Chapter 7: Superposition

• Introduction

– The wave equation is linear, that is if ψ1 (x, t) and ψ2 (x, t) satisfy the
wave equation, then so does ψ(x, t) = ψ1 (x, t) + ψ2 (x, t).
– This suggests the ”Principle of Superposition”: the resultant distur-
bance at any point in a medium is the algebraic sum of the separate
constituent waves.

• The Addition of Waves of the Same Frequency

– A solution of the wave equation can be written as

E(x, t) = E0 sin[ωt − (kx + )],

in which E0 is the amplitude of the harmonic disturbance propogating

along the x axis. This is

E(x, t) = E0 sin[ωt + α(x, ].

– Suppose there are two such waves,

E1 = E01 sin(ωt + α1 ),

E2 = E02 sin(ωt + α2 ),
each with the same frequency and speed, coexisting in space.
– Then E = E1 + E2 is such that

E = E0 sin(ωt + α),

where
E02 = E01
2 2
+ E02 + 2E01 E02 cos(α2 − α1 ),
and
E01 sinα1 + E02 sinα2
tanα = .
E01 cosα1 + E02 cosα2
– That is the composite wave is harmonic and of the same frequency as
the constituents, although its amplitude and phase are different.
– This phase difference between these two waves may arise from a dif-
ference in path lengths and is δ, where
2π
δ= (x1 − x2 ) + (1 − 2 ).
λ

1
 – If the wave emitters are initially in phase, then 1 = 2 , and because
n = c/v = λ0 /λ
2π
δ= n(x1 − x2 ).
λ0
– The quantity n(x1 − x2 ) is known as the optical path difference or
OP D = Λ. Thus δ = k0 Λ.
– Waves for which 1 − epsilon2 is constant are said to be coherent.
– When the OP D is equal to 0, ±2π, ±4π, ..., the resultant amplitude is
a maximum because of constructive interference. When the OP D is
equal to ±π, ±3π, ..., the resultant amplitude is a minimum because
of destructive interference.

• Superposition of Many Waves

– Consider the addition of N waves such that

X
i=N
E= E0i cos(αi ± ωt).
i=1

– Then
E = E0 cos(α ± ωt),
where
X
i=N X X
N i=N
E02 = 2
E0i +2 cos(αi − αj ),
i=1 j≥i i=1

and Pi=N
E0i sinαi
tanα = Pi=1
i=N .
i=1 E0i cosαi
– Consider N atomic emitters compising an ordinary light source. Each
photon emitted is associated with a short duration oscillatory wave
pulse. That is each atom is an independent source of wave trains with
each wave train lasting about 1 to 10 ns. After each wave train, the
atom will emit a new wavetrain with a totally random phase com-
pletely independent of the phase of the previous wavetrains and of the
phase of those emitters around it.
– The resultant flux density asrising from N independent sources having
random, rapidly varying phases is given by N times the flux density
of any one sourca E02 = NE01 2
.
– If sources are coherent, then E02 = N 2 E01
2
.
– Coherent sources generally alter the spatial distribution of energy but
not the total energy.

2
• Standing Waves

– Previousy considered two harmonic waves propogating in the same

direction - now consider two waves propogating in te same direction.
– COnsider El = E0l sin(kx + ωt + l ) and Er = E0 rsin(kx − ωt + r ).
– The composite disturbance is

E = El + Er ,

and with some trignometric manipulation,

E(x, t) = 2E0l sinkxcosωt,

where without too much loss of generality, we have assumed E0l = E0r .
– This is the equation for a standing or stationary wave. Its profile does
not move through space.
– At certain points, nodes, namely x = 0, λ/2, λ, 3λ/2, ...the disturbance
is zero at all times.
– Halfway between the nodes, that is, at x = λ/4, 3λ/4, ...., the ampli-
tude has a maximum value of ±2Eol : these are the anitnodes.

• The addition of Waves of Different Frequency

– Consider the addition of two waves travelling in the same direction

but with different frequency.
– Let E1 = E01 cos(k1 x−ω1 t), and E2 = E02 cos(k2 x−ω2 t), where k1 > k2
and ω1 > ω2 .
– The net composite wave can be formulated as
1 1
E = 2E01 cos( [(k1 + k2 )x − (ω1 + ω2 )t]) × cos [(k1 − k2 ) − (ω1 − ω2 )t].
2 2

– Now define ω̄ and k̄ as the average angular frequency and average pro-
pogation number. Similarly the quantities ωm and km are the mod-
ulation frequency and modulation propogation number respectively.
That is
1 1
ω̄ = (ω1 + ω2 ), ωm = (ω1 − ω2 ),
2 2
and
1 1
k̄ = (k1 + k2 ), km = (k1 − k2 ).
2 2
– Then
E = 2E0l cos(km x − ωm t)cos(k̄x − ω̄t).

3
 – The total disturbance may be viewed as a travelling wave of frequency
ω̄ having a time-varying or modulated amplitude E0 (x, t) such that,

E(x, t) = E0 (x, t)cos(k̄ − ω̄t),

where
E0 (x, t) = 2E0l cos(km x − ωm t).
– If ω1 ≈ ω2 , then ω̄ is much greater than ωm and E0 (x, t) will change
slowly.
– It can be shown that

E02 (x, t) = 2E01

2
[1 + cos(2km x − 2ωm t)].

– Thus E02 (x, t) oscillates about a value of 2E01

2
with an angular fre-
quency of (ω1 − ω2 : the beat frequency.
– Thus E0 , the amplitude of the resulting wave varies at the modulation
frequency but E02 varies at twice that - the beat frequency.
• Group Velocity
– When a number of different-frequency harmonic waves superimpose to
form a composite disturbance, the resulting modulation envelope will
travel at a speed different from that of the constituent waves.
– Group velocity verses phase velocity.
– The phase velocity in this situation is v = ω̄/k̄, that is the phase
velocity of the carrier wave.
– The group velocity relates to the rate at which the modulation enve-
lope advances i.e. vg = ωm /km .
– If v1 = v2 then vg = v.
– Phase velocity can be greater than c, but phase velocity doesnt carry
information or energy.
– Group velocity can also be greater than c.
– In either case, information or energy cannot be transmitted at a speed
greater than c.
• Anharmonic Periodic Waves
– Superposition of harmonic functions having different amplitudes and
frequencies produces an anharmonic wave.
– Fourier Series: A function f (x) can be synthesized by a sum of har-
monic functions whose wavelengths are integral submultiples of λ (ie.
λ, λ/2, λ/3....).

4
– Any periodic function, f (x),

A0 X∞ X∞
f (x) = + Am cosmkx + Bm sinmkx
2 m=1 m=1

where, knowing f (x),

Z
2 λ
Am = f (x)cosmkxdx,
λ 0

2Zλ
Bm = f (x)sinmkxdx.
λ 0
– ω is the fundamental. Subsequent omegas like 2ω, 3ω, .... are the har-
monics.
– Fourier series so represented has the form
2π 2π
f (x) = C0 + C1 cos( x + 1 ) + C2 cos( x + 2 ) + ...
λ λ
– Can extend this to non-periodic waves abd write
1 Z∞ Z ∞
f (x) = [ A(k)coskxdk + B(k)sinkxdk],
π 0 0
Z ∞
A(k) = f (x)coskxdx,
−∞
Z ∞
B(k) = f (x)sinkxdx.
−∞

– A(k), B(k) are the contributions to angular spatial frequency between

k, k + dk.
– The frequency bandwidth is ∆k or ∆ω.