I.

Plate tectonics

(Continental Drift theory)

Continental drift theory is a theory by Alfred Wegener that states that the continents were once

but somehow drifted apart.

Evidences:

1. The apparent fit of the continents.

The first piece of evidence is simply the observation that the continents appear to fit together

the coastlines of the continents also fit together like puzzles.

2. Fossil correlation.

Some fossils were found on the eastern coast of south America and the western coast of Africa,

now these fossils weren’t just any fossils, they were the same species particularly the

mezosaurus. Vegner stated that while these creatures roamed the land and after going extinct

the land masses were torn apart and carrying some of the fossils to what today would be

known as south America and Africa.

3. Rock and mountain correlation.

Vegner found out that the mountain ranges in the northeastern united states and the mountain

ranges in northern Europe match up perfectly, and mountain ranges on the coasts of these two

continents are the same type and the same age. A better explanation would be is that these

mountains were once connected and as the continents moved they were torn into two
2. Plate Boundaries

Plate boundaries are found at the edge of the lithospheric plates and are have three types ,

convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries.

1. Convergent boundaries – Where two plates are colliding.

Subduction zones occur when one or both of the tectonic plates are compressed of oceanic

crust. The plate being forced under is eventually melted and destroyed.

2. Divergent boundaries – Where two plates are moving apart.

The space created can also fill with new crustal materials sourced from molten magma that

forms below. Divergent boundaries can form within continents and will eventually open up

and become ocean basins.

3. Transform boundaries – Where plates slide past each other.

The relative motion of the plates is horizontal they can occur underwater or on land and crust

is neither destroyed nor created. Because of friction the plates cannot simply glide past each

other rather stress builds up in both plated and when it exceeds the threshold of the rocks.

The energy is released causing earthquakes.

3. Types of faults

Faults are fractures in earth’s crust where rocks on either side of the crack have slid past each

other.

Three types of faults:

Normal Fault – faults that form when the hanging wall drops down. The forces that create

normal faults are pulling the sides apart, or extensional

Reverse Faults – faults that form when the hanging wall moves up. The forces creating reverse

faults are compressional, pushing the sides together.

Strike slip faults – These are faults that move sideways they don’t move up or down
III. Earthquake

What causes the earth to move ?

Scientists think convection currents are what causes the earth to move. A convection current

is caused by differences in temperature. Mantle material close to earth’s core is very hot.

Mantle material near the lithosphere is cooler.

The cooler denser material sinks toward the core . the hot material near the core expands

and becomes less dense. it rises and takes place of the cooler material. The sinking

material becomes hotter and rises. This is continuous circular motion.

Earths convection currents can be thousands of kilometres across. But they move very

slowly. They flow at rates of a few centimeters per year. Scientists believe this movement of

material carries the plate of the lithosphere with it. It causes the plates to move.

The rising material in the convection currents spreads out. It pushes the plate upward and

outward. These are divergent boundaries. The material moving downward in the current

pulls the plates down with it. These are convergent boundaries.
Intensity
The intensity is a number (written as a Roman numeral) describing the severity of an
earthquake in terms of its effects on the earth's surface and on humans and their structures.
Several scales exist, but the ones most commonly used in the United States are the Modified
Mercalli scale and the Rossi-Forel scale. There are many intensities for an earthquake,
depending on where you are, unlike the magnitude, which is one number for each earthquake.

Magnitude
the magnitude is a number that characterizes the relative size of an earthquake. Magnitude is
based on measurement of the maximum motion recorded by a seismograph. Several scales
have been defined, but the most commonly used are (1) local magnitude (ML), commonly
referred to as "Richter magnitude", (2) surface-wave magnitude (Ms), (3) body-wave
magnitude (Mb), and (4) moment magnitude (Mw). Scales 1-3 have limited range and
applicability and do not satisfactorily measure the size of the largest earthquakes. The moment
magnitude (Mw) scale, based on the concept of seismic moment, is uniformly applicable to all
sizes of earthquakes but is more difficult to compute than the other types. All magnitude scales
should yield approximately the same value for any given earthquake.

Richter scale
The Richter magnitude scale was developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter of the California
Institute of Technology as a mathematical device to compare the size of earthquakes. The
magnitude of an earthquake is determined from the logarithm of the amplitude of waves
recorded by seismographs. Adjustments are included for the variation in the distance
between the various seismographs and the epicenter of the earthquakes. On the Richter Scale,
magnitude is expressed in whole numbers and decimal fractions. For example, a magnitude
5.3 might be computed for a moderate earthquake, and a strong earthquake might be rated as
magnitude 6.3. Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in
magnitude represents a tenfold increase in measured amplitude; as an estimate of energy,
each whole number step in the magnitude scale corresponds to the release of about 31 times
more energy than the amount associated with the preceding whole number value.
Safety measures Before, during and after an earthquake.

What to Do Before an Earthquake

1. Make sure you have a fire extinguisher, first aid kit, a battery-powered radio, a flashlight,
and extra batteries at home.
2. Learn first aid.
3. Learn how to turn off the gas, water, and electricity.
4. Make up a plan of where to meet your family after an earthquake.
5. Don't leave heavy objects on shelves (they'll fall during a quake).
6. Anchor heavy furniture, cupboards, and appliances to the walls or floor.
7. Learn the earthquake plan at your school or workplace.

What to Do During an Earthquake

1. Stay calm! If you're indoors, stay inside. If you're outside, stay outside.
2. If you're indoors, stand against a wall near the center of the building, stand in a doorway, or
crawl under heavy furniture (a desk or table). Stay away from windows and outside doors.
3. If you're outdoors, stay in the open away from power lines or anything that might fall. Stay
away from buildings (stuff might fall off the building or the building could fall on you).
4. Don't use matches, candles, or any flame. Broken gas lines and fire don't mix.
5. If you're in a car, stop the car and stay inside the car until the earthquake stops.
6. Don't use elevators (they'll probably get stuck anyway).

What to Do After an Earthquake

1. Check yourself and others for injuries. Provide first aid for anyone who needs it.
2. Check water, gas, and electric lines for damage. If any are damaged, shut off the valves.
Check for the smell of gas. If you smell it, open all the windows and doors, leave immediately,
and report it to the authorities (use someone else's phone).
3. Turn on the radio. Don't use the phone unless it's an emergency.
4. Stay out of damaged buildings.
5. Be careful around broken glass and debris. Wear boots or sturdy shoes to keep from
cutting your feet.
6. Be careful of chimneys (they may fall on you).
7. Stay away from beaches. Tsunamis and seiches sometimes hit after the ground has stopped
shaking.
8. Stay away from damaged areas.
9. If you're at school or work, follow the emergency plan or the instructions of the person in
charge.
10. Expect aftershocks.
 Record of the major earthquakes in the world

1: Shensi, China, Jan. 23, 1556

Magnitude about 8, about 830,000 deaths.

2: Tangshan, China, July 27, 1976

Magnitude 7.5. Official casualty figure is 255,000 deaths. Estimated death toll as high as

655,000.

3. Aleppo, Syria, Aug. 9, 1138

Magnitude not known, about 230,000 deaths.

4.Sumatra, Indonesia, Dec. 26, 2004

Magnitude 9.1, 227,898 deaths.

5.Haiti, Jan 12, 2010

Magnitude 7.0. According to official estimates, 222,570 people killed.

6. Damghan, Iran, Dec. 22, 856

Magnitude not known, about 200,000 deaths.

7.Haiyuan, Ningxia , China, Dec. 16, 1920

7.8 magnitude, about 200,000 deaths.

8. Ardabil, Iran, March. 23, 893

Magnitude not known, about 150,000 deaths

9. Kanto, Japan, Sept. 1, 1923

7.9 magnitude, 142,800 deaths.

10. Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, Oct. 5, 1948

7.3 magnitude, 110,000 deaths.

 Summary

This is a science project regarding the following topics:

Plate tectonics, Volcanoes, Earthquake and tsunami’s these topics are all related to science

this project will be submitted this august 9 2018.

References

www.geo.mtu.edu, www.nbcnews.com, earthquake.usgs.gov, www.edhelper.com,

www.livescience.com, www.gns.cri.nz, www.youtube.com,