Product

Realization
Technology (IC141)
Dr. Satvasheel Powar
Assistant Professor
Indian Institute of Technology Mandi
Classification of joining processes
 Arc welding
Consumable electrode:
–  Shielded metal arc
welding
–  Submerged arc welding
–  Gas metal arc welding
Non consumable electrode:
–  Gas tungsten arc welding
–  Atomic hydrogen welding
–  Plasma arc welding

High energy beam:

–  Electron beam welding

–  Laser beam welding

Gas tungsten arc welding

h"ps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P5m9-
Xmqrk8
 Gas tungsten arc welding
•  Also known as Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding

•  Filler metal is supplied from filler wire

•  Tungsten electrode is not consumed hence constant and stable arc

gap is maintained
•  Shielding gas is generally either argon
or helium
•  Power supply is either DC @200A or
AC @500A, depending on metal to be
welded
•  The cost of inert gas makes the
process more expensive
•  Welds are very high quality with good
surface finish
 Atomic hydrogen welding
•  The arc between two tungsten or carbon electrode is shielded by
Hydrogen atmosphere

•  The work piece is not part of the electrical circuit

•  Hydrogen gas also cools the electrodes

 Plasma arc welding
•  Ionized hot gas, composed of nearly equal number of electrons and
ions

•  A concentrated plasma arc is produced aiming at weld area

•  The arc is stable

•  Transferred arc: Work piece is part of electrical circuit

•  No transferred arc: Arc occurs between electrode and nozzle

Electron beam welding
 Electron beam welding
•  Heat is generated by high-velocity narrow beam electrons

•  Kinetic energy of electrons is converted into heat as they strike the

work piece

•  Capability of making high quality welds with small heat affect zone
 Laser beam machining

•  Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

•  Focuses optical energy on the surface of the workpiece
•  Laser applications
–  Heat treatment
–  Welding
–  Ablation or cutting of plastics, glasses, ceramics, semiconductors and metals
–  Material deposition–
–  Etching with chemical assist i.e., Laser Assisted Chemical Etching or LACE
–  Laser-enhanced jet plating and etching
–  Lithography
–  Surgery
–  Photo-polymerization (e.g., µ-stereo-lithography)
 Laser beam machining
•  The highly focused, high-
density energy source
melts and evaporates
portions of the workpiece
in a controlled manner.
•  This process (which does
not require a vacuum) is
used to machine a variety
of metallic and
nonmetallic materials.
 How laser works

h"ps://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=oUEbMjtWc-A

h"ps://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=ptEmX9O4nDw
Laser beam welding
 Laser beam welding
•  Heat is generated by high-power laser beam

•  Can be focused on very small area, very high energy density and
deep penetration capability

•  Suitable for deep and narrow joints

•  Laser beam welding has become extremely popular and is used in

most industries

•  Welding speed ranges from 2.5 m/min to 80 m/min

•  Safety is very important

 LBW advantages vs EBW
•  Vacuum is not required

•  Laser beam can be shaped, manipulated and focused optically

•  The beam do not generate x-rays

•  Better quality weld

Classification of joining processes
 Resistance welding
•  The heat required is produced by means of electrical resistance
across two components to be joined
•  H = I2Rt
–  H: Heat generated; I: Current (A); R: Resistance (ohms)
–  t: Time of current flow (s)
 Diffusion welding
•  Strength of the joint results primarily from diffusion
(movement of atoms across the interface) and
secondarily plastic deformation of faying surface
•  Temperature requires about 0.5Tm
•  Strength depends on
–  Pressure, Temperature, time of contact,
–  faying surfaces

h"ps://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=5EhMYMr834o
 Explosion welding
•  Pressure applied by detonating a layer of explosive that
has been placed over one of the components being
joined

•  The contact pressure developed in extremely high

h"ps://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=XN5TR_Vssj0
 Cold welding
•  Pressure is applied to the work piece through dies or
rolls

•  Since plastic deformation is involved at least one of the

two materials to be joined should be ductile
 Friction welding
•  Heat generated through friction
•  Weld is confined to narrow region
•  The shape of welded joint depends on the rotational
speed and axial pressure applied
 Ultrasonic welding
•  Faying surfaces are subjected to a static normal force
and oscillating shearing (tangential) stresses

•  The shearing stresses are applied by the tip of

transducer
 Welding defects
•  Irregularities in the weld metal

•  Reasons:
–  Incorrect welding parameters

–  Wrong welding procedures

–  Wrong combination of filler metal and parent metal

•  Percentage basis:
–  41% poor process conditions , 32% operator error, 12% wrong technique,
10% incorrect consumables and 5% bad weld grooves.
–  (according to : American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
 Classification of welding defects
•  Cracks
•  Cavity
•  Incomplete fusion & Penetration
•  Solid inclusion
•  Imperfect shape
•  Miscellaneous defects
 Cracks
•  Hair line separation in base metal/weld metal
•  Most dangerous of all defects
•  Occurs when localized stresses exceed the UTS of
material
•  May be microscopic or macroscopic size
 Cracks
Causes: Remedies:
•  Poor ductility of base metal •  Controlling composition
•  High C & S – Content of of metal to be welded
base metal/ weld metal
•  Pre-heating
•  Electrode with high
•  Use low H2 electrode
hydrogen content
•  Avoid rapid cooling
•  High residual stress in weld
metal

•  Low weld ductility

 Porosity/blow hole
Causes:
•  Contamination of S & C
•  Excessive moisture, rust
or scale, oil, grease, etc
•  Atmospheric gases (N2,
O2)
•  Long arc
•  Fast solidification rate
Remedies:
•  Preheat
•  Maintain proper arc length
•  Use low hydrogen
electrodes
•  Use recommended
procedure for baking and
storing electrodes
•  Clean joint surfaces &
adjacent surfaces
 Under cut

•  Appears as a groove formed in

the base metal adjacent to the
toe of a weld
•  Acts as stress raiser in fatigue
loading
 Under cut
Causes: Remedies:

•  High welding current & •  Use prescribed welding

voltage current for electrode

•  Too large electrode size

diameter •  Adjust electrode angle

•  Incorrect electrode angle to full undercut area

•  Short arc length •  Correct travel speed,

arc length
 Overlaps
•  Imperfection at the toe of weld caused by overflow of weld
metal on the surface of parent metal without fusion

•  Tends to produce mechanical notch

•  Starts a crack at the sharp point where the weld metal and
base metal come together at the over-lapped surface
 Overlaps
Causes: Remedies:

•  Current too low •  Proper welding

•  Too large deposition in a technique

single run •  Use proper size of

•  Longer arc electrode

•  Slow arc travel speed

 Lack of penetration
•  Improper penetration of weld metal through the weld
metal through the thickness of joint

•  Weld metal not extending to the required depth into the

joining root

•  Acts as stress riser from which a crack may propagate

 Lack of penetration
Causes: Remedies:

•  Root gap too small •  Proper joint preparation

•  High welding speed •  Proper heat input &

•  Low heat input welding speed

•  Too large electrode •  Use suitable size of

diameter electrode
 Lack of Fusion
•  Improper melting/fusion of some portion of the weld
metal in a joint

•  May be at the root, sides of between two runs

•  Reduces the strength of welds & makes welded structure

unreliable
 Lack of Fusion
Causes: Remedies:

•  Low welding current •  Maintain proper current

•  Excess welding speed and welding speed

•  Unfavorable heat input •  Proper cleaning of each

bead
 Inclusion
•  Metallic/Nonmetallic solid material entrapped within the
weld metal, between weld passes or between weld metal
and base metal

•  May be in the form of slag or any other foreign material

 Inclusion
Causes: Remedies:

•  Inadequate cleaning of •  Maintain proper current

weld metal between & heat input
passes •  Proper cleaning of weld
•  Rapid rate of welding

•  Too large electrode

•  Improper current

•  Long arcs
 Application of welding
•  Automobile: Resistance welding, Laser beam welding

•  Railway: Thermite welding

•  Aerospace and nuclear reactors: TIG welding

•  Ship work: Submerged arc welding

•  Atmosphere sensitive metals (SS, Al, Mg): MIG welding

•  Fabrication of pressure vessels, bridges, building structures,

aircraft, spacecraft, railway coaches, and general application

•  Transport tankers, LPG cylinders, furniture, refrigerator,

washing machine, microwave oven, etc