1.

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES & MEASUREMENTS

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

a. Definition of Physics
 Physics, the most fundamental science, is concerned with the basic principles of
the Universe. It is one of the foundations on which the other physical sciences –
astronomy, chemistry, and geology – are based.

 Physics is the study of the properties and nature of matter, the different forms of
energy and the ways in which matter and energy interact in the world around us.
To understand physics, we need to know Model, Theories and Laws in
describing a phenomenon.

 The study of the laws that determines the structure of the universe with
reference to the matter and energy of which it consists. It is not concerned not
with chemical changes that occur but with the forces that exist between objects
and the interrelationship between matter and energy.

b. The goal of Physics

The goal of Physics is to provide an understanding of nature by developing
theories based on experiments

c. The beauty of Physics

The beauty of Physics lies in the simplicity of its fundamental theories and in
the way just a small number of basics concepts, equations, and assumptions can
alter and expand our view of the world.

d. The areas of Physics

Physics can be divided into five areas:

i. Mechanics :- which is concerned with the effects of forces on material objects.

Also covers the main concepts of physics, e.g. forces, energy and the properties
of matter.
ii. Thermodynamics :- which deals with heat, temperature, and the behavior of
large numbers of particles. Also explains heat energy in terms of its
measurement and the effects of its presence and transference. Includes the gas
laws.
iii. Electromagnetism :- which deals with charges, currents, and electromagnetic
fields. Also explains the forms, uses and characteristics of these two linked
phenomena.
iv. Relativity (Year : 1905) :- a theory that describes particles moving at any speed,
and connects space and time
v. Quantum Mechanics (Year: 1900) :- a theory dealing with behavior of particles
at the submicrospic level as well as the macroscopic world
 Since the turn of the century, however, quantum mechanics and relativistic
physics have become increasingly important; the growth of modern physics has
been accompanied by the studies of atomic physics, nuclear physics (1896) and
particle physics.

e. Some terms of Physics

i. Astrophysics : - The Physics of astronomical bodies and their interactions.

Astrophysics also studies the physical and chemical processes involving
astronomical phenomena. Astrophysics deals with stellar structure and evolution
(including the generation and transport of energy within stars), the properties of
the interstellar medium and its interactions with stellar systems, and the
structure and dynamics of systems of stars and systems of galaxies.

ii. Geophysics : - The branch of science in which the principles of mathematics and
physics are applied to the study the earth’s crust and interior. It includes the
study of earthquake waves, geomagnetism, gravitational fields, and electrical
conductivity using precise quantitative principles. In applied geophysics the
techniques are applied to the discovery and location of economic minerals (e.g.
petroleum).
iii Biophysics :- The study of the physical aspects of biology.
iv. Theoretical Physics : - The study of physics by formulating and analyzing
theories that describe natural processes. Theoretical physics is complementary
to the study of physics by experiment.
v. Experimental Physics : - The study of physics by experiment
vi. Mathematical Physics :- The branch of theoretical physics concerned with the
mathematical aspects of theories in physics
vii. Thinking Physics : - The study of Physics which emphasis more on critical
thinking and teaching physical concepts
viii. Laws :- A law is a descriptive principle of nature that holds in all circumstances
covered by the wording of the law. Some laws are named after their discoverers
(e.g. * Boyle’s law); some laws, however, are known by their subject matter to
describe them (e.g. * the law of conservation of mass), while other laws use
both the name of the discoverer and the subject matter to describe them (e.g. *
Newton’s law of gravitation).
ix. Theory :- A description of nature that encompasses more than one law but has
not achieved the uncontrovertibly status of a law . Theories are often both
eponymous and descriptive of the subject matter (e.g. Einstein’s theory of
relativity and Darwin’s theory of evolution).
x. Hypothesis :- A theory or law that retains the suggestion that it may not be
universally true. Some hypothesis about which no doubt still linger have
remained hypotheses ( e.g. Avogadro’s hypothesis ) for no clear reason.
1.2 QUANTITIES & UNITS

 All things in classical mechanics can be expressed in terms of the fundamental

dimension or unit:
Dimension Unit
Length L meter
Mass M kilogram
Time T second

 For example:
Speed has dimension of L / T (i.e. Km per hour).
Force has dimension of ML / T2 etc...

Length:
Distance Length (m)
Radius of visible universe 1 x 1026
To Andromeda Galaxy 2 x 1022
To nearest star 4 x 1016
Earth to Sun 1.5 x 1011
Radius of Earth 6.4 x 106
Sears Tower 4.5 x 102
Football field 1.0 x 102
Tall person 2 x 100
Thickness of paper 1 x 10-4
Wavelength of blue light 4 x 10-7
Diameter of hydrogen atom 1 x 10-10
Diameter of proton 1 x 10-15

Time:
Interval Time (s)
Age of universe 5 x 1017
Age of Grand Canyon 3 x 1014
32 years 1 x 109
One year 3.2 x 107
One hour 3.6 x 103
Light travel from Earth to Moon 1.3 x 100
One cycle of guitar a string 2 x 10-3
One cycle of FM radio wave 6 x 10-8
Lifetime of neutral pi meson 1 x 10-16
Lifetime of top quark 4 x 10-25
Mass:
Object Mass (kg)
Milky Way Galaxy 4 x 1041
Sun 2 x 1030
Earth 6 x 1024
Boeing 747 4 x 105
Car 1 x 103
Student 7 x 101
Dust particle 1 x 10-9
Top quark 3 x 10-25
Proton 2 x 10-27
Electron 9 x 10-31
Neutrino 1 x 10-38

Units...
 SI (System International) Units:
mks: L = meters (m), M = kilograms (kg), T = seconds (s)
cgs: L = centimeters (cm), M = grams (gm), T = seconds (s)

 Derived Units :
Newton, Joule, Watt, Ohm …. and etc.

 British Units:
Inches, feet, miles, pounds, slugs...
fps : L = foot, M = pound, T = second

We will use mostly SI units with mks system, but you may run across some problems (rarely
happen) using British units. You should know how to convert back & forth.

The 7 International System of Units (SI)

Quantity SI Units Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram Kg
Time second s
Electric current Ampere I
Temperature kelvin K

Luminous Intensity candela cd

Amount of Substance mol mol

Derived Units

Quantity Unit Abbreviation In terms of Base

Units
Force Newton N kg ms-2
Standard
Energy & Work Joule J kg m2s-2 Prefixes : used to
Power Watt W kg m2s-3 denote multiple
of ten
Pressure Pascal Pa kg / (ms2 )
Factor Charge
Electric Prefix Coulomb
Symbol Factor
C Prefix A Symbol
s
10-1
Electric deci Volt d 10
V
1
deka
kg m2 / (A sda
3
)
Potential
10-2 centi c 102 hecto h
Capacitance Farad F A2 s4 / (kg m2 )
10-3 milli m 103 kilo k
Inductance Henry H kg m2 / (s2 A2 )
10-6 micro m 106 Mega M
Magnetic Flux Weber Wb9 kg m / (A s2 )
2
10-9 nano n 10 Giga G
10-12 pico p 1012 Tera T

10-15 femto f 1015 Peta P

10-18 ato a

1.3 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

 Grab the whole picture !

Measurement Quantiti
s es

Units Instruments Scalar Quantities

Vector Quantities
Dimension Accuracy & Uncertainty
Analysis
Significant Figures

DIMENSIONS
Many physical quantities can be expressed in terms of a combination of fundamental
dimensions such as

[Length] L
[Time] T
[Mass] M
[Current] A
[Temperature] θ
[Amount] N

The symbol [ ] means dimension or stands for dimension

There are physical quantities which are dimensionless:

 numerical value
 ratio between the same quantity angle
 some of the known constants like ln, log and etc.

Dimensional Analysis
Dimension analysis can be used to:
 Derive an equation.
 Check whether an equation is dimensionally correct. However, if an equation is
dimensionally correct, it doesn’t necessarily mean it is correct.
 Find out dimension or units of derived quantities.

Derived an Equation (Quantities)

Example 1:
Velocity = displacement / time
[velocity] = [displacement] / [time]
= L/T
= LT-1
v = s/t

Example 2: The period of a pendulum

The period P of a swinging pendulum depends only on the length of the pendulum l and the
acceleration of gravity g.
l
T =k
g

What are the dimensions of the variables?

t →T
m→M
ℓ →L
g → LT-2

Write a general equation:

By using the dimension method, an expression could derived that relates T, l and g
T α ma ℓ bgc
whereby a, b and c are dimensionless constants
Thus
T = kma ℓbgc

Write out the dimensions of the variables

[T] = [ma][ℓ b][gc]
= MaLb(LT-2)c
= MaLbLcT-2c
T = MaL b+c T-2c
1

Using indices
a =0
 l
T =k
g

-2c = 1 → c = -½
b+c =0
b = -c = ½
a b c
T = km ℓ g
T = km0 ℓ½g-½
l
T = 2p
g
Whereby, the value of k is known by experiment

Exercises

The viscosity force, F going against the movement of a sphere immersed in a fluid depends
on the radius of the sphere, a, the speed of the sphere, v and the viscosity of the fluid, η. By
using the dimension method, derive an equation that relates F with a, v and η.
Fl
(given that h = )
Av

To check whether a specific formula or an equation is homogenous

Example 1
s= vt
[s] = [v] [t]
L.H.S [s] = L

R.H.S [v] [t] = LT-1T

=L
Thus, the left hand side = right hand side, rendering the equation as homogenous

Example 2
F
Given that the speed for the wave of a rope is C = , check its homogeneity by using the
m
dimensional analysis.

F
C2 =
m
[ F]
[ C]
2
=
[ m]
L.H.S. [ C ] = [ LT-1]2
= L2T-2

R.H.S. [ C ] = MLT-2, [ m ] =M

[ F ] = MLT -2 = LT 2
[ m] M
Conclusion: The above equation is not homogenous (L.H.S ≠ R.H.S)

Exercises
Show that the equations below are either homogenous or otherwise

v = u + 2as
s = ut + ½ at2

Find out dimension or units of derived quantities

Example
m
Consider the equation T = 2p , where m is the mass and T is a time, therefore dimension
k
of k can be describe as
m
T = 2p
k
m
T 2 = 4p 2
k
m
k = 4p 2 2
T
[ m] M
[ k] = 2 = 2
�
� T �� T
= MT-2 → unit: kgs-2
thus, the units of k is in kgs-2

Exercise
The speed of a sound wave, v going through an elastic matter depends on the density of the
elastic matter, ρ and a constant E given as equation v= E½ - ρ-½. Determine the dimension for
E in its SI units

Dimensional Analysis
Example:
The period P of a swinging pendulum depends only on the length of the pendulum l and the
acceleration of gravity g. Which of the following formulas for P is correct?
Given: l has units of length (L) and g has units of (L / T 2).

l l
a) P= 2p(lg)2 (b) P = 2p (c) P = 2p
g g
Realize that the left hand side P has units of time (T )
Solution:

2
4
� L� L
(a) �L. 2 = 4 �T Not Right!
�T � � T
L
= T 2 �T
L
(b) T 2 Not Right!

L
(c) = T2 =T
L
T2
This has the correct unit! This must be the answer!

1.4 SCALAR AND VECTOR

Scalars:
Scalars are quantities which have magnitude without direction
Examples of scalars
 Mass
 Temperature
 Kinetic energy
 Time
 Amount
 Density
 charge

Vector:
A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude (size) and direction
It is represented by an arrow whereby
– the length of the arrow is the magnitude, and
– the arrow itself indicates the direction
The symbol for a vector is a letter
with an arrow over it A

Two ways to specify

It is either given by y A
• a magnitude A, and A
q
• a direction q
x

y Ax A
Or it is given in the x and y components as
• Ax Ay

• Ay
x
Ax = A cos q
Ay = A sin q
The magnitude (length) of A is found by using the Pythagorean Theorem

A = Ax2 + Ay2

The length of a vector clearly does not depend on its direction.

The direction of A can be stated as
Ay
tan q =
Ax
�A �
q = tan -1 � y �
�Ax �
Some Properties of Vectors:

Equality of Two Vectors

Two vectors A and B may be defined to be equal if they have the same magnitudes and
point in the same directions. i.e. A= B

A B A B

Negative of a vector:
The negative of vector A is defined as giving the vector sum of zero value when added to
A . That is, A + (- A) = 0. The vector A and –A have the same magnitude but are in
opposite directions.

-A

Scalar Multiplication:
The multiplication of a vector A by a scalar a
- will result in a vector B
B = aA
- the magnitude is changed but not the direction
Do flip the direction if a is negative

If a = 0, therefore B = a, A = 0, which is also known as a zero vector

b(aA) = baA = a(bA)
(b+a)A = aA + bA

Vector Addition
The addition of two vectors, A and B
- will result in a third vector, C called the resultant
C = A+B
Geometrically (triangle method of addition)
• put the tail-end of B at the top-end of A
• C connects the tail-end of A to the top-end of B

A
We can arrange the vectors as we like, as long as we maintain their length and direction

More than two vectors?

x4
x5
xi
x3

x2
x1 xi = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5
Vector Subtraction:
It is equivalent to adding the negative vectors.

C= A-B
B
C = A + (- A
B)
-B
A-B

Rules of Vector Addition

 Commutative

A+B=B+A

B A
A+B

A A+B
B

 Associative
  Distributive

Parallelogram method of addition (tail-to-tail)

The magnitude of the resultant depends on the relative directions of the vectors
Unit Vectors
 A Vector whose magnitude is 1 and dimensionless.
 The magnitude of each unit vector equals a unity, that is

Useful examples for the Cartesian unit vectors [ i, j, k ]

- they point in the direction of the x, y and z axes respectively

Component of a vector in 2-D:

 A vector A can be resolved into two components
Ax and Ay
The component of A are:
│Ax│ = Ax = A cos θ
│Ay│ = Ay = A sin θ

The magnitude of A:

A = Ax2 + Ay2

The direction of A:
Ay
tan q =
Ax

�A �
q = tan -1 � y �
�Ax �
The unit vector notation for the vector A is written
A = Axi + Ayj
 Component of vector in 3-D:
 A vector A can be resolved into three components Ax , Ay and Az.

A = Axi + Ayj + Azk

If

Dot Product ( Scalar ) of two vectors:

 If θ = 900 (normal vectors) then the dot product is zero.

|A · B| = AB cos 90 = 0 and i · j = j · k = i · k = 0
 if θ = 00 (parallel vectors) it gets its maximum value of 1
|A · B| = AB cos 0 = 1 and i · j = j · k = i · k = 1
  The dot product is commutative.

 Use the distributive law to evaluate the dot product if the components are
known.

Cross product ( vector) of two vectors:

The magnitude of the cross product is given by

 The vector product creates a new vector.

 This vector is normal to the plane defined by the original vectors and its
direction is found by using the right hand rule.
 If θ = 00 (parallel vectors) then the cross product is zero.

 If θ = 900 (normal vectors) it gets its maximum value.

 The relationship between vectors i , j and k can be described as

ixj =-jxi =k
jxk=-kxj=i
kxi=-ixk=j
The resultant has a magnitude A + B when A is oriented in the same direction as B.
The resultant vector A + B = 0 when A is oriented in the direction opposite to B, and
when A = B
C= 48.2 km

No. The magnitude of a vector A is equal to √(Ax2 + Ay2 +Az2).Therefore, if any

component is nonzero, A cannot be zero. Proof of this generalization of the Pythagorean
theorem.
A = -B, therefore the components of the two vectors must have opposite sings and equal
magnitudes.

Tan θ = Ry / Rx
= (Ax + By) / (Ax + Bx)
1.5 MEASUREMENTS AND ERRORS

Terminology:
True value – standard or reference of known value or a theoretical value
Accuracy – closeness to the true value
Precision – reproducibility or agreement with each other for multiple trials

Types of Errors

i. Systematic errors
Sometimes called bias due to error in one direction- high or low
– Known cause
Operator
Wrong calibration of glassware, sensor, or instrument
– When it is determined, it can be corrected
– May be of a constant or proportional nature

ii. Random errors

– Cannot be determined (no control over)
– Random nature causes both high and low values which will average out
– Multiple trials help to minimize
Accuracy and Precision
The Uncertainty:
Example:
True value of thickness of a book is 5cm.
Student A uses meter ruler and measures the thickness to be 4.9cm with an
uncertainty of 0.1cm.
Student B , with Vernier caliper, found it to be 4.85cm with an uncertainty of 0.01cm.

We may say,
Student A has more accurate value, but less precise.
Student B got a more precise value, but less accurate (due to the faulty caliper. Un-
calibrate !)
However, after sending the caliper to be calibrated, student B performs the
measurement again and found the thickness is 4.98cm. So, now he has more accurate and
more precise value.

Note: We always report a measurement in a way that would includes the uncertainty
carried by the instrument.

Combining uncertainties + and -

Adding or subtracting quantities then sum all individual absolute uncertainties
2.1 ± 0.1 + 2.0 ± 0.2 = 4.1 ± 0.3
2.1 ± 0.1 - 2.0 ± 0.2 = 0.1 ± 0.3
This method overestimates the final uncertainty.
Combining uncertainties x and ÷
When Dividing or multiplying quantities, then sum all of the individual relative uncertainties
(2.5 ± 0.1) x (5.0 ± 0.1)
= (2.5 ± 4%) x (5.1 ± 2%) =12.5 ± 6% (or 0.75 or 0.7)

(21 ± 6%) / (5.0 ± 4%)

= 4.12 ± 10% or 4.2 ± 0.42 or 4.2 ± 0.4
However it will overestimate final uncertainty.

The Significant figures

The number of Significant figures of a numerical quantity is the number of reliably known
digits it contains.
For measured quantity, it is defined as all of the digits that can be read directly from the
instrument used in making the measurement plus one uncertain digit that is obtained by
estimating the fraction of the smallest division of the instrument’s scale.

Note: Exact quantities are considered as having unlimited number of significant figures. We
need to be concerned with significant figures only when dealing with measurements that
have required some estimation.

For example,
Reading of the thickness of a book is
5.0cm or 50mm from meter ruler (with 2 sf)
5.00cm or 50.0 mm from vernier caliper. (with 3 sf)

The rules of significant figures:

1. Any figure that is non-zero, is considered as a significant figure.

2. Zeros at the beginning of a number are not significant

Example: 0.254 ----------------- 3 s.f
3. Zeros within a number are significant.
Example: 104.6 m ---------------- 4 s.f
4. Zeros at the end of a number after the decimal point are significant.
Example: 27050.0 ------------------- 6 s.f

5. Zeros at the end of a whole number without a decimal point may or may not be significant.
It depends on how that particular number was obtained, using what kind of instrument, and
the uncertainty involved.
Example: 500m ------------------- could be 1 or 3 sf.
Convert the unit:
500m = 0.5km ( 1 sf )
500m = 50 000cm ( 5 sf )
Addition and Subtraction processes
The rule:
The final result of an addition and/or subtraction should have the same number of significant
figures as the quantity with the least number of decimal places used in the calculation.
Example:
23.1 + 45 + 0.68 + 100 = 169

Example:
23.5 + 0.567 + 0.85 = 24.9

Multiplication and division processes

The rule:
The final result of an multiplication and/or division should have the same number of
significant figures as the quantity with the least number of significant figures used in the
calculation.
Example:
0.586 x 3.4 = 1.9924
= 2.0
Example:
13.90 / 0.580 = 23.9655 = 24.0

Estimating the slope

1. Simple conservative method
Plot error bars on the graph
Draw maximum (mmax) and minimum (mmin) slopes.

The simplest method is to plot the data (and associated error bars) and draw 2 lines through
the points. One with a maxiumum slope that still manages to go through all of the error bars
and one with the minimum slope that does likewise.
The average slope and uncertainty on the slope are given above.

This is a very simple method but usually overestimates the uncertainty especially if the data
is reasonably linear to start with and the error bars are large.