Materials

materials
Article
Fatigue Life Prediction of Fiber-Reinforced
Ceramic-Matrix Composites with Different Fiber
Preforms at Room and Elevated Temperatures
Longbiao Li
College of Civil Aviation, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, No. 29 Yudao St.,
Nanjing 210016, China; llb451@nuaa.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-25-8489-5963
Academic Editor: Luciano Feo

Received: 19 February 2016; Accepted: 14 March 2016; Published: 17 March 2016
Abstract: In this paper, the fatigue life of fiber-reinforced ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs) with
different fiber preforms, i.e., unidirectional, cross-ply, 2D (two dimensional), 2.5D and 3D CMCs at
room and elevated temperatures in air and oxidative environments, has been predicted using the
micromechanics approach. An effective coefficient of the fiber volume fraction along the loading
direction (ECFL) was introduced to describe the fiber architecture of preforms. The statistical matrix
multicracking model and fracture mechanics interface debonding criterion were used to determine
the matrix crack spacing and interface debonded length. Under cyclic fatigue loading, the fiber
broken fraction was determined by combining the interface wear model and fiber statistical failure
model at room temperature, and interface/fiber oxidation model, interface wear model and fiber
statistical failure model at elevated temperatures, based on the assumption that the fiber strength
is subjected to two-parameter Weibull distribution and the load carried by broken and intact fibers
satisfies the Global Load Sharing (GLS) criterion. When the broken fiber fraction approaches the
critical value, the composites fatigue fracture.
Keywords: ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs); fatigue; life prediction
1. Introduction
Ceramic materials possess high strength and modulus at elevated temperatures. However,
their use as structural components is severely limited because of their brittleness. Continuous
fiber-reinforced ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs), by incorporating fibers in ceramic matrices,
however, can possess higher specific strength, withstand much higher temperatures exceeding the
capability of current nickel alloys typically used in the high-pressure turbines, which can lower the
fuel burn and emissions, while increasing the efficiency of aero engines [1]. CMC durability has been
validated through ground or commercial flight testing in demonstrator or customer gas turbine engines
accumulating almost 30,000 h of operation. The SiC/SiC combustion chamber and high-pressure
turbine components were designed and tested in the ground testing of GEnx aero engines [2]. The
SiC/SiC rotating low-pressure turbine blades in a F414 turbofan demonstrator engine were successfully
tested for 500 grueling cycles to validate the unprecedented temperature and durability capabilities
by GE Aviation. The C/SiC tail nozzles were designed and fabricated by SNECMA (SAFRAN, Paris,
France) and completed the first commercial flight on CFM56-5B aero engine (CFM International,
Cincinnati, OH, USA) on 2015. CMCs will play a key role in the performance of CFM’s LEAP turbofan
engine (CFM International), which would enter into service in 2016 for Airbus A320 and 2017 for the
Boeing 737 max [3].
Upon first loading to fatigue peak stress, matrix multicracking, fiber/matrix interface debonding,
and partially fiber fractured in the interface debonded and bonded region, would occur [4,5]. With
Materials 2016, 9, 207; doi:10.3390/ma9030207 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2016, 9, 207 2 of 23
increasing number of cycles, interface shear stress decreases due to interface wear when fibers slide
relative to matrix during unloading and subsequent reloading, which reduces the load transfer capacity
between fibers and the matrix [6]. The SiC fiber strength also degrades with increasing number of cycles
due to interface wear, which reduces the load carrying capacity of fibers [6]. At elevated temperatures,
matrix cracks would serve as avenues for the ingress of environment atmosphere into the composite [7].
When the oxidizing gas ingresses into the composite, a sequence of events is triggered starting first
with the oxidation of the interphase, and then fibers. With increasing oxidation time, the oxidation
region propagates; and the interface shear stress and fiber strength decrease. Under cyclic fatigue
loading, fibers gradually fracture due to the degradation of interface shear stress and fibers strength [8].
When the broken fibers’ fraction approaches the critical value, the composites fatigue fail.
The objective of this paper is to predict the fatigue life of fiber-reinforced CMCs with different
fiber preforms, i.e., unidirectional, cross-ply, 2D, 2.5D and 3D CMCs at room and elevated temperatures
in air and oxidative environments. An effective coefficient of the fiber volume fraction along the
loading direction (ECFL) was introduced to describe the fiber architecture of the preforms. The
Budiansky-Hutchinson-Evans shear-lag model was used to describe the micro stress field of the
damaged composite considering fiber failure. The statistical matrix multicracking model and fracture
mechanics interface debonding criterion were used to determine the matrix crack spacing and
interface debonded length. Under cyclic fatigue loading, the fibers’ broken fraction was determined
by combining interface wear model and fibers’ statistical failure model at room temperature, and
interface/fibers’ oxidation model, interface wear model and fibers’ statistical failure model at elevated
temperatures, based on the assumption that the fiber strength is subjected to two-parameter Weibull
distribution and the load carried by the broken and intact fibers satisfies the Global Load Sharing (GLS)
criterion. The fatigue life and fatigue limit of unidirectional C/SiC, cross-ply C/SiC, 2D C/SiC, 2.5D
C/SiC, and 3D C/SiC composites at room and elevated temperatures have been predicted.
2. Materials and Experimental Procedures
2.1. Unidirectional and Cross-Ply C/SiC Composite

T-700™ carbon (Toray Institute Inc., Tokyo, Japan) fiber-reinforced silicon carbide matrix
composites were provided by Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Shanghai, China [9]. The unidirectional
and cross-ply C/SiC composites were manufactured by hot-pressing method. The volume fraction of
fibers was approximately 40%. The dog-bone shaped specimens were cut from 150 mm ˆ 150 mm
panels by water cutting. The tension-tension fatigue tests at room temperature and 800 ˝ C in air were
conducted on a MTS Model 809 servo hydraulic load-frame (MTS Systems Corp., Minneapolis, MN,
USA). The fatigue experiments were in a sinusoidal wave form with a loading frequency of 10 Hz. The
fatigue load ratio (σmin /σmax ) was 0.1, and the maximum number of applied cycles was defined to be
1,000,000 cycles. The fatigue tests were conducted under load control in accordance with the procedure
in ASTM standard C 1360 [10] at room temperature and 800 ˝ C in air.
2.2. 2D C/SiC Composite

T-300™ carbon (Toray Institute Inc.) fiber-reinforced silicon carbide matrix composites were
processed by chemical vapor infiltration (CVI) into woven 0˝ /90˝ preforms [11]. The volume fraction
of fibers was approximately 45%, and the porosity content was about 22%. The dog-bone shaped
specimens were cut from 200 mm ˆ 200 mm panels using diamond tooling. The tension-tension
fatigue tests at room temperature were conducted on a servohydraulic load-frame that was equipped
with edge-loaded grips. The fatigue experiments were performed under load control at a sinusoidal
wave form and a loading frequency of 10 Hz. The fatigue load ratio (σmin /σmax ) was 0.1, and the
maximum number of applied cycles was defined to be 1,000,000 cycles.
T-300™ carbon fiber-reinforced silicon carbide matrix composites were manufactured using
chemical vapor infiltration (CVI) into woven 0˝ /90˝ preforms by Honeywell Advanced Composites
Materials 2016, 9, 207 3 of 23
Inc., Newark, DE, USA [12]. The volume fraction of fibers was approximately 45%. The dog-bone
shaped specimens were cut from 216 mm ˆ 216 mm panels. After machining specimens, they were seal
coated with SiC via chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The tension-tension fatigue tests at 550 ˝ C in air
were conducted on a servohydraulic load-frame. The fatigue experiments were performed under load
control at a sinusoidal wave form and a loading frequency of 10 Hz. The fatigue load ratio (σmin /σmax )
was 0.05, and the maximum number of applied cycles was defined to be 1,000,000 cycles.
T-300™ carbon fiber-reinforced silicon carbide matrix composites were manufactured using
chemical vapor infiltration (CVI) into woven 0˝ /90˝ preforms [13]. The volume fraction of fibers
was approximately 40%. The dog-bone shaped specimens were cut from the composite panels using
diamond tooling. The tension-tension fatigue tests at 1300 ˝ C in the oxidative environment were
conducted on a servohydraulic load-frame. The fatigue experiments were performed under load
control at a sinusoidal wave form and a loading frequency of 3 Hz. The fatigue load ratio (σmin /σmax )
was 0.1, and the maximum number of applied cycles was defined to be 100,000 cycles.
2.3. 2.5D C/SiC Composite

T-300™ carbon fiber-reinforced silicon carbide matrix composites were manufactured using CVI
into 2.5D woven preforms by Shanghai Institute of Ceramics [14]. The volume fraction of fibers was
approximately 45%. The dog-bone shaped specimens were cut from 150 mm ˆ 150 mm composite
panels using diamond tooling. The tension-tension fatigue tests at room temperature and 800 ˝ C in air
were conducted on a MTS Model 809 servo hydraulic load-frame (MTS Systems Corp.). The fatigue
experiments were performed under load control at a loading frequency of 10 Hz. The fatigue load ratio
(σmin /σmax ) was 0.1, and the maximum number of applied cycles was defined to be 1,000,000 cycles.
into 2.5D woven preforms [15]. The volume fraction of fibers was approximately 40%, and the porosity
content was about 17%. The dog-bone shaped specimens were cut from composite panels using the
diamond tooling, and then coated with a SiC coating of about 50 µm in thickness. The tension-tension
fatigue tests at 900 ˝ C in air were conducted on a servohydraulic mechanical testing machine (FTM-HT,
Strength Research Institute of the Academy of Science, Kiev, Ukraine). The fatigue experiments were
performed under load control at a loading frequency of 15 Hz. The fatigue load ratio (σmin /σmax ) was
0.1, and the maximum number of applied cycles was defined to be 1,000,000 cycles.
2.4. 3D C/SiC Composite

into 3D braided preforms [16]. The volume fraction of fibers was approximately 45%, and the porosity
content was about 17%. The dog-bone shaped specimens were cut from composite panels using
the diamond tooling, and then coated with a SiC coating. The tension-tension fatigue tests at room
temperature and 1300 ˝ C in vacuum were conducted on a servohydraulic mechanical testing machine.
The fatigue experiments were performed under load control at a loading frequency of 60 Hz. The
fatigue load ratio (σmin /σmax ) was 0.1, and the maximum number of applied cycles was defined to be
1,000,000 cycles.
3. Stress Analysis
To analyze stress distributions in the fiber and the matrix, a unit cell is extracted from the ceramic
composite system, as shown in Figure 1. The unit cell contains a single fiber surrounded by a hollow
cylinder of matrix. The fiber radius is rf and the matrix radius is R (R = rf /V f 1/2 ). The length of the
unit cell is L/2, which is just the half matrix crack space. The interface debonded length is Ld . At the
matrix crack plane, fibers carry all the loads of σ/V f , in which σ denotes the far-field applied stress
and V f denotes the fiber volume content. The shear-lag model adopted by Budiansky et al. [17] is used
to perform the stress and strain calculations in the interface debonded region (x P [0, Ld ]) and interface
bonded region (x P [Ld , L/2]).
Materials 2016, 9, 207 4 of 23
Materials 2016, 9, 207 4 of 24
Figure
Figure 1.
1. The
The unit
unit cell
cell of
of the
the Budiansky-Hutchinson-Evans
Budiansky-Hutchinson-Evans shear-lag
shear-lag model.
model.
  2 i
V σ ´ r2τixx,, xx 
$
 0,L 
P p0, Lddq
 V
’
frf
&
σffpxq
f f
( x)“’
ˆ
V L
˙ ˆ
x L
˙ (1)
(1)
% σfo ` Vm σmo ´ 2Ld τi  exp  ´ρ x  Ld  , x P pLd , L{2q
m d ´ d
  Vf  2 rf  exp   rf
 i   , x   Ld ,L / 2 
$
fo mo
 
Vf x
Vf rf   rf 
& 2τi , x P p0, Ld q
’
’
σm pxq “  VVf m xˆrf
 Vf Ld (2)
 
˙ „ 
2 , x 0, L ρ px ´ Ld q
 σmo
’ i ´ σmo ´ 2τi d exp ´ , x P pLd , L{2q
 Vm rf
’
Vm rf rf
%
 m ( x)   $ (2)
& τi,ˆx  P p0, Ld q Vf L˙     x  Ld  
     ρ px ´ Ld q   ,x   Ld ,L / 2 
„ 
d
τi pxq “ mo ρ Vm mo 2 i Ldr
exp (3)
 2 V mo
%  σ ´ 2τVm
i f 
exp ´ rf , x P pLd , L{2q
f rf rf
  0,Lfraction;
 i , xvolume
where V m denotes the matrix d
τ i denotes the interface shear stress; and ρ denotes the

shear-lag model parameter [17].
 i ( x)     Vm L  4EcGm  x  Ld   (3)

 2 V mo   2 ρ
i “ 
2 d exp
   , x   Ld ,L / 2  (4)
 f
 rf Vm Em Ef ϕ rf 
where Gm denotes the matrix shear modulus, and
where Vm denotes the matrix volume fraction; τi denotes the interface shear stress; and ρ denotes the
shear-lag model parameter [17]. 2lnVf ` Vm p3 ´ Vf q
ϕ“´ 2
(5)
2Vm
4EcGm
2  (4)
σfo and σmo denote the fiber and matrix axial stress theinterface bonded region, respectively.
V Ein E m m f
E
where Gm denotes the matrix shear modulus,
σfo “ fand
σ ` Ef pαc ´ αf q ∆ (6)
Ec
2ln Vf  Vm  3  Vf 
  Em (5)
σmo “ σ ` E2 2
mVpα
mc
´ αm q ∆ (7)
E c
σ fo andEσf mo
where , Em and Ethe
denote c denote
fiber the
andfiber,
matrixmatrix
axialand composite
stress elastic modulus,
in the interface respectively;
bonded region, αf , αm and αc
respectively.
denote the fiber, matrix and composite thermal expansion coefficient, respectively; and ∆T denotes the
E
temperature difference between fabricated   Ef  c T0and
 fo  ftemperature f  
room temperature T1 (∆T = T1 ´(6) T0 ).
The axial elastic modulus of the composite Ecis approximated by rule of mixture.
EEmc “ Vf Ef ` Vm Em
 mo    Em  c   m   (8)
(7)
Ec
When matrix multicracking and interface debonding occur, matrix cracks will serve as avenues
where
for theEingress
f, Em andof Ethe
c denote the fiber,
oxidizing matrix andatmosphere
environmental composite elastic
into themodulus, respectively;
composite. When theαoxidizing
f, αm and
α c denote the fiber,

environment matrix
ingresses and
into composite
the thermal
composite, expansion
a sequence coefficient,
of events respectively;
is triggered and
starting ΔTwith
first denotes
the
the
oxidation of fiber coating, leading to local notch-like or neck-shrink phenomenon of fibers. As0).a
temperature difference between fabricated temperature T0 and room temperature T1 (ΔT = T1 − T
The
resultaxial elastic
of this, bothmodulus
the axialofstress
the composite is approximated
distribution bytheir
in the fibers and rule probability
of mixture. of failure will change,
because longer portions of the fibers are subject to peak stress T. During the process of oxidation,
Ec  Vf Ef  Vm Em (8)
the unit cell can be divided into three regions, i.e., interface oxidation region (x P [0, Lt ]), interface
When matrix multicracking and interface debonding occur, matrix cracks will serve as avenues
for the ingress of the oxidizing environmental atmosphere into the composite. When the oxidizing
Materials 2016, 9, 207 5 of 23
debonded region (x P [Lt , Ld ]) and interface bonded region (x P [Ld , L/2]). When fibers fracture, the
fiber axial stress distributions in the interface oxidation region, interface debonded region and interface
bonded region are:
$
’
’ T, x P p0, Lt q
2τ
’
T ´ i px ´ Lt q , x P pLt , Ld q
’
&
σf pxq “ rˆ
f ˙ ˆ ˙ (9)
’
’ Ld x ´ Ld
% σfo ` T ´ σfo ´ 2 τi exp ´ρ , x P pLd , L{2q
’
’
rf rf
where T denotes the intact fiber axial stress at the matrix crack plane.
4. Damage Models
4.1. Matrix Multicracking

When loading fiber-reinforced CMCs, cracks typically initiate within the matrix since the
strain-to-failure of matrix is usually less than that of fiber. The matrix crack spacing decreases with the
increases in stress above initial matrix cracking stress σmc and may eventually approach saturation
at stress σsat. There are four dominant failure criterions presented in literature for modeling matrix
multicrackng evolution in fiber-reinforced CMCs, i.e., the maximum stress criterion, energy balance
approach, critical matrix strain energy criterion and statistical failure approach. The maximum stress
criterion [18] assumes that a new matrix crack will form whenever the matrix stress exceeds the
ultimate strength of matrix, which is assumed to be single-valued and a known material property. The
energy balance failure criteria involves calculation of the energy balance relationship before and after
the formation of a single dominant crack as originally proposed by Aveston et al. [19]. The progression
of matrix cracking as determined by energy criterion is dependent upon the matrix strain energy
release rate. The energy criterion is represented by Zok and Spearing [20] and Zhu and Weitsman [21].
The concept of a critical matrix strain energy criterion [22] presupposes the existence of an ultimate or
critical strain energy limit beyond which the matrix fails. Beyond this, as more energy is placed into
the composite, the matrix, unable to support the additional load, continues to fail. As more energy is
placed into the system, matrix fails such that all the additional energy is transferred to fibers. Failure
may consist of the formation of matrix cracks, propagation of existing cracks or interface debonding.
Statistical failure approach [23] assumes that matrix multicracking is governed by statistical relations,
which relate the size and spatial distribution of matrix flaws to their relative propagation stress. The
brittle nature of matrix material and the possible formation of initial crack distribution throughout the
microstructure suggest that a statistical approach to matrix multicracking evolution is warranted in
fiber-reinforced CMCs.
The tensile strength of brittle matrix is assumed to be described by two-parameter Weibull
distribution where the probability of the matrix failure Pm is [23]:
" „ m *
σ ´ pσmc ´ σth q
Pm “ 1 ´ exp ´ (10)
pσR ´ σth q ´ pσmc ´ σth q
where σR denotes the matrix characteristic strength; σmc denotes the matrix initial cracking stress; σth
denotes the matrix thermal residual stress; and m denotes the matrix Weibull modulus.
As applied stress increases, the number of matrix crack increases and matrix crack space decreases.
To estimate the instantaneous matrix crack space with the increase of applied stress, it leads to the
form of
Pm “ Lsat {L (11)
where
Lsat “ Λ pσmc {σR , σth {σR , mq δR (12)
sat mc R th R R
where Λ denotes the final nominal crack space, which is a pure number and depends only upon the
micromechanical and statistical quantities characterizing the cracking. The final nominal crack space
versus matrix Weibull modulus simulated by Monte Carlo method when σmc/σR = 0, 0.5, 0.75 and
σth/σR = 2016,
Materials 0, 0.1, 0.2 are plotted in Figure 2. δR denotes characteristic interface sliding length.
9, 207 6 of 23
Vm Em  R
 R  rf (13)
Vf Ec is2a ipure number and depends only upon the
where Λ denotes the final nominal crack space, which
micromechanical and statistical quantities characterizing the cracking. The final nominal crack space
Using
versus Equations
matrix Weibull (10) and (11),
modulus the instantaneous
simulated matrixmethod
by Monte Carlo crack space
whenisσderived by [23]
mc /σR = 0, 0.5, 0.75 and
σth /σR = 0, 0.1, 0.2 are plotted in Figure 2. δR denotes characteristic interface sliding
1 length.
      mc   th 
m
 
Vm Em  R 
L  rf  1  exp  Vm Em σR  
 (14)
Vf Ec 2 i  δR “rf V   th    mc   th    (13)
  f EcR 2τi 
Figure 2. The
Figure finalfinal
2. The nominal matrix
nominal crackcrack
matrix spacing versus
spacing matrix
versus Weibull
matrix modulus
Weibull of various
modulus σmc/σRσmc
of various and/σσRth/σR.
and σth /σR .
4.2. Interface Debonding
When Equations
Using the matrix(10)
crack
and propagates to the fiber/matrix
(11), the instantaneous matrixinterface,
crack space it deflects along
is derived the interface.
by [23]
There are two approaches to the problem of„interface debonding, i.e., the˙shear *´1strength approach
pσmc ´ σthisq basedmupon a maximum shear
" ˆ
and the fracture mechanics Vm Eapproach.
m σR The shear strength σ ´approach
L “ rf Λ 1 ´ exp ´ (14)
stress criterion in which theVf Einterface
c 2τi debonding occurs pσR ´as
σththe
q ´shear
pσmc ´ stress
σth q reaches the interface shear
strength [24]. On the other hand, the fracture mechanics approach treats the interface debonding as
4.2. Interface crack
a particular Debonding
propagation problem in which the interface debonding occurs as the strain energy
release rate the
When of the interface
matrix crackachieves the debonded
propagates toughness interface,
to the fiber/matrix [25]. It hasitbeen proved
deflects thatthe
along theinterface.
fracture
mechanics
There approach
are two is preferred
approaches to the shear
to the problem strengthdebonding,
of interface approach for i.e.,interface
the sheardebonding [26]. The
strength approach
fracture
and the mechanics approachapproach.
fracture mechanics is adoptedThein the present
shear analysis.
strength The interface
approach is based debonding criterion isshear
upon a maximum [25]
stress criterion in which the interface debonding occurs as the shear stress reaches the interface shear
strength [24]. On the other hand, the fracture mechanics approach treats the interface debonding as a
particular crack propagation problem in which the interface debonding occurs as the strain energy
release rate of the interface achieves the debonded toughness [25]. It has been proved that the fracture
mechanics approach is preferred to the shear strength approach for interface debonding [26]. The
fracture mechanics approach is adopted in the present analysis. The interface debonding criterion
is [25]
F Bwf p0q 1 Ld Bv pxq
ż
ζd “ ´ τi dx (15)
4πrf BLd 2 0 BLd
where F(=πrf 2 σ/V f ) denotes the fiber load at the matrix cracking plane; wf (0) denotes the fiber axial
displacement on the matrix cracking plane; and v(x) denotes the relative displacement between the
fiber and the matrix. The axial displacements of the fiber and the matrix, i.e., wf (x) and wm (x), are
ş L{2 σf
wf pxq “ x dx
Ef
T τi ` 2
ˆ
˘ σfo L
˙
rf
ˆ
Ld
˙ (16)
“ pL ´ xq ´ 2
L ´x ` ´ Ld ` T ´ σfo ´ 2 τi
Ef d rf Ef d Ef 2 ρEf rf
Materials 2016, 9, 207 7 of 23
r L{2 σm
wm pxq “ x dz
Em
Vf τi ` 2
ˆ
˘ σmo L
˙
rf Vf
ˆ
L
˙ (17)
“ Ld ´ x 2 ` ´ Ld ´ T ´ σfo ´ 2τi d
rf Vm Em Em 2 ρVm Em rf
Using Equations (16) and (17), the relative displacement between the fiber and the
matrix, i.e., v(x), is
v pxq “ |wf pxq ´ wm pxq| ˆ ˙

T Ec τi rf Ec L (18)
T ´ σfo ´ 2 d τi
` 2 ˘
“ pLd ´ xq ´ Ld ´ x 2 `
Ef rf Vm Em Ef ρVm Em Ef rf
Substituting wf (x = 0) and v(x) into Equation (15), it leads to the form of
Ec τi 2 Ec τi 2 rf T 2 rf Tσ rf τi T
ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
τT
L 2` ´ i Ld ` ´ ´ ´ ζd “0 (19)
rf Vm Em Ef d ρVm Em Ef Ef 4Ef 4Ec 2ρEf
To solve Equation (19), the interface debonded length Ld is

dˆ ˙2
r2 Vf Vm Ef Em T
ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
r Vm Em 1 rf σ rf Vm Em Ef
Ld “ f T´ ´ ´ f T´ ` ζd (20)
2 Ec τi ρ 2ρ 4Ec2 τi 2 Vf Ec τi 2
4.3. Interface Wear

Upon cyclic loading of fiber-reinforced CMCs, the slip displacement between the fiber and the
matrix could lead to interface wear. Evidence of interface wear that a reduction in the height of
asperities occurs along the fiber coating for different thermal misfits, surface roughness and frictional
sliding velocity has been presented by push-out and push-back tests on a ceramic composite system [27].
The interface wear process can be facilitated by temperature rising that occurs along the fiber/matrix
interface, as frictional dissipation proceeds [28,29], i.e., the temperature rising exceeded 100 K under
fatigue loading at 75 Hz between stress levels of 220 and 10 MPa in unidirectional SiC/CAS-II
composite [28]. Evans et al. [6] presented the experimental hysteresis loops data along with numerical
estimates of τ i (N) for a unidirectional SiC/CAS composite subjected to tension-tension fatigue. The
variation in interface shear stress τ i (N), as provided by Evans et al. [6] is given by Equation (21).
” ´ ¯ı
τi pNq “ τio ` 1 ´ exp ´ωN λ pτimin ´ τio q (21)
where τ io denotes the initial interface shear stress; τ imin denotes the steady-state interface shear stress
under cyclic loading; N denotes the cycle number; τ i (N) denotes the interface shear stress at the Nth
cycle; and ω and λ are empirical constants.
Lee and Stinchcomb [30] performed the fiber fracture mirror experiments of fiber-reinforced CMCs
under scanning electron microscope (SEM), and found that the fiber strength degraded with applied
cycles increasing subjected to fatigue loading. The variation in fibers strength σo (N), as provided by
Lee and Stinchcomb [30], is given by Equation (22).
σo pNq “ σo 1 ´ p1 plogNq p2
“ ‰
(22)
where p1 and p2 are empirical parameters.

When interface shear stress decreases with the increase of cycle number, there would be fewer
loads transferred back to matrix in the interface debonded region; when the fiber strength decreases
with the increase of cycle number, the load carry capability of fibers would decrease. The intact fibers
are subjected to higher stress levels and the probabilities of fiber fracture would increase with the
increase of cycle number.
Materials 2016, 9, 207 8 of 23
4.4. Interface and Fibers Oxidation

Matrix cracks will serve as avenues for the ingress of environmental atmosphere into the
composite [31–33]. In the present study, the oxidation of fiber is assumed to be controlled by diffusion
of oxygen gas through matrix cracks, as shown in Figure 3. When the oxidizing gas ingresses into the
composite, a sequence of events is triggered starting first with the oxidation of the fiber. For simplicity,
it is assumed that both the Weibull and elastic moduli of the fibers remain constant and that the only
effect of oxidation is to decrease the strength of fibers. The time-dependent strength of fibers will
be controlled by surface defects resulting from oxidation, with the thickness of the oxidized layer
Materials 2016, 9, 207 9 of 24
representing the size of the average strength-controlling flaw [34].
Figure 3. The
Figure 3. The schematic
schematic of
of fiber
fiber oxidation
oxidation in
in multiple
multiplecracked
crackedC/SiC composite.
C/SiC composite.
Filipuzzi and
According Naslain
to linear [33]fracture
elastic have measured
mechanics,andthe
modelled the change
relationship betweeninstrength
the interface oxidation
and flaw size is
lengthby
given Lt [35]
of the carbon interface that oxidation occurs according to
?
KIC “ Yσ0 a (23)
C  O2  CO2 (27)
where KIC denotes the critical stress intensity factor; Y is a geometric parameter; σ0 is the fiber strength;
and aThe oxidation
is the region
size of the length of Lt is [33]
strength-controlling flaw.

Considering that the oxidation of fibers is controlled
layer, the oxidized layer will grow on the fiber’s

Lt  1 1  e2t by diffusion of oxygen through oxidized
surface according to [35].
(28)
where ϕ1 and ϕ2 are fitting parameters dependent ?on temperature. Casas et al. [36] performed the
α “ kt (24)
thermodynamic calculations and found that the deceleration of the oxidation phenomena, as a
consequence of the reduced oxygen activity due to the diffusion through the glassy phases, can
where α is the thickness of the oxidized layer at time t; and k is the parabolic rate constant.
represent several orders of magnitude in the oxidation time scale. This effect has been incorporated
By assuming the fracture toughness of the fibers remains constant and that the fiber strength σ0 ,
into the model using a delay factor b in Equation (28), which becomes [36]
is related to the mean oxidized layer thickness according to Equation (22), i.e., a = α, then the time
dependence of the fiber strength will be given by [35].  2t 
Lt  1 1  eˆ b  ˙ (29)
 1 KIC 4
σ0 ptq “ σ0 , t ď (25)
k Yσ0
5. Fatigue Life Prediction Model
1 KIC 4
ˆ ˙
KIC
σ0 ptq “ ? , t ą (26)
When fibers begin to break, the load droppedY 4 kt byk broken
Yσ0 fibers would be transferred to intact
fibers in the cross-section. Two dominant failure criterions are present in the literatures for modeling
fibers failure, i.e., Global Load Sharing criterion (GLS) [37] and Local Load Sharing criterion (LLS) [38].
The GLS criterion assumes that the load from any one fiber is transferred equally to all other intact
fibers at the same cross-section plane. The GLS assumption neglects any local stress concentrations
in the neighborhood of existing breaks, and is expected to be accurate when the interface shear stress
is sufficiently low. The two-parameter Weibull model is adopted to describe the fiber strength
distribution. The fiber fracture probability P(T) is [39]
Materials 2016, 9, 207 9 of 23
Equation (23) indicates that there exists an incubation period equal to the time required to grow
an oxidized layer as thick as the size of the average critical flaw in the virgin fibers. Also note that
afterwards the characteristic fiber strength changes with time as «t´1{4 .
Filipuzzi and Naslain [33] have measured and modelled the change in the interface oxidation
length Lt of the carbon interface that oxidation occurs according to
C ` O2 Ñ CO2 (27)
The oxidation region length of Lt is [33]
L t “ ϕ 1 1 ´ e ´ ϕ2 t
` ˘
(28)
where ϕ1 and ϕ2 are fitting parameters dependent on temperature. Casas et al. [36] performed
the thermodynamic calculations and found that the deceleration of the oxidation phenomena, as
a consequence of the reduced oxygen activity due to the diffusion through the glassy phases, can
represent several orders of magnitude in the oxidation time scale. This effect has been incorporated
into the model using a delay factor b in Equation (28), which becomes [36]
ϕ2 t
¨ ˛
´
Lt “ ϕ1 ˝1 ´ e b ‚ (29)
5. Fatigue Life Prediction Model

When fibers begin to break, the load dropped by broken fibers would be transferred to intact
fibers in the cross-section. Two dominant failure criterions are present in the literatures for modeling
fibers failure, i.e., Global Load Sharing criterion (GLS) [37] and Local Load Sharing criterion (LLS) [38].
The GLS criterion assumes that the load from any one fiber is transferred equally to all other intact
fibers at the same cross-section plane. The GLS assumption neglects any local stress concentrations
in the neighborhood of existing breaks, and is expected to be accurate when the interface shear
stress is sufficiently low. The two-parameter Weibull model is adopted to describe the fiber strength
distribution. The fiber fracture probability P(T) is [39]
¨ ˛
ż „ mf
1 σf pxq
P pTq =1 ´ exp ˝´ dx‚ (30)
˚ ‹
l0 σ0
L0
where σ0 denotes the fiber strength at tested gauge length of l0 ; mf denotes the fiber Weibull modulus;
and L0 denotes the integral length.
5.1. Life Prediction Model at Room Temperature

The GLS assumption is used to determine the load carried by intact and fractured fibers.
σ
“ T r1 ´ P pTqs ` xTb y P pTq (31)
Vf
where <Tb > denotes the average stress carried by broken fibers.
˙mf # « ˆ ˙ ff+
T mf `1
ˆ ˆ ˙mf
T ´ σc ¯mf `1 σo pNq τi pNq σo τi
xTb y “ 1 ´ exp ´
P pTq T σo τi σc σo pNq τi pNq
# ˆ ˙
mf `1 ˆ ˙mf + (32)
T T σo τi
´ exp ´
P pTq σc σo pNq τi pNq
Materials 2016, 9, 207 10 of 23
and # ˆ ˙ +
T m f `1
ˆ ˙mf
σo τi
P pTq “ 1 ´ exp ´ (33)
σc σo pNq τi pNq
Substituting Equations (32) and (33) into Equation (31), it leads to the form
˙mf # « ˆ ˙ ff+
T mf `1
´ σ ¯ m f `1 ˆ ˆ ˙mf
σ c σo pNq τi pNq σo τi
“T 1 ´ exp ´ (34)
Vf T σo τi σc σo pNq τi pNq
Using Equations (21), (22) and (34), the stress T carried by intact fibers at the matrix cracking
plane can be determined for different fatigue peak stresses. Substituting Equations (21) and (22) and
the intact fibers stress T into Equation (33), the fiber failure probability corresponding to different
cycle number can be determined. When the broken fiber fraction approaches the critical value, the
composites fatigue fracture.
5.2. Life Prediction at Elevated Temperatures in the Oxidative Environment

When fiber-reinforced CMCs aree subjected to oxidation, a notch would form at the fiber surface
leading to the degradation of fiber strength and the increase of fiber stress concentration and fracture
probability. The fracture probabilities of oxidized fibers in the oxidation region, unoxidized fibers in
the oxidation region, fibers in the interface debonded region and interface bonded region of Pa (T),
Pb (T), Pc (T) and Pd (T) are
T mf
" „  *
Lt
Pa pTq “ 1 ´ exp ´2 (35)
l0 σ0 ptq
L t T mf
" ˆ ˙ *
Pb pTq “ 1 ´ exp ´2 (36)
l0 σ0
# « ff+
r f T m f `1 Ld pNq mf `1
ˆ ˙
Pc pTq “ 1 ´ exp ´ 1´ 1´ (37)
l0 pσ0 pNqqmf τi pNq pmf ` 1q lf pNq
$
’
2rf T mf
’ „ˆ
& L pNq
Pd pTq “ 1 ´ exp ´ ˆ ˙ ˆ 1´ d ´
’ m σfo L d pNq lf pNq
% ρl0 pσ0 pNqq f pmf ` 1q 1 ´
’ ´ (38)
T l pNq
ˆ ˙ ˙ m f `1 ˆ ˆ s ˙ ˙mf `1 ff+
σ L pNq ρLd pNq L pNq σ L pNq ρL
1 ´ fo ´ d ´ 1´ d ´ 1 ´ fo ´ d
T lf pNq rf lf pNq T lf pNq 2rf
where lf denotes the slip length over which the fiber stress would decay to zero if not interrupted by
the far-field equilibrium stresses.
rf T
lf pNq “ (39)
2τi pNq
The GLS assumption is used to determine the load carried by intact and fracture fibers [39].
„ ˆ ˙
σ 2l 2l
“ 1 ´ Pf pTq 1 ` f T ` Pr pTq f xTb y (40)
Vf L L
where
Pf pTq “ ϕ rηPa pTq ` p1 ´ ηq Pb pTqs ` Pc pTq ` Pd pTq (41)
Pr pTq “ Pc pTq ` Pd pTq (42)
where η denotes the oxidation fibers fraction in the oxidized region; and ϕ denotes the fraction of
oxidation in the multiple matrix cracks.
Lsat
ϕ“ (43)
lf ´ 2Lt
Materials 2016, 9, 207 11 of 23
The average stress carried by broken fibers is given by Equation (44).

rl
xTb y “ 0 f Tb pxq f pxqdx # « ˆ ˙ ff+
T ´ σc ¯mf `1 σo pNq mf τi pNq T mf `1
ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙mf
σo τi
“ 1 ´ exp ´
Pr pTq T σ τi σc σo pNq τi pNq (44)
# ˆ ˙ o ˆ +
mf `1 ˙mf
T T σo τi
´ exp ´
Pr pTq σc σo pNq τi pNq
Substituting Equations (41), (42) and (44) into Equations (35)–(38), the stress T carried by
intact fibers at the matrix crack plane can be determined for different cycle number and fatigue
stress. Substituting Equations (21), (22), (25), (26) and (29) and the intact fiber stress T into
Equations (41) and (42), the fiber failure probabilities corresponding to different numbers of applied
cycles can be determined. When the broken fiber fraction approaches the critical value, the composites
fatigue fracture.
6. Experimental Comparisons
Under cyclic fatigue loading, the loading directions were along with fiber for the unidirectional
CMCs, 0˝ fiber ply for the cross-ply and plain-weave 2D CMCs, warp yarn for the 2.5D CMCs, and
axial fibers at a small angle θ for 3D CMCs. An effective coefficient of the fiber volume content along
the loading direction (ECFL) is defined as:
Vf_axial
ψ“ (45)
Vf
where V f and V f_axial denote the total fiber volume fraction in the composites and the effective fiber
volume fraction in the cyclic loading direction. Under cyclic fatigue loading at room and elevated
temperatures, the broken fiber fraction in the 0˝ plies or longitudinal yarns of cross-ply and 2.5D CMCs
would increase with the increase of loading cycles and oxidation time. When the broken fiber fraction
in the 0˝ plies or longitudinal yarns approaches the critical value, the composite would fatigue fail.
6.1. Life Prediction at Room Temperature

The monotonic tensile strength of unidirectional C/SiC composite is 270 MPa, and the fatigue
peak stresses are 0.51, 0.66, 0.74, 0.88 and 0.96 of tensile strength; the monotonic tensile strength of
cross-ply C/SiC composite is 124 MPa, and the fatigue peak stresses are 0.70, 0.80, 0.85 and 0.90 of
tensile strength; the monotonic tensile strength of 2D C/SiC composite is 420 MPa, and the fatigue
peak stresses are 0.80, 0.83, 0.86, 0.89, 0.91 and 0.96 of tensile strength [11]; the monotonic tensile
strength of 2.5D C/SiC composite is 225 MPa, and the fatigue peak stresses are 0.6, 0.7, 0.75 and 0.8 of
tensile strength [14]; and the monotonic tensile strength of 3D C/SiC is 276 MPa, and the fatigue peak
stresses are 0.80, 0.83, 0.87, 0.89, 0.90 and 0.94 of tensile strength [16].
For unidirectional C/SiC composite, the interface shear stress versus applied cycles curve has been
simulated by the Evans-Zok-McMeeking model [6], as shown in Figure 4a. The material properties are
listed in Table 1. The broken fiber fraction versus cycle number curves under σmax = 267 and 260 MPa
are illustrated in Figure 4b. Under σmax = 267 MPa, the composite fatigue failed after 31 cycles; and
under σmax = 260 MPa, the composite fatigue failed after 400 cycles. The experimental and theoretical
fatigue life S–N curves are illustrated in Figure 4c, in which the fatigue limit approaches 88% of
tensile strength.
For cross-ply C/SiC composite, the interface shear stress versus applied cycles curve has been
simulated by the Evans-Zok-McMeeking model [6], as shown in Figure 5a. The material properties
are listed in Table 1. The broken fibers fraction versus cycle number curves under σmax = 110 and
108 MPa are illustrated in Figure 5b. Under σmax = 110 MPa, the composite fatigue failed after
10 cycles; and under σmax = 108 MPa, the composite fatigue failed after 53 cycles. The experimental
and theoretical fatigue life S–N curves are illustrated in Figure 4c, in which the fatigue limit
approaches 88% of tensile strength.
For cross-ply C/SiC composite, the interface shear stress versus applied cycles curve has been
are listed
Materials in9,Table
2016, 207 1. The broken fibers fraction versus cycle number curves under σmax = 110 and
12 of 23
108 MPa are illustrated in Figure 5b. Under σmax = 110 MPa, the composite fatigue failed after 10 cycles;
and under σmax = 108 MPa, the composite fatigue failed after 53 cycles. The experimental and
and theoretical
theoretical fatigue
fatigue life life
S–NS–N curves
curves areare illustrated
illustrated in in Figure
Figure 5c,5c,
ininwhich
whichthe
thefatigue
fatiguelimit
limitapproaches
approaches
88% of tensile strength.
88% of tensile strength.
Materials 2016, 9, 207 13 of 24
Figure
Figure 4.
4. (a)
(a) The
The interface
interface shear
shear stress
stress versus
versus applied
applied cycles;
cycles; (b)
(b) the
the broken
broken fibers
fibers fraction
fraction versus
versus
applied
applied cycles;
cycles; and
and (c)
(c) the
the fatigue
fatigue life
life S–N
S–N curves
curves of
of experimental
experimental data
data and
and theoretical
theoretical analysis
analysis for
for
unidirectional C/SiC composite at room temperature.
unidirectional C/SiC composite at room temperature.
Table 1. The
Table 1. The material
material properties
properties of unidirectional (UD),
of unidirectional cross-ply (CP),
(UD), cross-ply (CP), 2D,
2D, 2.5D
2.5D and
and 3D
3D C/SiC
C/SiC
composites
composites at
at room
room temperature.
temperature.
Items UD [9] CP [9] 2D [11] 2.5D [14] 3D [16]
Items UD [9] CP [9] 2D [11] 2.5D [14] 3D [16]
Vf/(%) 40 40 45 45 45
V f /(%)
ψ 40
1.0 0.5 40 0.5 45 0.75 45 0.9345
ψ 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.75 0.93
rf/(μm)
rf /(µm)
3.5
3.5
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.53.5
mm f
f 55 5 5 5 5 5 5 55
ττi oio/(MPa)
/(MPa) 88 6.2 6.2 25 25 20 20 2020
τimin/(MPa)
τ imin /(MPa) 0.3
0.3 1.5 1.5 8 8 8 8 55
ω 0.04 0.06 0.002 0.001 0.02
ω 0.04 0.06 0.002 0.001 0.02
λ 1.5 1.8 1.0 1.0 1.0
p1λ 1.5
0.02 1.80.01 1.0 0.018 1.0 0.02 1.0
0.012
pp
21 0.02
1.0 0.010.8 0.018 1.0 0.02 1.2 0.012
1.0
p2 1.0 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.0
For 2D C/SiC composite [11], the interface shear stress versus applied cycles curve has been
simulated using the Evans-Zok-McMeeking model [6], as shown in Figure 6a. The material properties
are listed in Table 1. The broken fibers fraction versus cycle number curves under σmax = 400, 380
and 360 MPa are illustrated in Figure 6b. Under σmax = 400 MPa, the composite fatigue failed after
1487 cycles; under σmax = 380 and 360 MPa, the composite failed after 10,312 and 189,202 cycles,
Items UD [9] CP [9] 2D [11] 2.5D [14] 3D [16]
Vf/(%) 40 40 45 45 45
ψ 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.75 0.93
rf/(μm) 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
mf 5 5 5 5 5
τio/(MPa) 8 6.2 25 20 20
Materials 2016, 9, 207 13 of 23
τimin/(MPa) 0.3 1.5 8 8 5
ω 0.04 0.06 0.002 0.001 0.02
λ 1.5 1.8 1.0 1.0 1.0
respectively. The experimental
p1 and
0.02theoretical
0.01 fatigue
0.018life S–N curves
0.02 are illustrated
0.012 in Figure 6c, in
which the fatigue limit approaches
p2 85% of tensile
1.0 0.8 strength.
1.0 1.2 1.0
Materials 2016, 9, 207 14 of 24
Materials 2016, 9, 207 14 of 24
Figure 5. (a) The interface shear stress versus applied cycles; (b) the broken fibers fraction versus
applied cycles; and (c) the fatigue life S–N curves of experimental data and theoretical analysis for
cross-ply C/SiC composite at room temperature.
For 2D C/SiC composite [11], the interface shear stress versus applied cycles curve has been
Figureare (a) The
5. listed interface
in Table shear
1. The stress
broken versus
fibers applied
fraction versuscycles; (b) the broken
cycle number curves under max = 400,versus
fibers σfraction 380 andapplied
360 MPa
cycles; andcross-plyare illustrated
(c) theC/SiC
fatigue in Figure
life S–N 6b.
curves Under σ = 400 MPa, the composite fatigue failed
of experimental data and theoretical analysis for cross-ply
max after
composite at room temperature.
C/SiC1487 cycles; under σmax = 380 and 360 MPa, the composite failed after 10,312 and 189,202 cycles,
respectively. The experimental
For 2D C/SiC and theoretical
composite [11], fatigue
the interface shearlife S–Nversus
stress curvesapplied
are illustrated in Figure
cycles curve has 6c, in
been
which the fatigue limit approaches 85% of tensile strength.
are listed in Table 1. The broken fibers fraction versus cycle number curves under σmax = 400, 380 and
1487 cycles; under σmax = 380 and 360 MPa, the composite failed after 10,312 and 189,202 cycles,
respectively. The experimental and theoretical fatigue life S–N curves are illustrated in Figure 6c, in
which the fatigue limit approaches 85% of tensile strength.
Figure 6. (a) The cycles;
applied interface
and shear fatigueversus
(c) the stress applied
life S–N cycles;
curves of (b) thedata
experimental broken analysisversus
fibers fraction
and theoretical for applied
cycles; and2D(c) the composite
C/SiC fatigue life S–Ntemperature.
at room curves of experimental data and theoretical analysis for 2D C/SiC
2D C/SiC composite at room temperature.
832 cycles; and under σmax = 180 MPa, the composite fatigue failed after 13,470 cycles. The
Materials 2016, and
experimental 9, 207 theoretical fatigue life S–N curves are illustrated in Figure 7c, in which the 14fatigue
of 23
limit approaches 70% of tensile strength.

For
Forthe2.5D
3D C/SiC
C/SiC composite [16], the
composite [14], the interface
interfaceshear
shearstress
stressversus
versusapplied
appliedcycles
cycles curve
curve hashas
beenbeen
simulated
simulated byby Evans-Zok-McMeeking
the Evans-Zok-McMeeking model [6], as
model [6],shown
as shownin Figure 8a.7a.
in Figure TheThematerial
materialproperties
propertiesare
listed in Table 1. The broken fibers fraction versus cycle number curves under
are listed in Table 1. The broken fibers fraction versus cycle number curves under σmax = 200 σ max = 270 and 250andMPa
are180
illustrated
MPa areinillustrated
Figure 8b.in Under
Figureσmax7b.= 270 MPa,σthe
Under max composite
= 200 MPa, fatigue failed afterfatigue
the composite 135 cycles;
failedand
under
afterσ832
max =cycles;
250 MPa, andthe composite
under σmax = fatigue
180 MPa, failed
the after 9754 cycles.
composite fatigueThe experimental
failed after 13,470and theoretical
cycles. The
fatigue life S–Nand
experimental curves are illustrated
theoretical fatigue lifeinS–N
Figure 8c,are
curves in illustrated
which theinfatigue
Figure limit
7c, in approaches 85% of
which the fatigue
limit strength.
tensile approaches 70% of tensile strength.
Figure
Figure7.7.(a)
(a)The interfaceshear
The interface shearstress
stress versus
versus applied
applied cycles;
cycles; (b) the(b) the broken
broken fibersversus
fibers fraction fraction versus
applied
applied
cycles;cycles;
and (c) and (c) the life
the fatigue fatigue life S–N
S–N curves curves of experimental
of experimental data andanalysis
data and theoretical theoretical analysis
for 2.5D C/SiCfor
2.5D C/SiC composite
at room temperature.
For the 3D C/SiC composite [16], the interface shear stress versus applied cycles curve has been
simulated by Evans-Zok-McMeeking model [6], as shown in Figure 8a. The material properties
250 MPa are illustrated in Figure 8b. Under σmax = 270 MPa, the composite fatigue failed
after 135 cycles; and under σmax = 250 MPa, the composite fatigue failed after 9754 cycles. The
experimental and theoretical fatigue life S–N curves are illustrated in Figure 8c, in which the fatigue
limit approaches 85% of tensile strength.
6.2. Life Prediction at Elevated Temperatures

The monotonic tensile strength of unidirectional C/SiC composite is 320 MPa at 800 ˝ C in air, and
the fatigue peak stresses are 0.37, 0.43, 0.56, 0.65 and 0.78 of tensile strength; the monotonic tensile
strength of cross-ply C/SiC composite is 150 MPa at 800 ˝ C in air, and the fatigue peak stresses are 0.60,
0.65 and 0.70 of tensile strength; the monotonic tensile strength of 2D C/SiC composite is 487 MPa
Materials 2016, 9, 207 15 of 23
at 550 ˝ C in air, and the fatigue peak stresses are 0.22, 0.36, 0.56 and 0.72 of tensile strength [12]; the
monotonic tensile strength of 2D C/SiC composite is 300 MPa at 1300 ˝ C in the oxidative environment,
and the fatigue peak stresses are 0.5, 0.6, 0.7 and 0.8 of tensile strength [13]; the monotonic tensile
strength of 2.5D C/SiC composite is 280 MPa at 800 ˝ C in air, and the fatigue peak stresses are 0.5, 0.6,
0.7 and 0.8 of tensile strength [14]; the monotonic tensile strength of 2.5D C/SiC composite is 228 MPa
at 900 ˝ C in air, and the fatigue peak stresses are 0.35, 0.4, 0.43, 0.52, 0.6 and 0.7 of tensile strength [15]
and the monotonic tensile strength of 3D C/SiC composite is 304 MPa at 1300 ˝ C in vacuum, and the
fatigue
Materials peak
2016, stresses are 0.83, 0.5, 0.93, 0.98 and 0.99 of tensile strength [16].
9, 207 16 of 24
Figure 8.8.(a)
Figure (a)The interfaceshear
The interface shearstress
stress versus
versus applied
applied cycles;
broken fibersversus
fibers fraction fraction versus
applied
applied
cycles;cycles;
and (c)and (c) the life
the fatigue fatigue
S–N life S–N
curves ofcurves of experimental
experimental data and analysis
data and theoretical theoretical analysis
for 3D C/SiCfor
3Dcomposite
C/SiC composite at room temperature.
6.2. LifeFor
Prediction at Elevated
unidirectional C/SiCTemperatures
composite at 800 ˝ C in air, the interface shear stress versus applied cycles
curve
Thehas been simulated
monotonic tensilebystrength
the Evans-Zok-McMeeking model composite
of unidirectional C/SiC [6], as shownis in Figure
320 MPa9a.atThe
800material
°C in air,
properties are listed in Table 2. The broken fibers fraction versus cycle number curves under
and the fatigue peak stresses are 0.37, 0.43, 0.56, 0.65 and 0.78 of tensile strength; the monotonic σmax =tensile
240
and 200ofMPa
strength are illustrated
cross-ply in Figure is
C/SiC composite 9b.150
Under
MPaσat = 240
max800 °C MPa,
in air,the composite
and the fatiguefatigue
peakfailed afterare
stresses
2970 cycles with the broken fibers fraction of 20.4%; and under σmax = 200 MPa, the composite fatigue
0.60, 0.65 and 0.70 of tensile strength; the monotonic tensile strength of 2D C/SiC composite is
failed after 9195 cycles with the broken fiber fraction of 15.3%. The experimental and theoretical
487 MPa at 550 °C in air, and the fatigue peak stresses are 0.22, 0.36, 0.56˝ and 0.72 of tensile
fatigue life S–N curves are given in Figure 9c, in which the fatigue life at 800 C in air is greatly
strength [12]; the monotonic tensile strength of 2D C/SiC composite is 300 MPa at 1300 °C in the
reduced compared with that at room temperature, mainly attributed to oxidation of PyC interphase
oxidative environment, and the fatigue peak stresses are 0.5, 0.6, 0.7 and 0.8 of tensile strength [13];
and carbon fibers.
the monotonic tensile strength of 2.5D C/SiC composite is 280 MPa at 800 °C in air, and the fatigue
peak stresses are 0.5, 0.6, 0.7 and 0.8 of tensile strength [14]; the monotonic tensile strength of
2.5D C/SiC composite is 228 MPa at 900 °C in air, and the fatigue peak stresses are 0.35, 0.4, 0.43, 0.52,
0.6 and 0.7 of tensile strength [15] and the monotonic tensile strength of 3D C/SiC composite is
304 MPa at 1300 °C in vacuum, and the fatigue peak stresses are 0.83, 0.5, 0.93, 0.98 and 0.99 of tensile
strength [16].
For unidirectional C/SiC composite at 800 °C in air, the interface shear stress versus applied cycles
curve has been simulated by the Evans-Zok-McMeeking model [6], as shown in Figure 9a. The
material properties are listed in Table 2. The broken fibers fraction versus cycle number curves under
Materials 2016, 9, 207 16 of 23
Materials 2016, 9, 207 17 of 24
Figure
Figure 9.
9. (a)
(a) The
The interface
interface shear
shear stress
stress versus
versus applied
applied cycles;
cycles; (b)
(b) the
the broken
broken fibers
fibers fraction
fraction versus
versus
applied
applied cycles; and (c) the fatigue life S–N curves of experimental data and theoretical analysis
cycles; and (c) the fatigue life S–N curves of experimental data and theoretical analysis for
for
unidirectional
unidirectional C/SiC
C/SiCcomposite
compositeatat800
800°C˝ Cin
inair.
air.
Table 2. The
Table 2. The material
material properties
properties of unidirectional (UD),
of unidirectional cross-ply (CP),
(UD), cross-ply (CP), 2D,
2D, 2.5D
2.5D and
and 3D
3D C/SiC
C/SiC
composites at elevated temperature.
composites at elevated temperature.
Items UD [9] CP [9] 2D [12] 2D [13] 2.5D [14] 2.5D [15] 3D [16]
Items UD [9] CP [9] 2D [12] 2D [13] 2.5D [14] 2.5D [15] 3D [16]
Vf/(%) 40 40 45 40 45 40 45
ψ Vf /(%) 1.0 40 0.5 40 0.545 40
0.5 450.75 40 0.75 45 0.93
ψ 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.75 0.75 0.93
rf/(μm) 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
rf /(µm) 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
mf m 5 5 5 5 55 55 5 5 5 5 5 5
f
τio/(MPa)
τ i o /(MPa) 6.1 6.1 5.5 5.5 2525 20
20 2020 25 25 20 20
τ imin /(MPa)0.2 0.2
τimin/(MPa) 0.4 0.4 88 66 5 5 5 5 8 8
ω ω 0.001 0.001 0.001
0.001 0.0001
0.0001 0.0005
0.0005 0.008
0.008 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.002
λ 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0
λ p 0.8 0.02 1.00.02 1.2
0.02 1.2
0.02 0.031.2 0.03 1.2 0.018 1.0
1
p1 p2 0.02 1.0 0.021.0 0.02
1.0 0.02
1.0 0.03
1.2 1.2 0.03 1.0 0.018
p2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.0
For cross-ply C/SiC composite at 800 ˝ C in air, the interface shear stress versus applied cycles curve
For cross-ply C/SiC composite at 800 °C in air, the interface shear stress versus applied cycles
has been simulated by the Evans-Zok-McMeeking model [6], as shown in Figure 10a. The material
curve has been simulated by the Evans-Zok-McMeeking model [6], as shown in Figure 10a. The
properties are listed in Table 2. The broken fibers fraction versus cycle number curves under σmax = 100
material properties are listed in Table 2. The broken fibers fraction versus cycle number curves under
σmax = 100 and 80 MPa are illustrated in Figure 10b. Under σmax = 100 MPa, the composite fatigue failed
after 2134 cycles with the broken fibers fraction of 18.5%; and under σmax = 80 MPa, the composite
failed after 9881 cycles with the broken fibers fraction of 26.8%. The experimental and theoretical
fatigue failed after 9881 cycles with the broken fibers fraction of 26.8%. The experimental and
fatigue life S–N curves are illustrated in Figure 10c, in which the fatigue life at 800 ˝ C in air is greatly
theoretical fatigue life S–N curves are illustrated in Figure 10c, in which the fatigue life at 800 °C in
reduced compared with that at room temperature, attributed to oxidation of PyC interphase and
air is greatly reduced compared with that at room temperature, attributed to oxidation of PyC
carbon fibers.
interphase and carbon fibers.
For 2D C/SiC composite at 550 °C in air [12], the interface shear stress versus applied cycles has
been simulated by the Evans-Zok-McMeeking model [6], as shown in Figure 11a. The material
σmax = 420 and 320 MPa are illustrated in Figure 11b. Under σmax = 420 MPa, the composite fatigue
failed after 25 cycles with the broken fiber fraction of 27.8%; and under σmax = 320 MPa, the composite
fatigue failed after 12,457 cycles with the broken fiber fraction of 26.2%. The experimental and
air is greatly
Materials reduced compared with that at room temperature, mainly attributed to oxidation
2016, 9, 207 of
17 of 23
Materials 2016, 9, 207 18 of 24
properties are listed in Table 2. The broken fiber fraction versus cycle number curves under
failed after 25 cycles with the broken fiber fraction of 27.8%; and under σmax = 320 MPa, the composite
fatigue failed after 12,457 cycles with the broken fiber fraction of 26.2%. The experimental and
air is greatly reduced compared with that at room temperature, mainly attributed to oxidation of
Figure 10.
Figure 10. (a)
(a)The
Theinterface
interface shear
shear stress
stress versus
versus applied
applied cycles;
cycles; (b)
(b) the the broken
broken fiber fraction
fiber fraction versus
versus applied
cycles; and (c) the fatigue life S–N curves of experimental data and theoretical analysis for cross-ply for
cross-ply C/SiC composite ˝ at
C/SiC composite at 800 C in air. 800 °C in air.
For 2D C/SiC composite at 550 ˝ C in air [12], the interface shear stress versus applied cycles
properties are listed in Table 2. The broken fiber fraction versus cycle number curves under σmax = 420
25 cycles with the broken fiber fraction of 27.8%; and under σmax = 320 MPa, the composite fatigue
failed after 12,457 cycles with the broken fiber fraction of 26.2%. The experimental and theoretical
fatigue life S–N curves are illustrated in Figure 11c, in which the fatigue life at 550 ˝ C in air is greatly
Figure 10. (a) The interface shear stress versus applied cycles; (b) the broken fiber fraction versus
reduced compared with
applied cycles; andthat at fatigue
(c) the room life
temperature,
S–N curves ofmainly attributed
experimental to theoretical
data and oxidationanalysis
of interphase
for and
carbon fibers.
cross-ply C/SiC composite at 800 °C in air.
Figure 11. Cont.

Materials 2016, 9, 207 18 of 23
Materials 2016, 9, 207 19 of 24
Materials 2016, 9, 207 19 of 24
Figure 11. (a) The interface shear stress versus applied cycles; (b) the broken fiber fraction versus applied
cycles; and (c) the fatigue life S–N curves of experimental data and theoretical analysis for 2D woven
2D woven C/SiC composite at 550 °C in air.
C/SiCFigure 11. (a) at
composite The
550interface shear stress versus applied cycles; (b) the broken fiber fraction versus
˝ C in air.
For 2D C/SiC composite at 1300 °C in the oxidative environment [13], the interface shear stress
2D woven C/SiC composite at 550 °C in air.
versus
For 2Dapplied
C/SiC cycles
compositehas been
at 1300 ˝ C in the
simulated by oxidative
the Evans-Zok-McMeeking
environment [13], model [6], as shown
the interface shearinstress
Figure 12a.
versus applied The
For 2Dcyclesmaterial properties are
has been atsimulated
C/SiC composite listed
1300 °C in by in Table
the the 2. The broken
Evans-Zok-McMeeking
oxidative fiber fraction
environment [13], the model versus cycle
interface[6], number
as stress
shear shown in
curves
versus
Figure under
The σmaterial
12a.applied max = 250 and 200 MPa are illustrated in Figure 12b. Under σmax = 250 MPa, the composite
cycles has been simulated
properties by the
are listed in Evans-Zok-McMeeking
Table 2. The broken model versusincycle
[6], as shown
fiber fraction
fatigue
Figure failed
12a. Theafter 196 cycles
material with the broken infiber fraction of 28.4%; andfraction
under versus
σmax = 200 MPa, the
number curves under σmaxproperties
= 250 andare listed
200 MPa Table 2. The broken
are illustrated fiber
in Figure 12b. Undercycle σmaxnumber
= 250 MPa,
composite
curves underfatigue failed
σmax = 250 after
and 200 11,480
MPa cycles
arecycleswith
illustratedthe broken fiber fraction of 23.7%. The experimental
the composite fatigue failed after 196 withinthe Figure 12b. Under
broken fiber σfraction
max = 250 MPa, the composite
of 28.4%; and under
and theoretical
fatigue fatigue
failed after 196life S–Nwith
cycles curves
theare illustrated
broken fiber in Figureof
fraction 12c, in which
28.4%; and the
underfatigue
σmaxlife
= 200at 1300
MPa,°Cthe
in
= 200
σmax the MPa,
oxidative the composite
environment fatigue
is greatlyfailed
reducedafter 11,480
compared cycles
with with
that the
at broken
room fiber fraction
temperature, of 23.7%.
mainly
composite fatigue failed after 11,480 cycles with the broken fiber fraction of 23.7%. The experimental
The experimental
attributed and theoretical
to oxidation of S–N fatigue life
interphase S–N curves are illustrated in Figure 12c, in which the
and theoretical fatigue life curves and carbon
are illustrated fibers.
in Figure 12c, in which the fatigue life at 1300 °C in
fatigue life at 1300 ˝ C in the oxidative environment is greatly reduced compared with that at room
the oxidative environment is greatly reduced compared with that at room temperature, mainly
temperature,
attributedmainly attributed
to oxidation to oxidation
of interphase of interphase
and carbon fibers. and carbon fibers.
2D C/SiC composite at 1300 °C in the oxidative atmosphere.
Figure 12. (a) The interface shear stress versus applied cycles; (b) the broken fiber fraction versus applied
cycles; and (c) the fatigue life S–N curves of experimental data and theoretical analysis for 2D C/SiC
2D C/SiC composite
˝
at 1300 °C in the oxidative atmosphere.
composite at 1300 C in the oxidative atmosphere.
Materials 2016, 9, 207 19 of 23
Materials 2016, 9, 207 20 of 24
For 2.5D
For 2.5DC/SiC
C/SiC composite
composite at 800 800in˝air
at °C C in airthe
[14], [14], the interface
interface shear
shear stress stress
versus versus
applied applied
cycles has
cycles has been simulated by the Evans-Zok-McMeeking model [6],
been simulated by the Evans-Zok-McMeeking model [6], as shown in Figure 13a. The material as shown in Figure 13a. The
material properties
properties are listedare listed2.inThe
in Table Table 2. The
broken broken
fiber fiberversus
fraction fraction versus
cycle numbercyclecurves
numberundercurves
σmaxunder
= 200
σ = 200 and 180 MPa are illustrated in Figure 13b. Under σ = 200 MPa,
max max the composite fatigue
failedcycles
2945 after with
2945thecycles
brokenwith the broken
fibers fractionfibers fraction
of 28.5%; of 28.5%;
and under σmax and
= 180under
MPa, theσmax = 180 MPa,
composite the
fatigue
composite
failed afterfatigue failedwith
6078 cycles after the
6078broken
cycles with
fiber the broken
fraction of fiber
20.1%.fraction of 20.1%. Theand
The experimental experimental
predicted
and predicted fatigue life S–N curves are illustrated in Figure 13c, in which the fatigue life at 800 ˝ C in
fatigue life S–N curves are illustrated in Figure 13c, in which the fatigue life at 800 °C in air is greatly
air is greatly
reduced reduced
compared compared
with with that
that at room at room temperature,
temperature, mainlytoattributed
mainly attributed oxidationtoofoxidation of PyC
PyC interphase
interphase and
and carbon fibers. carbon fibers.
Figure 13. (a)

Figure 13. (a)The
Theinterface
interface shear
shear stress
stress versus
versus applied
applied cycles;
cycles; (b)broken
(b) the the broken fiber fraction
versus applied
applied cycles;
cycles; and and
(c) the (c) thelife
fatigue fatigue life S–N
S–N curves curves of experimental
of experimental data and analysis
data and theoretical theoretical
for analysis for
2.5D C/SiC
˝
composite at 800 C in air.at 800 °C in air.
For 2.5D C/SiC composite at 900 °C in˝air [15], the interface shear stress versus applied cycles has
For 2.5D C/SiC composite at 900 C in air [15], the interface shear stress versus applied
been simulated by the Evans-Zok-McMeeking model [6], as shown in Figure 14a. The material
cycles has been simulated by the Evans-Zok-McMeeking model [6], as shown in Figure 14a. The
material properties are listed in Table 2. The broken fiber fraction versus cycle number curves under
failed after 2945 cycles with the broken fibers fraction of 26.4%; and under σmax = 210 MPa, the
failed after 1649 cycles with the broken fiber fraction of 24.1%. The experimental and theoretical
composite fatigue failed after 1649 cycles with the broken fiber fraction of 24.1%. The experimental
fatigue life S–N curves are illustrated in Figure 14c, in which the fatigue life at 900 °C in air is greatly
and theoretical fatigue life S–N curves are illustrated in Figure 14c, in which the fatigue life at 900 ˝ C
reduced compared with that at room temperature, mainly attributed to oxidation of PyC interphase
in air is greatly reduced compared with that at room temperature, mainly attributed to oxidation of
and carbon fibers.
PyC interphase and carbon fibers.
Materials 2016, 9, 207 20 of 23
Materials 2016, 9, 207 21 of 24
Materials 2016, 9, 207 21 of 24
Figure 14.
Figure 14.(a)
(a)The
Theinterface
interface shear
shear stress
stress versus
versus applied
applied cycles;
versus applied
cycles; and (c) the fatigue life S–N curves of experimental data and theoretical analysis for 2.5D C/SiC for
˝
composite at 900 C in air.at 900 °C in air.
2.5D C/SiC composite at 900 °C in air.
For 3D C/SiC composite at 1300 °C ˝ C in vacuum [16], the interface shear stress versus applied cycles
For 3D C/SiC composite at
C/SiC composite at 1300
1300 °C ininvacuum
vacuum[16],[16],the
theinterface
interface shear
shear stress versus applied cycles
stress versus
has been simulated by the Evans-Zok-McMeeking model [6], as shown in Figure Figure 15a.
15a. The material
properties
properties are
are listed
listed in
in Table
Table2.2.The
Thebroken
brokenfiber fractionversus
fiberfraction versuscycle
cyclenumber
numbercurves
curvesunder max =
underσσmax = 300
and 295 MPa are illustrated in Figure 15b. Under
are illustrated in Figure 15b. Under σmax = 300 MPa,
σ = 300 MPa, the composite fatigue failed after
14,968 cycles with the broken fiber fraction of 28.5%;max and under σmax = 295 MPa, the composite fatigue
14,968
14,968 cycles
cycles with
with the
the broken
brokenfiber
fiberfraction
fractionof of28.5%;
28.5%;andandunder
underσσmax = 295
max = 295 MPa,
MPa, the
the composite
composite fatigue
failed after 25,773 cycles with the broken fiber fraction of 28.5%. The experimental and predicted
failed after 25,773 cycles with the broken broken fiber
fiber fraction
fraction ofof 28.5%.
28.5%. The experimental and predicted
fatigue life S–N curves at 1300˝ °C in vacuum are illustrated in Figure 15c, in which the fatigue life
fatigue life
life S–N
S–Ncurves
curvesatat1300
1300 C °Cininvacuum
vacuum areare
illustrated in Figure
illustrated 15c,15c,
in Figure in which the fatigue
in which life and
the fatigue life
and fatigue limit at 1300˝ C in°C in vacuum are increased compared with those at room temperature.
fatigue limitlimit
and fatigue at 1300
at 1300 vacuum
°C in vacuumare increased compared
are increased withwith
compared thosethose
Figure 15. Cont.

Materials 2016, 9, 207 21 of 23
Materials 2016, 9, 207 22 of 24
Figure 15.
Figure 15. (a)
(a)The
Theinterface
interface shear
shear stress
stress versus
versus applied
applied cycles;
cycles; (b)
(b) the the broken
versus applied
applied cycles; and (c) the fatigue life S–N curves of experimental data and theoretical
cycles; and (c) the fatigue life S–N curves of experimental data and theoretical analysis for 3D C/SiC analysis for
3D C/SiC composite ˝ at 1300
composite at 1300 C in vacuum. °C in vacuum.
7. Conclusions
7. Conclusions
An approach
An approachto topredict
predictthethefatigue
fatiguelife
lifeofoffiber-reinforced
fiber-reinforced CMCs
CMCs withwith different
different fiber
fiber preforms,
preforms, i.e.,
i.e., unidirectional, cross-ply, 2D, 2.5D and 3D CMCs at room and elevated temperatures
unidirectional, cross-ply, 2D, 2.5D and 3D CMCs at room and elevated temperatures in air and oxidative in air and
oxidative environments,
environments, has been developed
has been developed considering considering thedamage
the fatigue fatigue mechanism
damage mechanism of interface
of interface wear at
wear temperature,
room at room temperature, interface
interface and fiber and fiber at
oxidation oxidation
elevatedattemperatures.
elevated temperatures.
An effective Ancoefficient
effective
coefficient
of the fiberof the fiber
volume volume
fraction fraction
along along the
the loading loading (ECFL)
direction direction (ECFL)
was was introduced
introduced to describe to the
describe
fiber
the fiber architecture of the preforms. The two-parameter Weibull model
architecture of the preforms. The two-parameter Weibull model was used to describe the fibers’ was used to describe the
fibers’ strength
strength distribution.
distribution. Thecarried
The stress stress carried
by broken by broken andfibers
and intact intactonfibers
the on the matrix
matrix crackunder
crack plane plane
under cyclic fatigue loading was determined based on the assumption of Global
cyclic fatigue loading was determined based on the assumption of Global Load Sharing (GLS) criterion. Load Sharing (GLS)
criterion.
The brokenThe broken
fiber fractionfiber fraction
under cyclicunder
fatiguecyclic
loadingfatigue loadingthe
considering considering
degradation theofdegradation
interface shear of
interface
stress andshear
fiber stress
strength and fiber
was strengthThe
obtained. was obtained.
fatigue The curves
life S–N fatigueand
life fatigue
S–N curves
limit and fatigue limit
of unidirectional
C/SiC, cross-ply C/SiC, 2D C/SiC, 2.5D C/SiC, and 3D C/SiC composites have been predicted.have
of unidirectional C/SiC, cross-ply C/SiC, 2D C/SiC, 2.5D C/SiC, and 3D C/SiC composites
been predicted.
1. The broken fiber fraction versus applied cycles curve can be divided into two regions, i.e., at the
1. The broken fiber fraction versus applied cycles curve can be divided into two regions, i.e., at the
initial loading cycles, the broken fiber fraction increases rapidly due to the degradation of interface
initial loading cycles, the broken fiber fraction increases rapidly due to the degradation of
shear stress and fiber strength; and when interface shear stress approaches the steady-state value,
interface shear stress and fiber strength; and when interface shear stress approaches the
fibers’ failure is mainly controlled by fiber strength degradation, which makes the broken fiber
steady-state value, fibers’ failure is mainly controlled by fiber strength degradation, which
fraction increase slowly.
makes the broken fiber fraction increase slowly.
2. The predicted fatigue life S–N curves can also be divided into two regions, i.e., the region I is
2. The predicted fatigue life S–N curves can also be divided into two regions, i.e., the region I is
controlled by the degradation of interface shear stress and fiber strength; and the region II is only
controlled by the degradation of interface shear stress and fiber strength; and the region II is
controlled by the degradation of fiber strength.
only controlled by the degradation of fiber strength.
3. The fatigue life of unidirectional, cross-ply, 2D and 2.5D C/SiC composites at elevated
3. The fatigue life of unidirectional, cross-ply, 2D and 2.5D C/SiC composites at elevated
temperatures in air or oxidative environments is greatly reduced compared with that at room
temperatures in air or oxidative environments is greatly reduced compared with that at room
temperature, mainly attributed to oxidation of PyC interphase and carbon fibers; however,
temperature, mainly attributed to oxidation of PyC interphase and carbon fibers; however, at
at 1300 ˝ C in vacuum, the fatigue life and fatigue limit increase compared with that at
1300 °C in vacuum, the fatigue life and fatigue limit increase compared with that at room temperature.
room temperature.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Natural Science Fund of Jiangsu Province (Grant
No. BK20140813), and the
Acknowledgments: Fundamental
This work wasResearch Funds
supported byforthe
the Central
NaturalUniversities (GrantofNo.
Science Fund NS2016070).
Jiangsu The
Province
(Grant
authorNo.
alsoBK20140813), and the
wishes to thank twoFundamental
anonymousResearch
reviewersFunds
and for the Central
editors Universities
for their (Grant No.on
helpful comments NS2016070).
an earlier
The author
version alsopaper.
of the wishes to thank two anonymous reviewers and editors for their helpful comments on an earlier
version of the paper.
Conflicts of
Conflicts of Interest:
Interest: The
The author
author declares
declares no
no conflict
conflictof
ofinterest.
interest.
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© 2016 by the author; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons by Attribution
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Academic Editor: Luciano Feo

Keywords: ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs); fatigue; life prediction

Materials 2016, 9, 207; doi:10.3390/ma9030207 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

2. Materials and Experimental Procedures

2.1. Unidirectional and Cross-Ply C/SiC Composite

2.2. 2D C/SiC Composite

2.3. 2.5D C/SiC Composite

2.4. 3D C/SiC Composite

α c denote the fiber,

4.1. Matrix Multicracking

v pxq “ |wf pxq ´ wm pxq| ˆ ˙

Substituting wf (x = 0) and v(x) into Equation (15), it leads to the form of

To solve Equation (19), the interface debonded length Ld is

4.3. Interface Wear

where p1 and p2 are empirical parameters.

4.4. Interface and Fibers Oxidation

The oxidation region length of Lt is [33]

5. Fatigue Life Prediction Model

5.1. Life Prediction Model at Room Temperature

5.2. Life Prediction at Elevated Temperatures in the Oxidative Environment

Pr pTq “ Pc pTq ` Pd pTq (42)

The average stress carried by broken fibers is given by Equation (44).

6.1. Life Prediction at Room Temperature

Materials 2016, 9, 207 13 of 24

Materials 2016, 9, 207 14 of 24

Materials 2016, 9, 207 14 of 24

limit approaches 70% of tensile strength.

6.2. Life Prediction at Elevated Temperatures

Materials 2016, 9, 207 18 of 24

Figure 11. Cont.

Materials 2016, 9, 207 19 of 24

Figure 13. (a)

Figure 15. Cont.

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