TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

THERMOCOUPLE
A thermocouple is a closed-circuit thermoelectric temperature sensing device consists of two wires made of
dissimilar metals or alloys which are joined at one end to form a junction.
Mechanism:
When two wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined at
both ends and one of the ends is heated, a continuous current flows in
the “thermoelectric” circuit. This is known as the Seebeck effect,
discovered in 1891 by German-Estonian physicist Thomas Johann
Seebeck.
But when the circuit is open at one end and a temperature
difference exists between the junction, a voltage (Seebeck voltage)
is generated across the open ends due to the Seebeck effect. The
higher the temperature difference is between the hot (heated)
junction and the open ends of the wires, the higher the Seebeck voltage will be.
Measurement of the voltage generated by a thermocouple:

Vab = α(Th - Tc)

Vab= Seebeck voltage across the open ends of the circuit
α= Seebeck coefficient
Th = temperature at the hot junction (i.e., the process temperature)
Tc = temperature at the cold junction (i.e., the temperature at the open ends)

Standard Thermocouple Types, Seebeck Coefficients and Operating Ranges.

Accuracy – is based on the purity of the wire and the wire junction.
-Mercury bath to Carbon block welders (operating under inert gas);
Thermocouple materials are produced, tested, and sold in two tolerance
grades, called standard and special.

Design Rationale – it depends on the requirements:

– Temperature range
– Required accuracy
– Chemical resistance issues
– Abrasion or vibration resistance
– Installation requirements (size of wire)
– Thermal conduction requirements
Applications:
1. Steel and Iron industry - Type B, S, R and K 4. Manufacturing
thermocouples 5. Power production
2.Gas appliance safety such as ovens & water 6. Thermoelectric cooling
heaters. 7. Process plants
3. Thermopile radiation sensors 8.Thermocouple as vacuum gauge

Reporters: Cardozo, Karel - Degay, Daphne - Guarin, Divine - Lungao, Louie - Sabadao, Marjorie - Villamorel, Camille
RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
A resistance thermometer is an instrument for measuring electrical resistance that is calibrated in units of
temperature instead of in units of resistance (typically ohms). The resistance thermometer is also known as
Resistance temperature detector (RTD).
Mechanism:
 the traditional RTD element is constructed of a small coil of
platinum, copper, or nickel wire, wound to a precise resistance value
around a ceramic or glass bobbin. The winding is generally done
using one of two styles: birdcage or helix.
 the most common RTD element material is Platinum, as it is a more
accurate, reliable, chemically resistant, and stable material, making it
less susceptible to environmental contamination and corrosion than
the other metals.
 to measure the resistance, it is necessary to convert it to a voltage
and use the voltage to drive a differential input amplifier.
 the RTD signal is generally measured one of two ways: either by
connecting the RTD element in one leg of a Wheatstone bridge
excited by a constant reference voltage, or by running it in series
with a precision current reference and measuring the corresponding IR voltage drop.
 the latter method is generally preferred as it has less dependence on the reference resistance of the RTD
element.
 for evaluating the output signal, a constant current is passed through the thermometer and the voltage drop
(V=IR) across it is measured.
 three different types of connecting circuit are used for this purpose:
 2-wire circuit – the effects of temperature on the measurement
cable are not covered.
 3-wire circuit – the effects of the lead resistances and their
fluctuation with temperature are reduced to a minimum in the 3-
wire circuit.
 4-wire circuit – the measurement depends neither on the lead
resistances nor on their variation due to temperature.

APPLICATIONS OF RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS

 air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
 food Processing
 stoves and grills
 textile production
 plastics processing
 petrochemical processing
 micro electronics
 air, gas and liquid temperature measurement
 exhaust gas temperature measurement

Reporters: Cardozo, Karel - Degay, Daphne - Guarin, Divine - Lungao, Louie - Sabadao, Marjorie - Villamorel, Camille
FILLED-SYSTEM THERMOMETERS
Filled-bulb systems use the principle of fluid expansion to measure temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in a
sealed system and then heated, the molecules in that fluid will exert a greater pressure on the walls of the enclosing
vessel. By measuring this pressure, and/or allowing the fluid to expand under constant pressure, we may infer the
temperature of the fluid.
There are basically four types of filled-bulb temperature sensors in use in industrial applications.
a) Liquid Filled
b) Vapour Filled
c) Gas Filled
d) Mercury Filled
The filled thermal device consists of a primary element that takes the form of a reservoir or bulb, a flexible capillary
tube, and a hollow Bourdon tube that actuates a signal-transmitting device and/or a local indicating temperature dial.

Filled-system thermometers are twisted tube which is open at one end and sealed designed for use in locations where
the indicating part of the instrument must be placed some distance away from the point where the temperature is to be
measured. For this reason they are often called distant-reading thermometers.

OSCILLATING QUARTZ CRYSTAL

The quartz thermometer is a high-precision, high accuracy temperature sensor. It measures temperature by
measuring the frequency of a quartz crystal oscillator. The oscillator contains a specially cut crystal that results in a
linear temperature coefficient of frequency, so the measurement of the temperature is essentially reduced to
measurement of the oscillator frequency.
Quartz is one of several forms of silicon dioxide (SiO2) that is found in nature. Quartz is ideal for use as a
frequency determining device because of its predictable thermal, mechanical, and electrical characteristics.

Reporters: Cardozo, Karel - Degay, Daphne - Guarin, Divine - Lungao, Louie - Sabadao, Marjorie - Villamorel, Camille
RADIATION PYROMETER
A non-contact type of temperature measurement. It consists of an optical component to collect the radiation
energy emitted by the object, a radiation detector that converts radiant energy into an electrical signal, and an
indicator to read the measurements.
Mechanism:
 a radiation pyrometer consists of a lens to focus
radiated energy from an object on to a detector or
receiving element.
 this element may be a resistance thermometer,
thermocouple, or thermopile.
 a thermopile consists of several thermocouples
connected in series.
 a temperature indicator, recorder, or controller is attached with the receiving element to indicate the
temperature.
 when the total energy radiated by a hot object enters the pyrometer, it is focused by the lens on the detector
(thermopile) whose measuring junctions are attached to a blackened disk.
 the disk absorbs energy when the pyrometer is focused on a hot object, and its temperature rises.
 the reference junction of the thermopile is attached to the pyrometer case.
 the difference in temperature between the measuring junction attached to the disk and the reference junction
attached to the case generates a voltage that is directly related to the temperature of the blackened disk, which
is indicated by the recording instrument.

Pros Cons
 non-contact measurement  expensive
 fast response time  accuracy maybe affected by suspended dust,
 good stability smoke, and thermal background radiation
 light weight  subject to emissivity errors
 portable and easy to use

Limitations of Radiation Pyrometer:

 Availability of optical materials limit on the wavelengths that can be measured.
 The surface of the hot object should be clean. It should not be oxidized. Scale formation does not allow to
measure radiation accurately.
 Emissivity correction is required. Change in emissivity with temperature needs to be considered.

Two principal theories are employed by pyrometry: Planck's law and the Stefan-Boltzmann law.
Planck's law is used in narrow-band pyrometers, where only one or a few specific wavelengths are targeted.
Stefan-Boltzmann law is used in broad-band pyrometers, where a wide range of wavelengths are measured.

Accuracy
Most of the temperature estimation methods for pyrometers assume that the object is either a gray body or has
known emissivity values. The emissivity depends on the internal state or surface geometry of the object. Also, the
medium through which the thermal radiation passes is not always transparent. These inherent uncertainties of the
emissivity values, making the accurate estimations of temperature difficult. Thus, proper selection of the pyrometer
and accurate emissivity values can provide a high level of accuracy.

Industrial Uses
 pyrometers are most commonly used in metallurgy and smelting industries, because these industries
constantly use extreme heat. Workers need to constantly watch and maintain high temperatures to ensure the
metals are alloying, melting or being worked with correctly.
 hot air balloonists would use a radiation pyrometer to measure the air and balloon fabric temperature.
 pyrometers are also used by people who work with steam boilers.
 pyrometers are used in testing for the temperature of heating installations.
 Aerospace, Ceramics, Furnaces, Metals and Alloys, Paper, Semiconductor, Asphalt, Electrical, Glass, Oven or
Dryers, Plastics, Textiles, Automotive, Environmental, Kilns, Power Generation, Research & Development,
Calibration Equipment, Food Maintenance, Petrochemical, Rubber.
Reporters: Cardozo, Karel - Degay, Daphne - Guarin, Divine - Lungao, Louie - Sabadao, Marjorie - Villamorel, Camille