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Acute Limb Ischemia
Acute Limb Ischemia
Acute Limb Ischemia
• Watch out for reperfusion injury – which can lead
This occurs when there is blockage of a peripheral
to compartment syndrome
artery, either from a thromboembolism, or
sometimes from an embolic plaque:
• Thrombus in situ 40%
• Emboli – 38% Case Example
• Angioplasty occlusion – 15%
• Trauma 92 year old nursing home patient
• Compartment syndrome rare Painful left leg, sudden onset
Deaf and dementia
Signs and Symptoms Comfortable after 5mg morphine (relatively small
dose)
Classically, the SIX P’s BP 110/40 – probably slightly low
• Pulseless HR 80 irregular
• Parasthaesia RR 16
• Pain – muscles also become tender to palpation Heart sounds normal
after about 68hours Apyrexic
• Paralysis Whole left leg is white and cold
• Pallor Some mottling from foot to just above knee
• Perishing cold Calf is very tender
• Fixed mottling of the skin implies irreversibility Can barely move right leg, but can wiggle toes.
• BEWARE – hot red leg may sometimes be Cannot move left leg at all.
present, which can result in misdiagnosis Pulses on the right are normal.
of gout or cellulitis No palpable aortic aneurysm
No obvious swelling of the leg.
Diagnosis
Aneurysm and AAA
You can roughly localise the blockage by locating
the bifurcation distal to the last palpable pulse. An aneurysm is an artery that has a localised
Diagnosis is clinical dilation, with a permanent diameter of >1.5x that
expected of the particular artery.
Treatment True Aneurysm – the wall of the artery forms the
• It is an EMERGENCY! wall of the aneurysm
22% of cases are fatal
16% of cases result in amputation
• Thrombolytic agent e.g. tissue plasminogen • The most frequently involved arteries are; in
activator (tPA)– most effective when given decreasing incidence: abdominal aorta,
via local arterial catheter (Fogarty iliac, popliteal, femoral and thoracic aorta
Catheter), particularly for occlusions <2 False aneurysm – aka – pseudoaneurysm other
weeks. Therapy is usually given via the surrounding tissues form the wall of the aneurysm
catheter for 824hr
• Open surgery / angioplasty – DON'T BE • These most commonly occur in the femoral artery
AFRAID TO DO THESE! – equally, don’t following femoral artery puncture. If there
be afraid to do angiography in cases of an is inadequate pressure to the entry site of
unsure diagnosis. the puncture, then blood can spill out and
• The decision to opt for thrombolysis over surgery form a haematoma. Eventually the
depends on risk assessment on an surrounding soft tissue will form the wall
individual patient basis (i.e. risks of of the aneurysm.
surgery vs risks of thrombolysis) • I think – the difference between this and a true
• You should use heparin anticoagulation after both haematoma is that in a pseudoaneurysm
surgery and thrombolysis! there is still communication between the
lumen and the fluid collection, but in a
After initial treatment haematoma, there is either no connection,
• Look for a source of emboli – e.g. ultrasounds of or just a one way 'leakage' of fluid..
aorta, popliteal and femoral arteries for
Aneurysms can either be fusiform or saclike. aneurysms, and 15% have popliteal aneurysms.
• Fusiform describes a shape that is tapered at both
ends (a bit like a raindrop with a pointy bit General features of Aortic Aneurysm
at both ends), whilst saclike describes a
more rounded characteristic. Often symptomless, and discovered incidentally
(examination, AXR, ultrasound, CT)
When inspecting an aneurysm you should feel for
them being expansile. This means they expand and
• Mean age of presentation – 65
contract. Swellings that are pulsatile are different –
these do not expand and contract but just transmit the
• Often discovered on AXR – about 65% of cases
are sufficiently calcified to show up on
pulse – e.g. nodes overlying arteries.
radiograph
• Ultrasound is usually used to ‘stage’ the
Etiology
aneurysm. It is accurate at assessing the
site of the aneurysm, and easy to follow up
Despite the different pathology between aneurysmal
cases to asses development. CT is more
and atheromatous disease, the risk factors for both
accurate, and particularly useful at looking
are similar, and include:
at the surround structures (e.g. to see if
• Hypertension
there is any compression) but more
• Smoking
expensive, thus is usually used only for
• Age
preop assessment.
• Diabetes Risk of dissection (bursting). Risk increases with the
• Obesity diameter of the aneurysmA source of thrombus
• High LDL levels formation, which can embolise to the lower limbs
• Sedentary lifestyle
• Genetic factors – are more important in
• Rarely, may be completely occluded by thrombus
aneurysmal disease than in atherosclerotic
disease, although they have a role in both.
Management of Aortic aneurysm
10% of cases have a firstorder relative
also with the condition
The nice guidelines state that an aortic aneurysm of
Specific aetiological factors for aneurysm include: greater than 5.5cm in diameter should be treated.
Below this size, the risk of dissection is outweighed
• Coarctation of the aorta
by the risk of surgery.
• Marfan’s syndrome, and other connective tissue
disorders
• Previous aortic surgery • At 5.5cm the annual risk of rupture is 25%
• Pregnancy (particularly 3rd trimester) • At 6.5cm it is 35%
• Trauma • At >7cm it is 75%
• Incidence increases with age – 5% of men over 60 In some cases, symptomatic aneurysms of smaller
have one size may be operated on.
• Occur 35x more often in men than women
• Pain is thought to be a risk factor for rupture
Complications • Thromboembolus is also an indication for
Aneurysms in themselves do not often constitute a surgery – and can prevent limbloss.
primary problem. They may cause a local Sugery is the treatment of choice. There are two
obstruction (e.g. of IVC), and they can also cause options:Open Laparotomy the affected segment of
impaired bloodflow to the lower limbs. They are also aorta may be clamped and replaced by a prosthetic
a risk factor for thrombosis and embolism. However, segment, (most common a Dacron graft). Graft
the main risk comes from the tendency of aneurysms failure is rare. In a variation of the treatment, the
to dissect and rupture – most commonly an aortic affected artery segment is bypassed.
aneurysm will rupture into the retroperitoneal space.
• Elective repair of aneurysms before rupture is
comparatively safe • Complications are generally rare. There may be
• Repair after rupture has very high mortality kidney problems, and sometimes
paraplegia or ischaemic colitis. fistula
40% of AAA patients also have iliac artery formation with the small bowel can also
occur but is rare. Infection is also rare. may compromise valve function.
• The dissection is sometimes able to track back all
Mortality the way to the pericardium, and can cause
haemopericardium.
Dissection is a medical emergency and has to be
• See 58% in elective asymptomatic AAA treated asap. If the blood manages to escape through
• 1020% for symptomatic emergency AAA all the layers of the wall of the aorta, then rupture is
• 50% for ruptured AAA the result.
• Longterm survival for most patients is almost
identical to the general population Classification of Dissecting AA
Endoluminal surgery – EVAR Endovascular
aneurysm repair an aortic graft is inserted through
the femoral artery, and up into the abdominal aorta. • See Type A – 2/3 of cases. These involve the
This method is generally preferred (lower mortality ascending aorta, and may also include the
1.2%) but many patients are not suitable. There must descending aorta
be at least 2.5cm normal aorta between the aneurysm • Type B –affect the descending aorta only
and the renal arteries to securely fix the graft in
place. Symptoms
Pain
• complications with the actual graft are more
common with the endoluminal technique
than with open surgery. the graft can fail, • Sudden onset, severe pain. Often described as
or it may be moved, allowing blood to tearing¸ and usually radiates to the back.
refill the aneurysm. Although, the risks of • Pain usually follows the line of the dissection
the procedure itself are far less than open • Ascending aorta – pain will be in the chest
surgery. • Descending aorta – pain often in the back
• Generally, rupture cannot be treated by the Collapse (due to hypotension)Expansile (not
endoluminal method, although there are pulsatile) mass in the abdomenShockHypotension
ongoing trials. TachycardiaProfound anaemiaSudden deathOther
signs may include:
Back to top
Dissection and Rupture of AA
• Testicular pain
Death rates from this rises with age:
• Symptoms similar to renal colic
• Symptoms similar to diverticulitis
• Age 5559 – death rate is 12.5 per 100 000
• Nonspecific back pain – this results from gradual
• Age 80+ death rate is 273 per 100 000
erosion of the vertebral bodies in patients
>75% with a ruptured AAA die – usually before
with longstanding aneurysm.
getting to hospital.Of those that do reach hospital,
• If in doubt about the diagnosis; assume ruptured
surgery has a 50% mortality rate. Thus only around
AA!
10% of those with a ruptured AAA will survive.
Investigation
Diagnosis is usually clinical, and needs to be made
Rupture is essentially where the wall of the aorta quickly!
completely fails, and blood escapes freely into a • Mortality in dissection is about 1% per hour
body cavity (e.g. abdominal cavity). • This is much higher if it progresses to rupture!
This is different from dissection! However, Treatment
dissection often leads to rupture.
• Dissection is where blood escapes through the • Type A – require Emergency surgery – usually by
innermost layer of the wall of the artery, open surgery (Dacron Graft). for further
and prises apart the media, creating a new details see above : ‘Management of aortic
lumen. Sometimes, this lumen is absorbed aneurysm’
back into the main lumen, creating a • Type B – often not quite as urgent as type A –
‘doublebarrelled aorta’. This may be depending on the individual case.
stable, but may rupture. If it is close to the Possibility to treat endoluminally, although
aortic valve (thoracic aortic aneurysm) it
open surgery is often still the treatment of A connective tissue disorder, and is sometimes (but
choice. not always) inherited in an autosomal dominant
manner. It is caused by mutations of the fibrinin
Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm gene on chromosome 15. It is very common, and is
thought to affect about 1 in 5000 individuals, 25% of
Usually in the infrarenal segment of the aorta (80%) which will be the result of a new mutation.
These most commonly occur below the level of the Males and females are equally affected.
renal arteryFeatures of pain: Fibrillin1 gene mutations can be seen in 80% of
cases, and aid diagnosis. Testing for this can also be
used to screen other family members in known cases.
• Rapid expansion or rupture will cause epigastric
pain radiating to the back. Pain may also
The most common clinical features are in the
be present in the groin, iliac fossae and
musculoskeletal system:
testicles.
• Arachnodactyly – abnormally long and thin
• Can be a constant or intermittent pain
fingers in comparison to the palm. Fingers
• Be careful not to dismiss it as renal colic!
may also be bent backwards at the MCP to
•
180’ in some cases.
Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm
• Joint hypermobility
• Scoliosis – lateral curvature of the spine
Asymmetrical brachial/radial/carotid pulses if the
• Chest deformity
dissection involves the aortic arch. Variable pattern
• High arched palate
depending on where the dissection is.
• Dislocation of lens in the eye
BP may be different in each arm – under similar
• Patients are usually tall and thin, with long limbs
circumstances to the above.
These are generally mild, features, but the disease
can also have serious complications, including:
Pathology of Aneurysm
Heart valve defectsPredisposes to aneurysms
An aneurysm is a permanent dilation of the vessel
wall. The fact that it is permanent implies that the • There is weakening of the media layer of the
vessel wall itself is altered in some way. aorta, leading to dilation. In these cases,
Atheromatous degeneration is the most common the dilatation typically occurs in the
cause of true aneurysm. Thus the risk factors are the ascending aorta. There may also be valve
same as for CHD: defects (e.g. aortic regurg) which
• Smoking complicate the issue.
• Family history • In Marfan’s Syndrome, the root of the aorta is
• Diabetes typically affected
Lung disorders
• Hypertension
• Age
• Hyperlipidaemia Dura disorders
Most probably pathology
It is thought that as well as the fibrin defects, there
• There is ischaemia of the aortic media where are also problems in TGFβ (transforminggrowth
there is an atherosclerotic plaque. This is factorβ). This is thought to accumulate in heart
as a result of release of macrophage valve and blood vessels, and alter their underlying
enzymes (released when macrophages structure, leading to the complications mentioned
become activatived) that break down the above.
elastic fibres (collagen and elastin)
• There is evidence that various genetic variants of Treatment of Marfan’s
collagen are more susceptible, and this
probably accounts for the familial aspect βblocker therapy – has been proven to reduce the
of aneurysms. rate/risk of dilatation of the aortaMonitoring of aortic
• Where this ischaemia occurs there is loss of the dilatation –via XRay, Echo, MRI or CT can be
normal elastic nature of the media, useful in patients with known Marfan’s. Usually
allowing it to expand. patients are followed up with yearly echo to assess
the size of the aorta. In some cases, elective
Marfan’s syndrome
replacement of the ascending aorta may be very thin!
recommended, to prevent dissection but has a • Tunica Media – this is separated from the intima
mortality of 510%.Avoidance of endurance sports / by the internal elastic lamina. The media is
activitiesIn pregnancy – as both pregnancy and made up of smooth muscle and elastic
Marfan’s are risk factors for AA, then during tissue. In the heart, the elastic tissue is
pregnancy, the aorta is closely monitored by 6 most predominant, but in most arteries,
weekly echo’s. this layer is mostly made up of smooth
muscle.
• Tunica Adventitia – this is a fibrous connective
• If the aortic root >4cm, ceasarian section should
tissue. The external elastic lamina
be considered
separates this from the media. Very small
• β – blocker therapy is safe to continue during
blood vessels can be found in this layer
pregnancy
called vasa vasorum and these filter down
to supply the media.
The intima and innermost media receive
their nutrients from the arterial
lumen via diffusion.
Atherosclerosis
Normal agerelated changes
Epidemiology
These will usually be inconsequential by age 40, and
very common by age 70. They are often termed
• Cardiovascular disorders are the leading cause of
arteriosclerosis. the changes affect all blood vessels,
death in western society
right down to the arterioles. They include:
• In England and Wales, they account for 40% of
• Progressive fibrous thickening of the intima
all deaths:
Ischaemic heart disease is 27%
• Fibrosis and scarring of the muscular and elastic
media
Cerebral vascular disorders 13%
• Accumulation of mucopolyysaccharide ground
• Atherosclerosis is by far the most important cause
substance
• In the developed world the incidence has
• Fragmentation of the elastic laminae
increased massively
• In the US and some European countries,
Ultimately these changes reduce the strength and
incidence has actually peaked and in
elasticity of the vascular wall. Clinically, this will
declining
mean there is dilation of the aorta and coronary
• In the rest of Europe, and in the middle and far
arteries – and this finding is common.
east, incidence is rising rapidly
• In the aorta this can lead to stretching of the aortic
ring – resulting in valve incompetence
Pathology
• Dilation of the aortic arch and thoracic aorta can
also lead to ‘unfolding’ of the aorta –
Atherosclerosis can have 3 main types of
which can be seen in chest xrays as a loss
manifestation:
of the aortic notch, and a widened
• Coronary heart disease – angina, MI, sudden
appearance of the central vascular column
death
in the xray.
• Cerebrovascular disease – stroke, TIA
• Peripheral vascular disease – claudication, critical To compensate for these changes, there is often
limb disorder smooth muscle hypertrophy and production of extra
These situations often coexist, and the pathology is layers of collagen in the internal elastic laminae.
very similar. For example, patients presenting with
stroke or claudication will very likely have coronary
artery disease – and this coexisting disease is an Atherosclerosis
important cause of mortality. This is a disease of the medium and large sized
arteries only. It is very uncommon in arteries of less
Normal artery structure: than 2mm diameter. It is caused by 3 types of lesion:
There are 3 layers of arterial tissue: • Fatty streaks
• Tunica Intima – this is the innermost layer, and • Fibrolipid plaques
has a single layer of endothelium, with a • Complicated lesions
sparse supportive tissue. This layer is very
The major risk factors are: increased amount of LDL’s. These people
• Age develop coronary heart disease in their
• Male gender – premenopausal women in 40’s or 50’s.
particular seem to be a very low risk – ▪ Some patients may even be
being premenopausal is a preventative homozygous for this gene – in
factor. After the menopause, gender this case these patients will often
differences disappear rapidly. HRT also die from coronary heart disease
has no role in reducing the risk – infact in their infancy or teens.
oestrogen therapy appears to increase the
risk. The effect of risk factors is multiplicative, rather
• Hypertension – antihypertensive therapy reduces than additive. Also remember the difference between
coronary mortality, stroke and heart relative and absolute risk. For example a man in his
failure. 30’s with high cholesterol who smokes, is far more
• Smoking – this link is also dose related likely to have an acute event in the next 10 years
• Diabetes than someone of his age who doesn’t smoke with a
• High levels of LDL normal cholesterol – BUT his absolute risk is still
• Low levels of HDL very low.
• Obesity
• Sedentary lifestyle Pathology
• Increased levels of blood coagulation factor VII
• Low birth weight – this is thought to be In atherosclerosis, there is inflammation of the
particularly important. Those with a low arterial wall, characterised by lipidrich deposits of
birth / infant weight are at higher risk of atheroma. These deposits do not cause a problem
adult obesity. Those with a low birth until they become large enough to occlude the artery,
weight and a subsequent level of obesity in or until they ulcerate, or until they become disrupted
adulthood are 23x more likely to die from and a thrombosis forms on their surface.
heart disease than those with a high infant
weight. A low infant weight is often (in the Signs of atherosclerosis appear early in life, for
past at least) associated with low socio instance “fatty streaks” in the arteries of children
economic status. have been noted as young as the age of 7. However,
• Low socioeconomic status these are asymptomatic.
• Genetic factors – often things like hypertension,
The disease is basically characterised by:
hyperlipiedaemia and diabetes run in
families, and are multigenetic. • Fibrosis
HOWEVER – it is also important to • Lipid deposition
remember than families often share the • Chronic inflammation
same environment – and environmental
factors may be involved in the apparent In the early stages of the disease, there may be many
family history link. separate streaks and deposits, but in late disease,
▪ Clinically – we say a significant family these all may be confluent.
history is present when first
degree relatives have had acute Progression
events at <50 years for men and Early atherosclerosis
<55 years for women. Fatty streaks:
• These will occur at areas of turbulent flow, such
However – it is important to note that there are wide as bifurcations, and they are associated
variations in the severity of the disease, even within with abnormal endothelial function.
similar populations. These variations are possibly • They themselves are of no clinical significance,
due to genetic factors. For example; and occur in all populations
• There is an inherited genetic abnormality • They are basically a yellow linear elevation of the
whereby an individual has a lack of LDL intimal lining.
receptors – familial hyperlipidaemia?
about 1 in 500 caucasians are heterozygous Pathogensis
for this abnormality to cope with their
reduced number of receptors, they produce • Endothelial cells will begin to show unusual
adhesion molecules (e.g. ICAM1 and E
selectin). These may be similar to those
seen in acute inflammation.
• This attracts monocytes (macrophages) to the site
– and these can be seen both entering and
leaving the endothelium.
• At the same time, high levels of LDL in the blood
will begin to accumulate in the arterial
wall. It may be that these lipid deposition
sets off an inflammatory reaction, and the
macrophages are attracted like they would
be to any type of inflammation.
• The macrophages entering the arterial wall will
come into contact with these lipid cores,
and will take up the oxidized LDL,
becoming foam cells. The macrophages
will also be activated by the inflammatory
products released by the arterial wall.
• The foam cells can die, and they release their
products, causing the formation of a pool
of lipid. This pool is called a lipid core.
• The activated macrophages will release lots of
their own products. These include
cytokines and growth factors, particularly
PDGF. These growth factors lead to
proliferation of the smooth muscle layer. It
will proliferate towards the lipid pool, and
in an attempt to repair and stabilise the
lesion, it may form a layer around the pool.
The smooth muscle cells change their
phenotype from contractile, to repair –
they now permanently become repair type Advanced atherosclerosis
cells. If inflammation dominates over the repair
If this process of repair is successful, mechanisms of the smooth muscle, then the plaque
the plaque will be a stable may become ‘active’ or ‘unstable’, and this could
atherosclerotic plaque and will lead to ulceration and thrombosis.
remain asymptomatic, unless it • Many more products are released by the
grows big enough to occlude an macrophages, including, IL1, TNFα,
artery. interferon gamma, PDGF and
At some point, T lymphocytes will also invade the matrix metalloproteinases.
plaque. • These can cause the smooth muscle cells
overlying the plaque to thin, and thus the
protective ‘fibrous cap’ covering the
plaque can become weak.
• The macrophages themselves can also digest
collagen struts that are holding the cap in
place.
• These changes in themselves don’t completely
destroy the cap, but make it more
vulnerable to external shearing forces
• When the contents of the plaque become exposed
to the lumen, this can trigger thrombus
formation. This may cause complete
occlusion at the site of the plaque, but the
thrombus may also break off, and cause a
blockage somewhere else.
As the disease progresses, there are: advanced, unstable plaques, the fibrous cap
• More plaques completely ruptures, and not only can some of the
• A greater number of macrophages and t contents escape, but blood can also enter the plaques,
lymphocytes within the plaques forming a thrombus within the remaining cap of the
• Release of more cytokines and growth factors plaque.
(including IL1 and IL6 that are
chemotactic for macrophages The platelets then release serotonin and thromboxane
• Elevated levels of antibodies to pathogens, such A2 and this causes vasoconstriction in the area
as Chlamydia pneumoniae. Some people resulting in reduced bloodflow to the myocardium,
aregue that such organisms (also including and ischaemic injury.
cytomegalo virus, herpes and helicobacter)
have a causatory role (to initially start the A bit about lipids
inflammation) although the evidence for Lipoproteins
this is limited. These are the form in which most lipids are
• In coronary artery disease – elevated levels of transported in the blood. They contain large
inflammatory markers; such as CRP – this insoluble glycerides as well as cholesterol. They
is an indicator of future acute events. have a superficial coating of phospholipids and
• In transplanted hearts – patients with transplanted protein, which make the lipoproteins soluble. The
hearts may have a particularly quickly proteins coating these molecules will often bind to
progressing form of the disease in the specific cell membrane receptors, signalling the
transplanted heart. The pathology of this uptake of that particular phospholipid.
disease is also slightly different from that
of normal atheroma. This further supports There are four main types of lipoprotein:
the theory that the disease is a result of an • Chylomicrons – these consist of 95% triglyceride.
immune problem. To minimize the risk all These carry absorbed lipids from the gut to
heart transplant patients are given lipid the liver.
lowering drugs. • VLDL’s – very low density lipoproteins – these
carry triglycerides manufactured by the
Monoclonal cells – some people have likened the liver, as well as small amounts of
plaques to small benign tumours – because the phospholipid and cholesterol. The primary
smooth muscle proliferation that is part of plaque function of these is to transport
formation occurs from the proliferation of one cell; triglycerides to peripheral tissues. These
the cell clones itself many times. In this way, the are the largest of the ‘DLs’.
growth factors can be thought of as ‘mutagens’, • LDL’s – low density lipoproteins – these contain
although efforts to localise and identify a single very few triglycerides, a few more
mutagen have been unsuccessful. lipoproteins, and lots and lots of
cholesterol! These are the ‘bad
Disease Progresssion cholesterol’. Their primary role is to
deliver cholesterol to peripheral tissue.
Individual plaques even within the same patient will • HDL’s – high density lipoproteins – these are the
progress at different rates. This rate is strongly smallest of the ‘DLs’. They have roughly
linked to mechanical stress – the greater the stress, equal amounts of lipid and protein. The
the greater the proliferation. lipids are mainly phospholipid and
Vulnerable plaques are those in a place of high cholesterol. These will transport excess
mechanical stress, with a lipidrich core and a thin cholesterol back from peripheral tissue to
fibrous cap. the liver to excretion in the bile! They are
Stable plaques have a thick fibrous cap, possibly ‘good cholesterol’.
with calcification, and they have a small lipid pool,
and many collagenous crossstruts. Lifecycle
• It is thought that lipid lowering therapy helps to The liver will synthesise VLDL’s. These will then be
stabilise vulnerable plaques. released into the blood to deliver triglycerides to the
Thrombus formation on plaques peripheral tissues. Lipoprotein Lipase will remove
lots of triglycerides from these lipoproteins, creating
There are two different mechanisms. Either the intermediate density lipoproteins. These will then go
fibrous cap of the plaque itself gets a superficial back to the liver, where they will have more of their
injury, and a thrombus forms on it, or, in more
triglycerides removed, and lots of cholesterol added Delirium
to them. They will then be released as LDL’s to
deliver cholesterol to peripheral tissue. Delirium is defined as an acute and fluctuating
LDL’s are absorbed by receptor mediated disturbance in level of consciousness, attention and
endocytosis into peripheral cells. The amino acids global cognition.
and cholesterol will be released into the cytoplasm.
Cholesterol not used by the cell will diffuse back out
• Prompt treatment is required to avoid potential
of it. It will diffuse back into the blood, where it will
brain damage.
be taken up by HDL’s and then taken back to the
• The underlying mechanism is poorly understood,
liver. They will have their cholesterol removed for
but believed to involve neurotransmitter
excretion, and the HDL’s will then continue in the
abnormalities and inflammation.
blood stream to pick up more cholesterol.
Epidemiology
Prevention
Primary prevention aims to prevent the disease in the Delirium occurs most commonly in the elderly and
first place, and involves: very young.
• Cessation of smoking • It is predicted that 10% of patients over 65 show
• Control of BP signs of delirium on admission to hospital.
• Weight reduction • Affects 15% of inpatients.
• Regular exercise
• Dietary modifications Signs and Symptoms
Diets that are low in saturated fat are
particularly associated with a • Reduced level of consciousness;
reduced risk of disease • Psychiatric symptoms:
Fatty acids found in fish also have Disorientation (time/place/person);
cardioprotective effects – thus it Inattention;
is recommended you eat at least Illusions/hallucinations;
2 portions of oily fish per week. Altered personality;
Mood disorders;
Secondary prevention aims to reduce the risk of
Speech disorders (slurred
acute events in the presence of atheroma. It basically speech/aphasic error/chaotic
involves the use of drugs, but you should remember pattern).
these drugs are intended for long term use after an • Lacking insight.
MI and are not involved in the acute treatment of a • These symptoms fluctuate over the course of the
recent MI. day and tend to be worse at night. Patients
may show signs of hyperactivity (typically
Generally patients should be offered a combination in withdrawal states) or lethargy (common
of the following 4 drugs: in hepatic encephalopathy).
• ACE inhibitor
• Aspirin Causes
• Βblocker
• Statin CNS
Stroke, abscess, tumour, subdural haematoma
COBRAA mnemonic for Secondary Prevention in Drugs (or withdrawal)
ACS Anticholinergics, antiemetics, antipsychotics,
• C – Clopidogrel – antiplatelet agent corticosteroids, digoxin, levodopa, TCAs, opioids,
• O – Omacar – Omega 3 alcohol
• B – Bisoprolol – βblocker Endocrine
• R – Ramipril – ACEi Hyperparathyroidism, hyper/hypothyroidism
• A – Aspirin Infection/injury
Encephalitis, meningitis, pneumonia, sepsis, UTI,
burns, hypothermia
Metabolic
• A – Atorvastatin – very potent statin! Acidbase disturbance, hepatic encephalopathy,
uraemia, hypo/hyperglycaemia, electrolyte
abnormalities, thiamine/vitamin B12 deficiency Treating the underlying cause or removing
Other aggravating drugs is the principle treatment.
Postoperative states, other mental disorders, sleep Environmental management: nurse patients in a quiet
depravation and welllit room.
Minimise sensory deficits (check hearing
Diagnosis aids/glasses etc.)
Agitation can be managed with haloperidol (0.5
• A collateral history is needed to determine if the 1.0mg PO) or lorazepam (0.51.0mg PO), however,
changes in mental status are recent and the they should be avoided as they may worsen or
patients normal level of functioning. prolong delirium.
• This would be different in a patient with
dementia, where the memory problems are Dementia
more likely to be chronic with a gradual
onset. Patients with dementia are also less Dementia is a progressive global decline cognitive
likely to have inattention or impaired level function, without impairment of consciousness.
of consciousness until the later stages of There are many causes of dementia, but the two most
disease. common are:
• Alzheimer’s disease (~4050%)
Delirium Vs. dementia • Diffuse vascular disease (aka multiinfarct
dementia) ~25%
Delirium • In practice it is often difficult to differentiate the
Sudden onset and fluctuating course over days type of dementia present
weeks
Variation in level of consciousness Epidemiology
Impaired attention Very rare <55 years 510% prevalence in >65’s 20%
Psychomotor changes in >80 years 80% in >100 years
Etiology
Dementia
Gradual onset, slowly progressive over months – Alzheimer’s disease
years • Genetic predisposition
Consciousness unimpaired About 15% of cases are familial. These
Attention preserved fall into to two categories:
Often Normal An early onset autosomal dominant
disease
A later onset type of disease, whose
It is also important to take a drug history (consider inheritance is variable
any with CNS effects or new additions as a potential The most common gene mutation is
cause) and alcohol history.A minimental state apoE4 although mutation of this
examination is likely to show deficits in attention gene does not necessarily mean
(e.g. immediate repetition of 3 objects).Diagnostic you will develop Alzheimer’s.
tools such as the Confusion Assessment Method • Insulin resistance may be a predisposing factor
(CAM) states that the following features are • Female:Male ratio = 2:1
diagnostic: • The majority of cases are sporadic
• No environmental factors have yet been proven
• Acute change in cognition which fluctuates Cholesterol, atherosclerosis and
during the day; inflammation are thought to be
• Inattention; implicated
• Disturbance of consciousness; Symptoms
• Disorganised thinking.
The patient should be examined to look for potential General symptoms of Alzheimers and Vascular
sites of infection or any focal neurological signs dementia
(suggesting a structural CNS disorder. • Memory loss – this is usually the first symptom to
appear
Treatment The damage to brain tissue is not
universal, and thus some areas of
memory, notably other vascular sings, for example:
autobiographical and political • Raised BP
memory is stored in areas that • Past strokes
are less often affected. • Sudden onset / stepwise increase of symptoms
Short term memory is more readily
affected, and confusion may Diagnosis
often result. For example,
patients may buy many identical
The main symptom is usually confusion. Diagnosis
items of food on separate
is usually clinical, and made with the help of the
occasions, and then wonder why
MMSE (MiniMental State Exam). Sometimes, IQ
their cupboards are full of these
tests (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, may also be
items.
used). However, as confusion is often apparent, you
• Visuospatial problems – patients may be easily
may have to perform many other tests to rule out
disorientated by unfamiliar surroundings
other differentials. The later on in life the
• Emotional disturbance
presentation, the less likely it is to be investigated.
• Loss of normal social behaviour
Always assume confusion is due to an acute illness
• Language problems Problems both
until proven otherwise. This might mean, depending
understanding what is being said, and
on the history, that you are going to have to do a lot
naming objects
of blood tests:
• Concentration issues
• Vitamin deficiencies ↓folate, ↓B12, ↓thiamine –
• Short attention span Also unable to plan,
these could be primary deficiencies, or
organise, or sequence activities
may be alcohol related.
• Behavioural changes Delusions (persecutory),
• TFT’s – thyroid problems
agitiation, aggression, wandering
• Variable mood
• FBC – anaemia
• U+E’s – renal failure / dehydration
• Poor sleep
• LFT’s – carcinoma, cirrhosis, encephalopathy
• Restlessness
• Hallucinations • Glucose – diabetes
• Apathy • CRP/ESR – acute infection
• Imaging of the brain – CT/MRI – this may be
• Depression / euphoria Severe depression is rare,
used to exclude treatable space occupying
due to loss of insight
lesions, such as:
Hydrocephalus
In later stages of the disease, there may also be:
Tumour
• Selfneglect
Subdural haematoma
• Change in personality – which generally involves
HOWEVER – the most common
loss of inhibition
abnormality seen on brain scan is
• Motor and sensory abnormalities
general atrophy.
• Seizures
History
This is very important. Dementia is slowly
In very late stage disease there may be:
progressive, and the symptoms may have started
• The patient may become mute
years ago. It is highly likely you will need to speak
• They may take little interest in anything
to relatives as well as to the patient themselves
• Parkinsonianism
• Wasting
Differentials for Confusion
• Seizures
• Incontinence
• Alcohol abuse
These can be particularly distressing for relatives. • Substance misuse
• Diabetes
In Alzheimer’s disease the progression of the • Dementia
symptoms is always gradual, but in diffuse vascular • Delusion
disease, the symptoms are more likely to occur • Infection (UTI is particularly common)
acutely. There is often a ‘stepwise progression’, as • Dehydration
more small infarcts cause damage. • Constipation
• Acute confusional state
In cases of vascular dementia you may also find • Renal failure
• Tumours (meningioma) • Shuffling gait with small steps – marche a petits
• Subdural Haematoma pas – sometimes called atherosclerotic
• Parkinson’s Parkinson’s disease.
• Syphilis There is often also a history if TIA’s
Pathogenesis Differentiating types of dementia
Alzheimers dse In the past, as long as B12 and TSH levels were
normal, this was not necessary, however, these days,
• The mean survival is 7 years. Most will survive there are specific treatments for Alzheimer’s. The
between 27. types of dementia can be differentiated by a
• Death usually results from bronchopneumonia combination of; history, CT/MRI and
• There is a general atrophy of brain tissue, and the neuropsychological testing.
weight of the brain is usually reduced. The
frontal and temporal lobes are particularly Making a will
affected. If the disease is discovered early enough, then it is
• There is often compensatory dilatation of the possible to make a will, and/or an advanced directive
ventricles, resulting in hydrocephalus. before the patient becomes to ill for one of these to
• The cerebellum and spinal cord are normal be accepted by law. The patient must be able to:
• There is a build up of amyloid plaques in the • Understand and retain the information involved
brain. These are the breakdown products of • Believe the information is true
amyloid factors. • Demonstrate they are able to weigh up the pro’s
• There is also atrophy of cholinergic fibres that run and con’s of an argument and come to a
from the hippocampus to the cerebral decision based on these
cortex. Initially there is a reduction on
cholinergic transmission, and later a
reduction in the synthesis of acetylcholine, Management
particularly in the cerebral cortex itself. In all types of the disease, the management is only
• The damage is variable, and can occur at different able to reduce the rate of progression of the disease.
rates in different parts of the brain. Most There is no cure.
likely to be affected are the Amygdala,
temporal cortex, and a few selected Alzheimers
brainstem nuclei. Anticholinesterase drugs – e.g. donepezil,
• There is no change in the number of muscarinic galantamine, rivastigmine
receptors, but the number of nicotinic • Mechanism – these drugs work by inhibiting
receptors is reduced. cholesterases, and thus increasing
• In very late stage disease there can be variable cholinergic transmission within the brain.
depletion of other neurotransmitters • Unwanted effects – anorexia, nausea, vomiting,
• There may be the excess deposition of beta diarrhoea, abdo pain, insomnia, confusion,
amyloid in the brain – leading to the agitation, headache
formation of betaamyloid plaques. Note that some of these effects are
Vascular Dementia similar to the clinical symptoms
This is the result of many small infarcts. of Alzheimer’s!
Cerebrovascular disease has to be pretty advanced • Clinical use – will delay the decline of cognitive
for vascular dementia to become apparent, as large impairment in 40% of patients – probably
parts of the cortex have to have been affected. only by about 36 months.Probably more
The disease will have a stepwise progression, so for effective in those without the gene apoE4.
instance, there will be no apparent change in the Important to assess efficacy, and to stop
condition, perhaps for many months, and then there treatment in those who do not
is a sudden drop in function. Infarcts are particularly respond.
likely to affect function if they damage the white Rapid decline is seen when the drug is
matter. stopped in previously responsive
individuals
As well as dementia, eventually there may be: Have functional benefits that may
• Pseudobulbar palsy improve QOL.
NMDA receptor antagonists – memantine maintenance therapy
• Mechanism – an inhibitor of glutamate NMDA • Anticholinesterases and memantine – may have
receptors. It binds selectively, depending some benefit in vascular dementia.
on the voltage, and thus prevents
excitotoxicity, without altering gluatamtes The burden of care
role in normal memory and learning. The course of the disease is often distressing for both
• It can be given WITH anticholinesterases families and patient. Supportive care is necessary to
• Unwanted effects: ensure the patient stays in a familiar home
Diarrhoea, insomnia, dizziness, environment as long as possible. Often the burden of
headache, hallucinations care falls to relatives.
Again, note that some of these are • Some recent evidence suggests that engaging in
similar to symptoms of cognitively taxing activities late on in life
dementia! can protect against dementia!
• Clinical use • Vitamin E – has shown in some instances to
Usually more well tolerated than protect against dementia
anticholinesterases, but probably
not as effective Other types of dementia
May provide some benefit in cognitive Lewybody dementia (~1525% of all cases of
function, and may slow cognitive dementia)
decline This is characterised by the presence of Lewy bodies
• Not widely used in the brainstem and neocortex. It can be
differentiated from other types of dementia by:
### Drug treatment should only be initiated in those • Symptoms fluctuate
with a MMSE of >12! ### • Permanent memory dysfunction is not apparent in
This is mild to moderate dementiaNICE guidelines the early stages
state: • Associated with Parkinsonianism
• Associated with depression and sleep disturbance
• Treatment to be reviewed every 6 months • Causes visual hallucinations – often frightening
and persecutory
• Don’t treat if MMSE <12, as side effects of drug
• There may be transient LOC
likely to outweigh benefits
The drug rivastigmine may help to improve
• Treatment only to be administered and monitored
symptoms
by specialist centres
• Don’t rely on MMSE as your only tool for aiding
Frontotemporal dementia
prescribing, e.g. get collateral histories,
In this condition there is atrophy of the fronto
assess function and behaviour
temporal region, without the histology seen in
Drug therapy is controversial
Alzheimer’s. it may be difficult to differentiate from
Alzheimer’s, but behavioural/personality change are
• Drugs are expensive more likely to occur early on, and things like
• Some trials have shown no benefit of the drugs memory and spatial awareness may be preserved for
over placebos longer. There is often massive disinhibition.
• In many cases it is thought that they at least allow
a few more months in a home care Rare causes
environment • Whipple’s disease
Vascular Dementia • Parkinson’s disease
Prevention • Alcohol/drug abuse
Reduction of vascular risk factors: • Huntington’s disease
• Aspirin or warfarin therapy – aspirin often quoted • CJD
anecdotally, but there is actually now • HIV
evidence that the sort of low dose therapy • Pick’s disease
that many individuals take provides any Differentials for Dementia
benefit against vascular dementia. Some at • Pseudodementia – seen in mood disorders(e.g.
risk patients may be put on warfarin
depression). Symptoms mimic depression
therapy.
– e.g. a decline in cognitive function, but
• Controlling BP – use normal system (ACD
will resolve when the mood disorder is
(+B)) for initiating bloop pressure
treated. There is also often a history of
depression or other mental illness
• Delerium
• Mild/moderate learning difficulties