Historic figures in Zoology
 Aristotle (Father of Embryology)  discovered the 3
germ layers from which all organs are derived
 Linnaeus (Father of binomial nomenclature) 
simplified scientific names to genus and species
 Historic man  cave drawings and use of animals for
their daily needs
 Cuvier and Hunter  comparative anatomy
 Schleiden (botanist) and Schwaan (zoologist)  cell
theory
 Virchow  all cells come from pre-exiting cells
Scientific method
 Systematic manner mode of problem solving
 Investigation of natural phenomenon
 Steps in the scientific method
o Observation of natural phenomenon  use of
senses or written records (use of preexisting
data and established knowledge that’s still
applicable or can be a basis for future
discoveries i.e. journals)
o Problem  questions that arise over the
course of the investigation; remaining gaps or
questions that must be solved; what is the
cause or effect of a certain phenomena?
o Hypothesis  a temporary answer to the
question; the intellectual guess has to have a
basis
o Experimentation  check the validity of your
hypothesis; can be done via a survey
▪ Control variable  organisms in
controlled conditions that may be
manipulated by the investigator
▪ Experimental variable  completely
controlled by the investigator
▪ Independent variable  may affect
the organism being tested and may
affect the result of the experiment;
presumed to be the cause of the
outcome of the experiment
▪ Dependent variable  outcome
variable; can be influenced by the IV
▪ Extraneous variable  factors
inherent/innate to the specimen;
genetic predispositions
o Conclusion  given everything that
happened, it should be able to answer the
problem; confirms or denies the hypothesis;
qualitative and quantitative data; explain
relationships between variables; did it
contribute to an existing body of knowledge?
▪ Written (journals, articles) or orally
shared (symposiums, seminars, etc.)
 Theory vs law
o Theory  supported by numerous pieces of
evidence and many scientists are also doing
the same thing
o Principle/law  when theories “pass the test
of time” and remains universally accepted,
and has not yet been disproved
Degree of Organizations in Biotic and Abiotic Factors
 There is a hierarchy of organization
o Ex: Fibonacci sequences
 Subatomic particles (quarks)  atom  element 
compound  organelles (made of macromolecules)
 cell  tissue  organ  organ systems (11 organ
systems in the human body)  organism 
population  community  ecosystem  ecosphere
Characteristics/Manifestations of Life
 Homeostasis  maintenance of an organism’s
internal milieu despite fluctuations in the environment
o In humans, normal temp. is 37 degrees; any
lower is hypothermia, and any higher is a
fever
o pH  7 is neutral; lower is acidic, higher is
basic; 7.2 is normal for humans, so slightly
alkaline; any lower may lead to a comatose
state
o Humans need to be constantly hydrated
o Too much salt  problem in the kidneys; too
much sugar  hyperglycemia
o Make sure to maintain at just the right level
 Metabolism  in order to sustain the optimum levels
of activity in the body, metabolism is the sum total of
all chemical processes that occur in the living system,
and can be categorized into either catabolic reactions
(breaking down) or anabolic reactions (building up)
o Catabolism  digestion
o Anabolism (biosynthesis)  photosynthesis,
protein formation
o Anabolism > catabolism = growth
o Anabolism < catabolism = disease
o Enerbolics  input of energy
o Exerbolics  release of energy from the body
o Means to maintain the highly structured and
organized body
 Reproduction  perpetuation of the species
o Organisms of the same kind in the same
habitat under a particular time
o Change is not ordinary change; a group of
individuals of the same kind in the same
habitat under a particular time and place
could occur at the level of the gene for it to be
manifested or expressed, being the units of
inheritance
o Asexual and sexual reproduction
 Growth and Development
o Growth  increase in size or increase in
number of cells; growth from within
▪ In rats  accretion (growth from the
outside)
o Development  embryonic development;
orderly sequence of changes that would give
rise to an adult organism (capable of
reproduction)

 Responsiveness
o Basic property of the protoplasm of a cell
o Reaction to light: in animals  phototaxis; in
plants: phototropism
o Exposure to certain stimuli over time leads to
adjustment
▪ Short period of time  adjustment
▪Long period of time  adaptation
 By product of evolution, in which
there is a change in population
over a long period of time
 Becomes apparent after several
generations
 Units of inheritance  occurs in
the genes
 Either physical or behavioral
o Variation and evolution
Kingdoms of Life
 Kingdom plantae
o Chlorophyll pigment for photosynthesis
 Kingdom animalia
 Undergoes cell respiration
 Some are bioluminescent; some may have
neurotoxins that carry on through the food chain
 Diatoms
 Eukaryotic  membrane bound organelles that are
multicellular
 Prokaryotic  not membrane bound organelles, no
nuclear membrane (has a “naked” nucleus, but still
has genetic material)
 Kingdom monera  bacteria, classified based on
shape
o Cocci (s. cocus)  circular
o Spirilum (p. spiruli) spiral
 Archaebacteria
o Archaic; ancient
o Discovered in conditions that resemble
ancient times
o aka extremophiles, methanogens,
thermophiles, halogens, thermoacidophiles
 Eubacteria (true bacteria)
Misc notes
• Cell wall components only one with cell wall are plantae
and fungi, which differ in composition
• Cellulose vs chitin
• Nitrogenous compound vs polysaccharide
• Bacteria and monera made up of a cellulose of
peptidoglycans (peptide + glycans [sugar])
• Autotrophs  Self producing
• Plantae, having the green clorophyll pigment that is
responsible for photosynthesis
• Bacteria, through chemosynthesis
• Some, but not all protists that are capable of
photosynthesis
• Heterotrophs dependent on primary producers for
nutrition
• Fungi  absorptive; saprotrophs; are also chemosynthetic
and photosynthetic (not entirely photosynthetic in its real
context, so it’s more autotrophic than anything)
• Membrane bound organelles you can’t say it doesn’t
have a nucleus, because it does have nuclear material
• Prokaryotes also have DNA as genetic material, just
like eukaryotes, but it isn’t enclosed by a nuclear
membrane
• Nucleus is all encompassing includes nuclear
membrane, genetic material and nucleoplasm
• DNA is dispersed in the cytoplasm, and in the
nucleoid
• Needs to have organelles or else its gonna die
• Non-membranous organelle: ribosome for protein
synthesis, since cells are protein dependent
• All eukaryotes have nuclear membranes
• Present in prokaryotes only: may dalawa; circular and
naked DNA in the plasmid (cytoplasm), and have a
single strand DNA and RNA; eukaryotes have linear
DNA that have histones na nasa loob ng nuclear
membrane na double stranded
• Preserving biodiversity is of utmost importance
• Our environment is slowly degrading, so we need to do
something to protect it and be aware of how we can save it
CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE
• Living organisms follow the basic laws of physics and
chemistry
• Organic and inorganic compounds are found in living and
non-living things
• Macromolecules in organic compounds
• To a certain extent, there is a similarity between living and
non-living things
• There are things that are important, even in the most minute
amount
• There has to be a balanced amount; deficiency and excess
are both bad
• Bonds
• Covalent  sharing of electrons between two atoms
• Polar and non-polar bonds
• Ionic  transfer of electrons; cations and anions
• Hydrogen bond  weak yet crucial bond
• Molecules of life  determine the recognition and response
to promote activity of the cell and organism
• Water is the most important and abundant in the human
body and on earth
• Excellent solvent
• Not universal because there are exceptions
 • In metabolism, water acts as either a medium
or a participant
• If there’s water, there’s a tendency for it to
dissolve and there’s high polarity (partially +
and -; can react with both cations and anions)
• Water tends to form a hydration cell and can
dissolve sugars and salts, to prevent cations
and anions from bonding again
• Surface tension
• Allows water to cling to each other
• Allows water strider to “walk” on water
• Capillary action
• Stick to other materials
• Follows the narrow structure of xylem to make
way for a long and unbroken stream of water
• Cohesion and adhesion properties/forces
• Allows all substances in contact with water to
be wet
• Cohesive  strong attraction of water to water
• Adhesive  between water and other
substances
• Highest density at 4 degrees centigrade
• Most apparent during cold seasons
• Water becomes solid when it’s colder
• In bodies of water: ice floats; the surface is
solid, but the under part is still liquid
• Forms a lattice network upon 4’ C; serendipity
• For the survival of aquatic organisms
• High heat of vaporization
• Cooling effect when you reach a certain point
• Boiling point is at 100’ C
• High specific heat
• Maintain the normal body temperature
• Cells are made of 65% water, so if kulang
tubig, there’s a problem
• Great amount of heat is needed to raise the
temperature of an organism
• Neutral pH
• 7 is the neutral; up is increase in alkalinity,
down is increase in acidity
• pH .2 in the stomach  HCl
• Acids and Bases
• Acids
• Hydrogen donor
• Separates in a solution
• Disassociate H+
• Bases
• Proton acceptor
• Gives off OH-
• Reacts with hydroxyl ions and forms water
• 7.8  tetany  bad
• Buffer system
• Maintain homeostatic pH values
• React with strong acids and bases to replace
weak acids and bases
• Bicarbonate is the most important
• Trace elements
• 25 out of the 92 are important
• C, O, H, N  !!!!
• 96% of limbic (?) is made of the 4
• Carbon, an organic compound, is versatile because it
serves as the framework of all living molecules and systems
• Forms covalent bonds
• Capable of reacting with other elements
• C – H // C – C  forms a long chain called
hydrocarbon chains
• Linear and straight, but can also be branching
• Can exhibit a ring form
• Functional groups  covalently bonded to carbon
• Common denominator
• Confers similar properties to molecules that
are dissimilar
• Organic molecules include: C, H, hydrocarbon,
carbohydrates, lipids, CHO, CHO+N = AA, S, N, P
• RNA  single bonded, sugar
• DNA  double bonded, minus one oxygen,
deoxyribose
• Copper and iron for RBC
• Hemoglobin gives RBC its color
1. Carbohydrates
 1 : 2 : 1 proportion of CHO
 types
i. Monosaccharide - simple sugar
1. Triose-3C
2. Tetrose - 4 C
3. Pentose - 5 C; ie. Ribose,
deoxyribose
4. Hexose - 6 C; ie. Glucose,
fructose, galactose
ii. Disaccharide - double sugars; formed
via dehydration
synthesis/condensation reaction
1. Maltose - glucose + glucose;
ie. Malt sugar
2. Sucrose - glucose + fructose;
ie. Table sugar
3. Lactose - glucose +
galactose; ie. Milk sugar
4. Dextrose  for blood sugar
5. Fructose  for fruits
 iii. Oligosaccharide/Polysaccharide -
complex sugars; via polymerization:
continuous condensation until
polymer is produced
iv. Glycolytic bonds composed of
repeating units glucose joined
together
1. Glycogen - reserve animal
starch in the liver; turned into
ATPs; highly branching
2. Starch - reserve in plants;
medyo branched
3. Cellulose - major component
of cell wall; super stable;
Fiber, unbranched: found in
veggies, cereals (1) feeling of
fullness (2) digestive catalyst
(3) decrease risk of cancer,
constipation, heart disease,
obesity
4. Chitin - used to harden
structures such as
exoskeleton and cuticles
5. Glycosaminoglycans - make
up proteoglycans; found in
extracellular matrix making
them rigid
2. Lipids
 Highly diverse; only common characteristic is
its non polarity, making it extra greasy

3. Proteins
4. Nucleic acid