 2e – → 2 OH ─.
Examples:
1.pitting (or) localized corrosion
2. Cervice corrosion
3. Pipeline Corrosion
4. Corrosion on wire fence
5. Microbiological Corrosion
1. Pitting corrosion
Pitting is a localized attack, resulting in the formation of a hole around which the
metal is relatively unattached. Consider a drop of water or aqueous NaCl resting on a metal
surface.
The area covered by a drop acts as an anode due to less oxygen concentration and suffers
corrosion, uncovered area acts as cathode due to high oxygen concentration.

T
he
rate
corrosion will be more, when the area of cathode is larger and the area of anode is smaller.
Therefore more materials removed from the spot as results of small pit is formed on the surface of
the metal.

2. Crevice corrosion
If a crevice between different metallic objects in
contact with liquids, the crevice becomes anodic and
suffers corrosion, due to less oxygen in this area. The
exposed area acts as cathode. The space between the two
metals is stagnant and higher concentration of metal ions
allowing corrosion occurs at the edge of the joint due to
dirt deposits.

3. Pipeline corrosion
Buried pipelines passing from one type of soil to the other(i.e.,clay -less aerated to sand-
more aerated) will get corroded due to differential aeration.

4.Corrosion on wire fence

In wire fencing areas where the wires cross are less
aerated than the rest of the fence. Hence, corrosion occurs at
the crossings, which acts as anodic part.
5.Microbiological corrosion
Some oxygen consuming bacteria present in water or
soils decrease the concentration of oxygen in the medium in
contact with a metal structure which is partially exposed to the oxygen depleted environment, then
the bacterial action may intensify the corrosion due to the differential aeration.
Other examples
i) Corrosion occurs under metal washers, where oxygen cannot diffuse easily.
ii) Lead pipeline passing through clay to cinders undergo corrosion. The pipeline under
cinders is more aerated.

Factors influencing the rate of corrosion

The rate and extent of corrosion mainly depends on
(i) Nature of metal
(ii) Nature of environment

i) Nature of metal
(a) Position in emf series
Corrosion depends on the position of the metal in the emf service. Metals above the
hydrogen in emf series get corroded vigorously.
Lower the reduction potential greater is fine rate of corrosion, when two metals are in
contact the more active metal undergoes corrosion.
 The rate and severity of corrosion depends on the difference in their positions in the emf
series. Greater the difference faster is the corrosion rate.
b) Relative areas of the anode and cathode
The rate of corrosion will be more, when the cathodic area is larger when the cathodic area
is larger, the demand for electrons will be more and this results in an increased rate of corrosion of
metals at anodic area.
c) Purity of the metal
The 100% pure metal will not undergo any type of corrosion. But the presence of
impurities in a metal create heterogeneity and thus galvanic calls are set up with distinct anodic
and cathodic area in the metal.
Higher the % of impurity, faster the rate of corrosion of the anodic metal.
d) Over voltage (or) over potential
The over voltage of a metal in the corrosive environment is inversely proportional to
corrosion rate over voltage & corrosion rate.
Over voltage α 1/ corrosion rate
e) Nature of the surface film
The nature of the oxide film formed on the metal surface decides the extent of corrosion
which can be decided by pilling bed worth rule.
(i) In the case of alkali and alkaline earth metals such as Mg, Ca, etc form oxide, whose
volume is less than the volume of the metal.
(ii)Hence the oxide film will be porous and further corrosion form oxide, whose volume is
greater than that of the metal.
(iii) Hence the oxide film will be non-porous and protective and prevents further corrosion.
f) Nature of the corrosion product
If the corrosion product is soluble in the corroding medium, the corrosion rate will be faster
similarly if the corrosion product is volatile (like MoO3 & MO surface) the corrosion rate will be
faster.
ii) Nature of the environment
a) Temperature
The rate of corrosion is directly proportional to temp. this is because, the rate of chemical
reaction and the rate of diffusion of the ions increases with rise in temp.
Hence the rate of corrosion increases with temp.
b) Humidity
The rate of corrosion will be more when the humidity in the environment is high. The
moisture act as a solvent for the oxygen in the air to produce the electrolyte which is essential for
setting up a corrosion cell.
c) Presence of corrosive gases
The acidic gases like CO2, SO2, H2S and fumes of HCl, H2S04 etc produce electrolytes
which are acidic and increases the electrochemical corrosion.
d) Presence of suspended particles
Particles like NaCl (NH4)2 SO4 along with moisture act as powerful electrolytes and thus
accelerate the electrochemical corrosion.
e) Effect of PH
The possibility of corrosion with respect to PH of the electrolytic solution and the
electrode. Potential of the metal is correlated with the
help of a pourbaix diagram.

Pourbaix diagram for iron in water

It shows clearly the zones of corrosion, immunity

and passivity. ’z’ is the point where PH = 7 and the
electrode potential = ─ 0.4 V. The rate of corrosion can
be altered by shifting the point ‘Z’ in to immunity (or)
passivity regions.
Iron will be immune to corrosion if the potential is changed to about – 0.8V by applying
external current.
On the other hand, the rate of corrosion of iron can also be reduced by moving into the
passivity region by applying positive potential.
The diagram clearly indicates that the rate of corrosion can also be reduced by increasing
H
the P of the solution by adding alkali. Thus the rate of corrosion will be maximum when the
corrosive environment is acidic (i.e.,) PH is less than 7
 CORROSION CONTROL
The rate of corrosion can be controlled by either modifying the metal (or) the environment.
Control of corrosion by modifying the metal.
1. By selection of the metal
Selection of right type of metal is the main factor for corrosion control.
Noble metals are used in ornaments and in surgical instruments, as they are most immune
to corrosion.
2. By using pure metal
Pure metals have higher corrosion resistance. Even a small amount of impurity may lead to
severe corrosion.
3. By alloying
Corrosion resistance of many metals can be improved by alloying.
Ex: Stainless steel containing chromium produce a coherent oxide film, which protects the
steel form further attack.
4. By proper design
Some of the important rules for designing which must be observed are given below
(i) Avoid galvanic corrosion
If two different metals are joined, galvanic
corrosion will occur. In such a cases galvanic
corrosion is prevented by
a) Selecting the metals as close as possible in
the electrochemical series.
b) Providing smaller area for cathode and
larger area for anode.
c) Inserting an insulating material between the two metals.

(ii) Drainage affects corrosion

Tanks and other containers designed in
such a way that, the whole of the liquid should be
drained off completely.
(iii) Avoid sharp corners and bends
Sharp corners (or) edges should always be avoided, and hence corrosion can be avoided by
smooth corners (or) curved pipe bends.

Corrosion prevention using curved pipeline

(iv) Avoid Crevices
Crevices allow moisture and dirt, which results in increased electrochemical corrosion.
This can be prevented by filling the crevices a filler.
Ex: Riveted joints produce crevice corrosion, so welded joints are preferred.
5. By cathodic protection
The principle involved in the cathodic protection is to force the metal to behave like a
cathode. The important cathodic protections are.
(i) Sacrificial anodic protection
(ii) Impressed current cathodic protection
(i) Sacrificial anodic protection method
In this method, the metallic structure to be
protected is made cathode by connecting it with
more active metal (anodic metal). So that all the
corrosion will concentrate only on the active metal.
The artificially made anode thus gradually gets
corroded protecting the original metallic structure.
Hence this process is otherwise known as Sacrificial anodic protection.
Applications
(a) This method is used for the protection of ships and
boats, sheets of Mg & Zn are hung around the hull
of the ship.
Zn (or Mg will act as anode compared to iron (ship
(or) boat is made of iron), so corrosion
concentrates on Zn (or) Mg. Since they are
sacrificed in the process of saving iron. They are
called sacrificial anodes.
(b) Protection of underground pipelines, cables from
soil corrosion (Fig a)
(c) Insertion of Mg sheets into domestic water boilers
to prevent the formation of rust. (Fig b)
(d) Calcium metal is employed to minimize engine
corrosion.
(ii) Impressed current cathodic protection method
In this method, an impressed current is applied in
the opposite direction of the corrosion current to nullify it,
and the corroding metal is converted from anode to
cathode.
This can be done by connecting negative terminal
of the battery to the metallic structure to be protected, and
positive terminal of the battery is connected to an inert
anode.
Inert anodes used for this purpose are graphite,
platinized titanium.
The anode is buried in a “back fill” [containing mixture of gypsum, coke, breeze, sodium
sulphate] .The “ back fill” provides good electrical contact to anode.
 Applications :
Structures like tanks, pipelines, transmission line towers underground water pipelines, oil
pipelines ships etc, can be protected by this method.
Control of corrosion by modifying the environment
1) De aeration
The presence of increased amount of oxygen is harmful and increases the corrosion rate.
De aeration involves removal of dissolved oxygen by increase of temp together with
mechanical agitation.
It also removes dissolved CO2 and H2O.
2) Deactivation
Deactivation is a process of removing dissolved oxygen by adding some chemicals in
aqueous solution.
Examples:
1. Sodium sulphite:
2Na2S03 + 02 → 2 Na2 S04
2. Hydrazine:
N2 H4 + O2 → N2 + 2H2O
3. Dehumidification
In this method, moisture form the air is removed by lowering the relative humidity of the
surrounding air. This is done by adding silica gel (or) alumina, which adsorbs moisture
preferentially on its surface.
4. Alkaline neutralization
The acidic character of the corrosive environment (due to presence of H2S, HCl, CO2 SO2
etc) can be neutralized by spraying alkaline neutralizers(like NH3, NaOH, lime etc)
5. Using corrosion inhibitors
A corrosion inhibitor is a substance which reduces the corrosion of the metal, when it is
added to the corrosive environment.

Types Of Inhibitors
Inhibitors are classified into 3 types
1. Anodic inhibitors
2. Cathodic inhibitors
3. Vapour phase inhibitors

1. Anodic inhibitors
Ex: Chromates, nitrates, phosphates, tungstates (or) other ions of transistion elements with
a high oxygen content.
Anodic inhibitors are those that prevent the corrosion reaction, occurring at the anode,
by forming an insoluble compound with the newly produced metal ions. These precipitates are
adsorbed on the metal (anode) surface, forming a protective film and reducing the corrosion rate.
Though this type of control is effective of may be dangerous since severe local attack can
occur, if some areas are uncovered.
2. Cathodic inhibitors
In an electrochemical corrosion the cathodic reactions are of two types depending upon the
environment.
a) In an acidic solution
Ex: Organic inhibitors like amines, mercaptanes, heterocyclic nitrogen compounds,
thioureas, substituted ureas, heavy metal soaps.
In an acidic solution, the cathodic in evolution of H2 (i.e)
2H+ + 2e - → H2 ↑
The corrosion can be reduced into 2 ways,
(i) By slowing down the diffusion of H+ ions to the cathode. This can be done by adding
organic inhibitors like amines, pyridines etc. Which are absorbed at the metal
surfaces.
(ii) By increasing the over voltage of hydrogen evolution. This can be done by adding
antimony and arsenic oxides, which deposit adherent film of metallic arsenic (or)
antimony at the cathodic area.
b) In a neutral solution
Ex: Sodium sulphite (Na2 So3)
Hydrazine (N2 H4)
In a neutral solution the cathodic reaction is
H2o + ½ O2 + 2e –→ 2OH ─
The corrosion can be reduced in two ways.
(i) By eliminating the oxygen from the neutral solution thereby formation of OH─ ions are
inhibited. This can be done by adding reducing agents like Na2 So3, N2 H4 etc.
(ii) By eliminating the OH─ ions from the neutral solution. This can be done by adding Mg,
Zn, (or) Ni Salts. Those react with OH─ ions form insoluble hydroxides which are
deposited on the cathode forming more (or) less impermeable self-barriers.
3. Vapour phase inhibitors (VPI)
Ex: Dicyclo hexyl ammonium nitrate, benzotriazole etc..
Vapour phase inhibitors (VPI) are organic inhibitor which readily vapourize and form
protective layer on the metal surface. VPI are used in the protection of storage containers. Packing
materials, sophisticated equipment etc.

PITTING CORROSION
In pitting corrosion rapid penetration in some area of metal takes place due to the break down
of the oxide film is some part of the metals like Al,
Ti and alloys like stainless steel are prone to such
kind of attach.
Pitting corrosion is influenced by PH and
temperature of the medium as well as critical
pitting potential. Pitting diminishes (or) slows
down with increase in PH due to the increase of
OH- ions. Increase in temp can decreases the critical pitting potential and increases the pitting rate.
Critical pitting potential in the redox potential of the metal solution able which there is a
sharp increase in the pitting rate.
 This kind of corrosion can happen in the presence of chloride ions (cl-) whereas pitting is
reduced by the oxcenions like S04 2─ , NO3─ , CrO4 2─, SiO3 2─ etc.
Pitting corrosion starts with the small cervices (pits). Once the pit formation is
established the metallic part below the pit becomes anode and further corrosion takes place at
anode area.
The other parts of the metal become cathode and absorbs the liberated e-s from the
anode.

Stress corrosion
Stress corrosion is caused by the conjoint action of a local corrosion attack and tensile stress
in the presence of specific corrosion environment.
Stress corrosion will be severe only when there is severe stress as well as the environment
favoring the stress corrosion.
Ex: Mild carbon steels in the presence of strong alkali solutions produce stress corrosion.
Mg & al alloys are affected by stress corrosion in the presence of chloride ions (cl -).
Stress corrosion starts with preexisting surface discontinuity (or) crack where the stress is
naturally more under favorable environment (or) medium for electrochemical type of corrosion
progress.
For example aluminum alloy (or) stainless steel in the presence of Hydrochloric acid
medicines undergoes stress corrosion.
At the end of the crack stress is concentrated as well as it acts as anode where the metal
deteriorates in to its ion (M 2+ ).

M → M 2+ + 2e- (anode)
The e-s produced at the anode are absorbed at the oxide film which, as cathode. In this type
of corrosion inside the cracks (or) discontinuities
of the metal hydrolysis of water produces acidic
solutions which will further increase stress
corrosion.
O2 + 4H+ + 4e- → 2H2O(cathode)
The stress propagates in 2 way in the
grains of the crystalline metals.
Inter granular stress corrosion propagates
along the grain boundary of the metal.

Usually the metal under stress will have grain boundaries with higher energy levels, which
acts an anode. The grain centres won’t be affected easily by stress and hence they will be in the
normal energy state and acts as cathode. At the anode the deterioration of metal takes place.