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Lecture 6 PDF
Lecture 6 PDF
Module 1
INTRODUCTION TO GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
(Lectures 1 to 6)
Lecture 6
Other Sources of Seismic Activity
Topics
1.19 OTHER SOURCES OF SEISMIC ACTIVITY
1.20 GEOMETRIC NOTATION
1.21 LOCATION of EARTHQUAKES
1.22 SIZE OF EARTHQUAKES
1.22.1 Earthquake Intensity
1.22.2 Earthquake Magnitude
1.22.3 Richter Local Magnitude
1.22.4 Surface Wave Magnitude
1.22.5 Body Wave Magnitude
1.23 OTHER INSTRUMENTAL MAGNITUDE SCALES
1.23.1 Moment Magnitude
1.23.2 Earthquake Energy
Reservoir-induced earthquakes have been the subject of considerable study and some
controversy. Local seismicity increased significantly after the filling of Lake Mead
behind Hoover Dam on the Nevada-Arizona border in 1935. When the Koyna Dam
(India) reservoir was filled, local shallow earthquakes became common in an area
previously thought to have been virtually aseismic. In 1967, five years after filling of
the Koyna reservoir had begun, a magnitude 6.5 earthquake killed 177 persons and
injured more than 2000 more Local seismicity has been observed to increase
seasonally with seasonal increases in reservoir level. In 1975, seven years after the
filling of Oroville Dam in an area of low historical seismically in northern
California, a swarm of earthquakes culminated in a magnitude 5.7 main shock. After
construction of the High Dam, a magnitude 5.6 earthquake occurred in Aswan,
Agypt where very little significant seismic activity had been observed in the 3000
years history o the area. In these cases, seismic activity appears to have been
triggered by the presence of the reservoir. While the effect of the weight of the
impounded water is likely to be negligible at the depths of the induced seismic
activity, an increase in pore water pressure that migrates as a “pulse” away from the
reservoir after filling may have been sufficient to reduce the strength of the rock to
the point where rupture could occur.
Figure 1.36: Comparison of intensity values from modified Mercallin (MMI), Rossi-
Forel (RF), Japanese Meteorological Agency (JMA), and Medvedev-Spoonheuer-
Karnik (MSK) scales. (Richter (1958) and Murphy and O’Brien (1977))
Earthquake intensities are usually obtained from interview of observers after the
event. The interviews are often done by mail, but in some seismically active areas,
permanent observers are organized and trained to produce rational and unemotional
accounts of ground shaking. Since human observer and structures are scattered more
widely than any seismological observatory could reasonably hope to scatter
instruments, intensity observations provide information that helps characterize the
distribution of ground shaking in a region. A plot of reported intensities at different
locations on a map allows contours of equal intensity, or isoeisms, to be plotted.
Such a map is called an isoseismal map (figure 1.37). The intensity is generally
greatest in the vicinity of the epicenter of the earthquake, and the term epicnetral
intensity is often used as a crude description of earthquake size. Isoseismal maps
show how the intensity decreases, or attenuates, with increasing epicentral distance.
Figure 1.37: Isoseismal maps from (a) the 1968 Inangahua earthquake in New
Zealand (After Eiby, 1980) and (b) the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake in northern
California (Modified Mercali intensities). (Housner, 1990)
of seismic instruments, and our understanding of the quantities they measure, have
increased dramatically. Seismic instruments allow an objective, quantitative
measurement of earthquake size called earthquake magnitude to be made. Most
measurements of earthquake magnitude are instrumental (i.e., based on some
measured characteristic of ground shaking).
Note that the surface wave magnitude is based on the maximum ground
displacement amplitude (rather than the maximum trace amplitude of a particular
seismograph); therefore, it can be determined from any type of seismograph. The
surface wave magnitude is most commonly used to describe the size of shallow (less
than about 70 km (44 miles) focal depth), distant (farther than about 1000 km 622
miles) moderate to large earthquakes.
Body wave magnitude cal also be estimated from the amplitude of one-sec-one-
period higher-mode Rayleigh waves (Nuttli, 1973); the resulting magnitude, ,
is commonly used to describe intraplate earthquakes.
The relationship between the various magnitude scales can be seen in (figure 1.38).
Saturation of the instrumental scales is indicated by their flattening at higher
magnitude values. As an example of the effects of magnitude saturation, both the
1906 San Francisco and 1960 Chile earthquakes produced ground shaking that led to
surface wave magnitudes of 8.3, even though the sizes of their rupture surfaces,
illustrated by the shaded areas in (figure 1.39), were vastly different. The great
disparity in energy release was, however, reflected in the moment magnitude of the
earthquakes: 7.9 for San Francisco and 9.5 for Chile.
Bolt (1989) suggests that be used for shallow earthquakes of magnitude 3
to 7, for magnitude 5 to 7.5 and for magnitudes greater than 7.5.