Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the reviews of related literature of both foreign

and local, created by author whose writings/ articles have direct bearing in
the foundation of the study.

Importance of Moisture Content of the Rice Grain

According to Putri, Yahya, Adam and Aziz (2015), Hardness is the

resistance of the individual grain to deformation under applied forces.
Hardness is also defined as the ratio of the rupture force to th e deformation
at the rupture point of the grain. Hardness could use as parameter that shows
resistance of rupture due compressive force is given. Hardness
measurements act by providing compressive force on the sample broken and
destroyed.

Rice grain s amples were used directl y after harvest in Malaysia. The
initial moisture content obtained by moisture meter was 22%. The
researchers made two different ways to vary the amount of moisture in the
rice. The first one is the Soaking Method and lastl y, the Dr ying Method.
Moisture content increased with the increasing soaking time while it will
decrease with the heating process.

To compute for the Rupture force. The researchers have made a

relationship between the rupture force and the moisture content bas ed on
the data gathered. The measured rupture force from different moisture
content was plotted against the moisture content. Increasing grain moisture
content from 10% to 29% would decrease grain rupture force from 156.05
 12

to 89.89 N and 56.74 N to 10.65 N in horizontal orientation (X -X axes) and

vertical orientations (Y -Y axes).

The rupture force of rice grain decreased as the moisture content for
both grain orientations increased(X -X and Y-Y load orientation). These
findings highlighted that the value of grain rupture force at horizontal
orientation was higher than the vertical orientations. This value indicated
that the material could be easil y broken. This might be due to the fact that
when the moisture content was high, then the grain would become so fter
and required less force. It was mentioned that the rice breakage decreased
as rice moisture content increased within ranged from 12% to 26%.

The rupture created a strong relationship with the moisture content in

both X and Y orientation of grain. The rupture force values of rice at the
horizontal orientation were higher than those at vertical orientation in the
entire range of moisture content. Rice grains at low moisture content
conditions are less susceptibilit y to breakage losses during the pos t
handling and post -milling operations.

The cited literature also discussed the

relationship of Rupture force (the breaking point) of
a rice grain and Moisture content. The researchers
conducted series of experiments to know how much
of moisture content is needed for the rice grain to
break. Broken rice contributes a negative factor to
rice for it is indicated that if a sample contains more
broken rice than that of normal ones, it shows that
the rice is of poor quality.

The cited literature had made experiments in

order to prove that moisture content is directly
 13

proportional to the hardness of the rice grains. The

Rupture force will not use in the current system but
the present study is capable of determining the
broken rice by using the weight sensor. It is similar
in determining the quality of the rice.

According to Paderes, Mew and Ilag (2011), rice is one of the world’s
major food crops. In rice producing regions where the relative humidit y
often ranges from 60% t o 90% and the prevailing temperature is high, it has
been found that these conditions are conductive for microbial growth. Field
and storage fungi rapidl y multipl y, thus affecting the qualit y of stored rice
seeds. The dominant and often the onl y fungi pres ent on stored rice paddy
rice are species of the genus Aspergillus. It enhance the damage or
discoloration of glumes.

The paddy rice and milled rice seeds were sundried to moisture
contents ranging to 9.33% and 10.56%. Rice samples inside small sacks
were placed in each desiccators containing super saturated solution of
reagent salts. After every five weeks, the desiccators were opened and one
sack in each treatment replicated three tim es including the moisture content,
etc.

Moisture content is kn own to be the primary contributing factor in

determining the kinds of fungi that invade stored rice and the degree to
which they invade it. The predominant fungal species tended to vary at
different moisture levels. The high constant temperature oven metho d of
determining moisture content based on the International Seed Testing
Association rules was used. Twent y grams of the sample were taken in each
treatment.
 14

The cited literature discussed the proper

percentage of moisture content while in rice
storage. High humidity and high temperature can
cause microbial growth to rice that lowers its
quality and may not be able to be sold to market.

Same as with the system, the cited literature

focuses on moisture content and on how it affects the
rice under storage. Relative humidity is directly
proportional to the moisture content so the
proponents did not include it to the system.

Zareiforoush, Komarizadeh and Alizadeh (2011) discussed the agricultural

process operations of rice. Bulk densit y, true densit y and porosit y of rice
was also elaborated of how it greatl y affects the qualit y of rice. He also
said that the initial moisture content of gr ains in store should have 14.6 to
14.8% of moisture content. Moisture content is correlated with the test
weight as the author mentioned. It is written that the higher the moisture
content, the higher the test weight.

Rice is among the oldest of cult ivated crops and ranks as the most
widel y grown food grain crop, serving as the staple food for about half the
world’s population. Physical and engineering properties are important in
many problems associated with the design of machines and the anal ysis of
the behavior of the product during agricultural process operations such as
handling, planting, harvesting, threshing, cleaning, sorting and drying.
Principal axial dimensions of paddy grains are useful in selecting sieve
separators and in calculating powe r during the rice milling process. They
can also be used to calculate surface area and volume of kernels which are
important during modelling of grain dryi ng, aeration, heating and cooling.
 15

Thousand grain mass of rice grain is used for calculating the he ad

rice yield. Expected milling output is determined at the laboratory by taking
the weight of a thousand grains of milled head rice and the corresponding
weight of a thousand grains of paddy and then expressing the weight of
milled head rice as a percentage of the weigh t of the paddy.

Since grain propert y variation is wide, especiall y when considering

variet y difference, rice cannot be considered to have uniform properties.
Moreover, the moisture content of paddy grain decreases from 22 to 8%,
during harvesting to m illing projects. Differences in grain moisture content
can result in a significant variation in the processing characteristics of the
grain. Bulk densit y, true densit y, and porosit y can be useful in sizing grain
hoppers and storage facilities; they can aff ect the rate of heat and mass
transfer of moisture during aeration and drying processes. Grain bed with
low porosit y will have greater resistance to water vapor escape during the
drying process, which may lead to higher power to drive the aeration fans.
Cereal grain kernel densities have been of interest in breakage
susceptibilit y and hardness studies.

The cited literature discussed the agricultural

process operations rice. Bulk density, true density
and porosity of rice was also elaborated of how it
greatly affects the quality of rice.

Bulk density will be used in the system to know

how many foreign objects or broken rice are present.
Although, the system cannot detect true density and
porosity.
 16

Espino, Greer, Mutters, Thompson (June, 2014) also believed that 14%
is the standard content of moisture in the rice samples. It is also believed
that temperature inside the rice sack affects the qualit y of rice. High grain
temperatures and moisture may cause odors that further reduce the value of
rice.

Rice is the most important crops in California’s Sacramento Valley.

Approximatel y 500, 000 acres are planted annuall y. From 2000 to 2011.
California produced an average of 43.4 million hundredweights of rough
rice per year. After harvest rice is dried on -farm or at commercial drying
storage facilities off -farm.

Rice is t ypicall y harvested when grain moisture content is between

18% and 22%. To preserve its qualit y and allow long -term storage, rice
needs to be dried down to 13% to 14% moisture content. Most on-farm
storage facilities use metal bins of various capacities for drying and
storage; the rice is dried using outside air. Off -farm storage facilities use
column dryers to dry rice to 16% or 17% moisture content and finish the
drying in storage str uctures using outside air. In some cases, large farming
operations own a column dryer and receive rice from other farmers for
drying and storage.

For off-farm operations, the percentage of responses for each

frequency of inspection was similar during summer and winter. Most of
farm operations reported inspecting rice once a week, followed by once
every 2 weeks and once a month. Off -farm operations respondents who
selected the “other” category explained that their storage time was very
short, usuall y l ess than a week, and therefore they did not need to inspect
grain frequentl y.
 17

On-farm operations ( n = 29) indicated that the most common methods

of inspecting rice were looking at the surface of the grain mass (72.4%),
inspecting samples taken with a probe (72.4%) and inspecting samples
scooped from the surface of the grain mass (58.6%). Off -farm operations ( n
= 28) reported inspecting the grain surface (78.6%), using a grain probe
(75%) and using the temperature of the grain as an indicator of pest a ctivit y
or spoilage in the grain (64.3%). Most operations (79.3%) used more than
one method to inspect rice.

The cited literature above discusses the

different factors that affect the quality of rice. It
thoroughly explains why certain rice q uality is not
suited for market because of its poor quality due to
its poor environment. The factors discussed were
temperature, the moisture content, spoilage,
insect, odor and rodents. Inspections were also
surveyed on how often farmers are inspecting th eir
rice storage.

The present study has the same concern

about the poor quality of the rice at the market and
it will be designed as a probe that is more effective
than getting samples from the surface for the
moisture of the rice sack.

Moreover, Bern (2011) also got the same principle regarding the
value of moisture content. He said that 14% should be maintained during
long-term storage. He also advised that less than 14% of MC is better. The
mentioned literature by Bern disc usses the procedures and the standard
measurement of bulk densit y for grains. The said article mentioned that test
weight or bulk densit y has the unit pounds per bushel. Formulas were
 18

discussed to obtain the result. Test weight is widel y used for other gra in
crops.

Test weight is defined as an indicator of general grain qualit y and is

a measure of grain bulk densit y. Test weight, but not overall grain weight,
normall y increases during drying. Erroneous calculations using test weights
can incorrectl y in fer that drying systems that increase weight also increase
the number of bushels that can be sold.

When grain is traded, samples are usuall y tested for qualit y, and test
weight is one of the tests carried out. Test weight is actuall y bulk densit y,
measured under specific conditions.

Grain for testing is placed in the hopper. When the gate is opened,
grain drops into the kettle, fills it and floes over the sides. The operator
strikes off the top of the kettle with a levelling stick and weighs it. Weight
of grain in the kettle is measur ed in pounds and this value is multiplied by
32 (the number of quarts in a volume or Winchester bushel) to gain the test
weight in units of pounds per bushel.

Grain test weight in units of pounds per bushel specifies weight of a

“volume” bushel, whi ch is 32 quarts of 1.2445ft 3 of grain. The “weight” in
bushel in units of pounds is used for the basis of payment for grain.

The cited literature above discusses the

procedures and the standard measurement of bulk
density for grains. The said article mentioned that
test weight or bulk density has the unit pounds per
bushel. Formulas were discussed to obtain the
result. Test weight is widely used for other grain
crops.
 19

In order to obtain the test weight, the system would

obtain the w eight. Although the system is not
precise as with the test weight device being used,
the system can do the same computations and
measurements with accurate results.

Determinants of Rice Productivity and Rice Storage

According to Michler and Balagtas (2013), Rice is the primary food

staple in Bangladesh and a major incentive for rice cultivation is to satisfy
household demand for rice. Unlike in developed countries, where the sole
purpose of grain storage is assumed to be for pri ce arbitrage, in rural
villages, where access to markets is limited, households may hold sizable
rice stocks to ensure that they can satisfy their consumption needs.
However, rice storage is costl y, because it may tie up wealth in an
unproductive form. The need to store rice reduces a household’s abilit y to
cultivate cash crops, engage in more profitable off -farm employment, and
invest in education, among other things. The degree to which households
store rice thus plays an important role in the future pros pects for economic
growth in rural communities.

While the existence of high levels of staple grain storage by semi

subsistence households is well documented, there exists distinct, though not
mutuall y exclusive, views on the reasons why households choose to store
grain. Households receive a convenience yield from stored grain such that
they may choose positive storage levels even when the future expected price
is lower than the spot price plus the cost of storage. This food securit y
motive for stora ge means households that store grain when successful price
arbitrage is unlikel y are storing to insure their consumption of calories and
 20

not their consumption of all other goods. Thus, relaxing income or credit
constraints may not change storage behavior.

The cited literature discussed the importance

of storage to rice. It also described the proper way
of storing and why the people of Bangladesh chose
to build a rice storage rather than to store other
agricultural crops.

The system will mainly focused on stored rice

grains and will help the inspectors to easily extract
and check the quality of rice samples.

According to Koirala, Mishra and Mohant y (2013), tropical and

semi-tropical Asia contributed 90% of the globa l rice production. In spite
of being produced on small and marginal farms in many of these countries,
the production of rice has increased faster than population over the last
three decades. Southeast Asia produces about 25 percent of global rice
output. Rice production has increased by about 18 percent between 2000
and 2010, which is 1.6 percent increase in every year. Rice is the staple
food for about 80% of Filipinos, which accounts for 46% and 35% of their
caloric intake and protein consumption, respect ivel y. Rice is the single
most important agricultural crop in the Philippines, and is therefore a major
source of income for millions of Filipino farmers.

On the production side growth and development of rice production

have become completel y dependen t on yield improvements. To meet
demand, rice production can be increased either by increasing rice growing
area or by improving the efficiency of existing resources allocated to rice
production. Improving rice productivit y can contribute to higher yield a nd
in reducing povert y especiall y in rural areas, increased productivit y may
 21

also help in increasing the income and food securit y of small farmers, who
depend on rice production for a living.

The cited literature discussed that rice is the

staple food of the Filipinos and it is the important
agricultural crop in the Philippines. And to analyze
the production of rice in the Philippines and also to
improve the existing rice production.

The system will prevent rice losses due to rice

deficiency if th e rice sacks are properly sampled by
it. Rice losses means less profit for the wholesalers
and retailers so it is important to check it regularly
to avoid anomalies.

Effects of Environment to the quality of Rice

According to Redfern, Azzu and Binamira (2012), the IPCC 4th

Assessment Report states that Southeast Asia is expected to be seriousl y
affected by the adverse impacts of climate change. Since most of its
econom y relies on agriculture and natural resources as primary income,
climate change has been and will continue to be a critical factor affecting
productivit y in the region. In the last five years, there has been an increase
in the number of floods and periods of drought, and some of the most
devastating cyclones, and water, soil and lan d resources are continuing to
decline. In Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam, the annual
mean temperatures are projected to rise by 4.8 °C by 2100, and the global
mean sea level will increase by 70 cm during the same period. In Southeast
Asia as a whole, small changes in the annual rainfall are foreseen to
continue to 2040 and there will be an increase in the occurrence of severe
weather including heat waves and precipitation events. Increases in tropical
 22

cyclone intensities by 10 –20 percent are anticipated, and temperatures are

projected to continue to increase by about 0.7 –0.9 °C. In the last few
decades, sea levels have risen by 1 –3 mm/year, marginall y higher than the
global average.

Rice production systems of the region have over rece nt years become
increasingl y threatened by the effects of climate change, as a large portion
of the rice-growing areas are located in especiall y vulnerable regions. A
number of countries have, in fact, begun to see a gradual stagnation in
production levels brought about by major production constra ints for rice in
Southeast Asia . Changes in temperature regimes greatl y influence not onl y
the growth duration, but also the growth pattern and the productivit y of rice
crops. A decrease of 10 percent in rice yield has been found to be associated
with every 1 °C increase in temperature (ADB, 2009), while Peng et al.
(2004) reported that the yield of dry -season rice crops in the Philippines
decreased by as much as 15 percent for each 1 °C increase in the growing
season mean temperature.

Farmers work in a system of great unreliabilit y. Heavy rainfalls,

droughts and temperature rises are already affecting the production and
qualit y of products. A complicated interaction exists between the many
parameters of production. This means that the e ffect of “controlled actions”
depends on factors that are more or less out of the control of the individual
farmer. Nevertheless, farmers have developed practices and strategies to
cope with uncertainties and continuousl y create more resistant and resilien t
production systems.

The cited literature discussed how South

Asian will experience to the following years
because of climate change as it will greatly affect
the quality of rice and also the production of it.
 23

The system will produce an accurate

inspection of the rice to determine its moisture
content because as the temperature rises, the
moisture decreases and vice versa. It will help
researchers to have a pre -inspection to the quality
of rice to prevent the spoilage or the growth of fungi
in the rice sacks.

According to Asea, Onaga, Phiri, Karanja and Nzioka (2011), qualit y

seed production is often one of the areas taken for granted , as farmers
realize crop growth even for traditional seed. However. The benefit of seed
does not stop at crop growth but goes a long way to grain quality and yield.
Farmers need to be aware that poor quality seed, in the first place, gives a
poor beginning for the rice crop. The plants often suffer from low seedling
vigor, poor growth, non -uniform height and maturit y, prone to weeds,
insects and disease pests, and inability to withstand adverse weather
conditions at earl y stages of growth. Later, the resultant grain qualit y will
be less competitive in the market. This may be witnessed by the significant
unit price difference between locall y produced rice and imported rice sold
in most supermarkets in Uganda. Farmers need to be aware that poor qualit y
seed, in the first place, gives a poor beginning for the rice crop. The plants
often suffer from low seedling vi gor, poor growth, non -uniform height and
maturit y, prone to weeds, insects and disease pests, and inabilit y to
withstand adverse weather conditions at earl y stages of growth. Later, the
resultant grain quality will be less competitive in the market. This m ay be
witnessed by the significant unit price difference between locally produced
rice and imported rice sold in most supermarkets in Uganda.

The storage structure must protect the paddy/seed from: extreme heat
or cold; moisture, which causes microbia l and fungal growth; and insect
 24

pests and rodents which consume or damage the rice. At farm household
level, storage is essential for food securit y or as a commodit y bank for
conversion into cash when required and of course for planting the seed
later. Unfortunatel y, small -scale or marginal farmers often lack the
resources to store large amounts of seed and do not have a large storage
structure; they therefore are obliged to sell their paddy/seed to seed
companies or to traders or buyers immediatel y after h arvest. They carry out
no further processing (drying, cleaning and grading) because of the
immediate need for cash, and there is a lack of incentive to dry.

The main causes of losses are the following

- Insect Attacks
- Long term Storage
- Theft in the storage house The Guidelines for
storage

Moisture Content
• Grain(storage) <14%
• Seed (8-12 mos) 10-12%
• Seed (more than 1 year) <9%
• Seed (germplasm conservation) 6%
Storage temperature – germplasm conservation
• Medium term (20 -40 years) 2C
• Long term (50 ->100 years) -20C

The cited literature above discusses the

operations or practices that farmers and
researchers must know to produce a quality rice
seed. One of the factors affecting the poor quality
of this seeds is the storage. The article discussed
 25

the standards in maintaining the good quality of

rice.

The system will test only milled rice. There

rice grains have moisture content and bulk density
with them. By doing this kind of inspection,
retailers and researchers can have a regular check
up on their rice grains in store.

Inspection practices

According to Badi (2013), qualit y is defined as the totalit y of features

and characteristics of a product or service that bears on its abilit y to satisf y
stated or implied needs. This skills section examines the different factors
that affect grain qualit y, and explains how to measure grain qualit y
characteristics for both paddy and milled rice. Qualit y of rice is not always
eas y to define as it depends on the consumer and the intended end use for
the grain. All consumers want the best qualit y that they ca n afford. As
countries reach self -sufficiency in rice production, the demand by the
consumer for better qualit y rice has increased. Traditionall y, plant breeders
concentrated on breeding for high yields and pest resistance. Recentl y the
trend has changed t o incorporate preferred qualit y characteristics that
increase the total economic value of rice. Grain qualit y is not just dependent
on the variet y of rice, but qualit y also depends on the crop production
environment, harvesting, processing and milling syst ems. The qualit y
characteristics of paddy and milled rice can be considered separatel y. They
used to determine the optimum time for harvesting by studying three
physical characteristics and these are moisture content, hardness and
cracked kernels ratio. We used these tools moisture meter, hardness meter
and crack inspector, respectivel y. Data collection will be continued this
season and next one. We must put into consideration that there are other
 26

physical properties for paddy and both physical and chemical properties for
milled rice. These properties are playing an important role in rice qualit y,
marketing and exporting.

A number of interrelated features determine the quality of

paddy/milled rice. These are:
• Moisture content
• Purit y degree
• Varietal purit y
• Cracked grains
• Immature grains
• Discolored/fermented grains and damaged grains.

These characteristics are determined by the environmental weather

conditions during production, crop production practices, soil conditions,
harvesting, and post -harvest practices

The cited literature above discusses the

pointers to consider when considering the quality of
rice, the factors the affect the quality and the
proper measures to maintain the good quality of
rice grains. The study full explained these things
including the practices and the machines used in
testing rice.

The moisture and damaged grains are the only

features that can be detected by the system. The
cited literature discussed that inspection should be
all around but the system will only be implemented
in post-harvest handling specifically, rice storage.
 27

According to Abas (2016), attainment of self -reliance in rice

production is extremel y an important goal that small farmers in every farm
communit y should achieve to ensure food secur it y, such that rice is always
accessible and affordable to all. At present, Bataan province contributes
almost 5% of the region’s total production of rice in Central Luzon. Despite
of this short production level, most of its residents nevertheless are
dependent on rice farming which serves as one of the chief sources of
livelihood aside from fishing and fish processing.

Although Bataan is considered the microcosm of Philippines societ y,

it faces the worsening problem of rice deficiency and increas ing prices in
which the diminishing trend in rice yield in most rice producing areas in
Bataan province is due to uncertainties in production. Most rice production
methods, however, have involved the heavy use of chemical fertilizers,
pesticides, and other products, resulting in a variet y of socioeconomic and
environmental problems. Many farmers have experienced financial
difficulties, health issues, significant time consumption, and other
problems.

The cited literature discussed that Bataan

contributes almost 5% of production of rice in
Central Luzon and to influence them in rice
production even if they have a small rice
production. It also faces rice deficiency due to
improper rice inspection that causes for the rice to
increase in price.

Inspection is the best way to avoid rice

deficiencies that’s why it will be the system’s main
purpose for the inspectors to easily detect which
rice sacks are subjects for diagnosis.
 28

Rice Fraud

According Enoy and Tadlas (2014), smuggling is an act of any

person who shall fraudulentl y import or bring into the Philippines, or assist
in so doing, any article, contrary to law or shall receive, conceal, buy, sell
or in any manner facilitate the transportation, concealment, or sale of such
article after importation, knowing the same to have been imported contrary
to law.” It consists of various goods or commodities. It also refers to the
international trading of goods without paying the rightful customs duties.

A study shows that milled rice is the top agricultural product being
smuggled in the Philippines. During the period of 1986 to 2008, $1.96 -
worth of milled rice, almost P88 billion at the peso -dollar rate, were
illegall y transported into the country. These huge amounts of money had
impacts on gov ernment finance. Thereupon, this part of the paper will
identify the three effects of rice smuggling. These include: it reduces
government revenues, hurts domestic rice industry, and distorts suppl y -and
consumption data used as refer ence for sound policy-making. In order to be
able to pass through the Philippines’ border, the traders will undergo
through many government sectors to process their business. Their
responsibilities includes paying all fees, taxes and other charges; compl ying
all required documen ts, such as NFA license and Letter of Intent (LOI).

However, not all importers adhere to the said customs’ duties. There
are a number of factors why importers choose to trade in an illegal way.
This paper will onl y name two: high import tax and the p rice difference
between world and domestic market of rice.

Rice smuggling prevents domestic traders from engaging in the rice

business because of unfair competition. Smuggled rice are sold below
production cost, hence “killing” domestic industry. Smug glers avoid tax
 29

payments on imported rice, minimizing their costs, and giving them price
advantage over sellers who source rice locall y. The demand for smuggled
rice is higher compared to the local rice because of its cheap price. It will
affect the other marketing players in the country and it is also the reason
for the closure of other local rice industries that is why traders get
discouraged to engage in the rice business industry to avoid competition
with cheap rice imports traded illegall y in the count ry.

The cited literature above discusses the

impact of rice smuggling in the country’s economic
growth. It also elaborates the process of traders to
enter their business inside the Philippines. Some
traders are doing this the illegal way called
Smuggling. Smugglers are selling their rice for a
cheaper price so that more would be sold to the
consumers that results for the farmers to lower their
prices too due to competency. Farmers are lacking
interest of planting rice because of this issue.

Similar with the cited literature’s purpose of

educating people about smuggling of rice, the
system will help the inspectors to be educated about
what are the proper parameters that they should
remember when the newly came rice sacks has been
delivered to them. The system has data logger to
monitor the last recorded quality information and
compare it to the new delivered rice samples for
validating that is not from any fraud e.g. Fake rice.