1. Trust vs.

Mistrust

Is the world a safe place or is it full of unpredictable events and accidents waiting to happen?
Erikson's first psychosocial crisis occurs during the first year or so of life (like Freud's oral stage
of psychosexual development). The crisis is one of trust vs. mistrust.

During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live. To resolve these
feelings of uncertainty, the infant looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and
consistency of care.

If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of
trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even
when threatened.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can
have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a
source of support. Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear.

For example, if the care has been harsh or inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the
infant will develop a sense of mistrust and will not have confidence in the world around them or
in their abilities to influence events.

This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in
anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.

Consistent with Erikson's views on the importance of trust, research

by Bowlby and Ainsworth has outlined how the quality of the early experience of attachment can
affect relationships with others in later life.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial
development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years.

The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, and discovering that he or she
has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such
skills illustrate the child's growing sense of independence and autonomy.
For example, during this stage children begin to assert their independence, by walking away
from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to
wear, to eat, etc.

Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities
within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.

For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to
allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance. So, the parents need to encourage
the child to become more independent while at the same time protecting the child so that
constant failure is avoided.

A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child,
but if the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents
(particularly when toilet training). The aim has to be “self control without a loss of self-esteem”
(Gross, 1992). Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will.

If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they
become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.

If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves,
they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent
upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently.

These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it
is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive."

During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children
at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to explore
their interpersonal skills through initiating activities.

Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this
opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others
and make decisions.
Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a
sense of guilt. They may feel like a nuisance to others and will, therefore, remain followers,
lacking in self-initiative.

The child takes initiatives which the parents will often try to stop in order to protect the child.
The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents will
tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too much.

It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge
grows. If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other
aspects of their behavior as threatening then the child may have feelings of guilt for “being a
nuisance”.

Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity.
Some guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-
control or have a conscience.

A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to the
virtue of purpose.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry vs. inferiority occurs during childhood
between the ages of five and twelve.

Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things
on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the child
specific skills.

It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a
major source of the child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by
demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society and begin to develop a sense of
pride in their accomplishments.

If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious
(competent) and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not
encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting
his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential.

If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g., being athletic)
then they may develop a sense of inferiority.
Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Again, a balance
between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of competence.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are
becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships,
families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.

The fifth stage is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18
years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an
intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.

The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between

childhood and adulthood, and between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be
developed by the adult (Erikson, 1963, p. 245)

This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an
adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out
exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the
occupational.

According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of
self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”. During this stage the body
image of the adolescent changes.

Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until they
can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.

Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even
when there may be ideological differences.

During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the
outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don’t
know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the
individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society.

In response to role confusion or identity crisis, an adolescent may begin to experiment with
different lifestyles (e.g., work, education or political activities).
Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a
negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs.

During this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with
other people.

During this period, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore
relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family
member.

Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment,
safety, and care within a relationship.

Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and
sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65
yrs).

Generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing things that
will outlast an individual.

People experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees
or creating positive changes that will benefit other people.

We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming
involved in community activities and organizations. Through generativity we develop a sense of
being a part of the bigger picture.

Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow
involvement in the world.
By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. These
individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a
whole. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory of
psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death.

As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity
and explore life as a retired person.

It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we
see ourselves as leading a successful life

Erik Erikson, a German psychoanalyst heavily influenced by Sigmund Freud,explored three aspects of identity:
the ego identity (self), personal identity (the personalidiosyncrasies that distinguish a person from another,
social/cultural identity (thecollection of social roles a person might play).His psychosocial theory of development
considers the impact of external factors,parents and society on personality development from childhood to
adulthood. According

to Erikson’s theory, every person must pass through a series of eight interrelated stages

over the entire life cycle.1. INFANCY (BIRTH-18 MONTHS OLD)Basic Trust vs. Mistrust

HopeDuring the first or second year of life, the major emphasis is on the mother and

father’s nurturing ability and care for a child, especially in terms of visual contact and

touch. The child will develop optimism, trust, confidence, and security if properly caredfor and handled. If a child
does not experience trust, he or she may develop insecurity,worthlessness, and general mistrust to the world.2.
TODDLER / EARLY CHILDHOOD YEARS (19 MONTHS TO 3 YEARS OLD)

Autonomy vs. Shame

WillThe second stage occurs between 19 months and 3 years. At this point, the childhas an opportunity to build
self-esteem and autonomy as he or she learns new skillsand right from wrong. The well-cared for child is sure of
himself, carrying himself orherself with pride rather than shame. D

uring this time of the “terrible twos”, defiance,

temper tantrums, and stubbornness can also appear. Children tend to be vulnerableduring this stage, sometimes
feeling shame and and low self-esteem during an inabilityto learn certain skills.3. PRESCHOOLER (4 TO 5
YEARS OLD)Initiative vs. Guilt

PurposeDuring this period we experience a desire to copy the adults around us and take

initiative in creating play situations. We make up stories with Barbie’s and Ken’s, toy

phones and miniature cars, playing out roles in a trial universe, experimenting with theblueprint for what we
believe it means to be an adult. We also begin to use thatwonderful word for exploring the world

—”WHY?”

While Erikson was influenced by Freud, he downplays biological sexuality infavor of the psychosocial features of
conflict between child and parents. Nevertheless,

he said that at this stage we usually become involved in the classic “Oedipal struggle”and resolve this struggle
through “social role identification.” If we’re frus

trated overnatural desires and goals, we may easily experience guilt.The most significant relationship is with the
basic family.4. SCHOOL AGE CHILD (6 TO 12 YEARS OLD)Industry vs. Inferiority
 CompetenceDuring this stage, often called the Latency, we are capable of learning, creatingand accomplishing
numerous new skills and knowledge, thus developing a sense ofindustry. This is also a very social stage of
development and if we experienceunresolved feelings of inadequacy and inferiority among our peers, we can have
seriousproblems in terms of competence and self-
esteem. As the world expands a bit, our most significant relationship is with the schooland
neighborhood. Parents are no longer the complete authorities they once were,although they are still important.5.
ADOLESCENT (13 TO 18 YEARS OLD)Identity vs. Role Confusion

FidelityUp until this fifth stage, development depends on what is done to a person. Atthis point, development now
depends primarily upon what a person does. An adolescentmust struggle to discover and find his or her own
identity, while negotiating and

struggling with social interactions and “fitting in”, and developing a sense of morality and

right from wrong.Some attempt to delay entrance to adulthood and withdraw from responsibilities(moratorium).
Those unsuccessful with this stage tend to experience role confusion andupheaval. Adolescents begin to develop a
strong affiliation and devotion to ideals,causes, and friends.6. YOUNG ADULT (19 TO 35 YEARS
OLD)Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation

Love

At the young adult stage, people tend to seek companionship and love. Some

also begin to “settle down” and start families, although seems to have been pushed

back farther in recent years.Young adults seek deep intimacy and satisfying relationships, but ifunsuccessful,
isolation may occur. Significant relationships at this stage are with maritalpartners and friends.7. MIDDLE-AGED
ADULT (36 TO 55 OR 65 YEARS OLD)Generativity vs. Self - absorption or Stagnation

CareCareer and work are the most important things at this stage, along with family.Middle adulthood is also the
time when people can take on greater responsibilities andcontrol.

For this stage, working to establish stability and Erikson’s idea of generati

vity

–
 attempting to produce something that makes a difference to society. Inactivity andmeaninglessness are common
fears during this stage.Major life shifts can occur during this stage. For example, children leave thehousehold,
careers can change, and so on. Some may struggle with finding purpose.Significant relationships are those within
the family, workplace, local church and othercommunities.8.

LATE ADULT (56 OR 65 TO DEATH)Integrity vs. Despair

WisdomErikson believed that much of life is preparing for the middle adulthood stage andthe last stage involves
much reflection. As older adults, some can look back with afeeling of integrity

that is, contentment and fulfillment, having led a meaningful lifeand valuable contribution to society. Others may
have a sense of despair during thisstage, reflecting upon their experiences and failures. They may fear death as they

struggle to find a purpose to their lives, wondering “What was the point of life? Was itworth it?”

The implication of Erik

Erikson’s stages of development to the learners’ progress

in learning is significant for the following reasons: First, as the child begins to learnhe/she must also undergo
different stages in learning. For example, in learning how to
Psychology 120 Erikson’s psychological theory of development was created in 1963. His was the
first to address a lifelong psychological development, as others addressed only pieces of one’s
life. He believed such development to not reach an end, like other psychologists’ theories
showed, but to be a lifelong series of unconscious conflicts/crises. His theory holds that people
will resolve each crisis either more positively or more negatively. Positive resolutions to
conflicts tend to be more helpful, as will negative resolutions tend to be less helpful, due to the
fact that earlier crises will impact later ones. Dealing with one conflict could be more difficult if
you fail to address a previous conflict. If needed, crises can be returned to and re-worked later in
life. Erikson believed that each crisis is centered on issues during a certain stage of life and they
are, therefore, age-related, but Erikson also realized that each crisis is not limited to a particular
age. The trust vs. mistrust stage brings the question of whether or not an infant views the world
as reliable and predictable. If the infant can depend on its needs being met, it will develop a
sense of basic trust. Based on who I am today, I would say that I resolved this crisis positively. I
had a trusting and trustworthy family. I therefore believe that I felt I was in a safe world and
could trust others. I also feel that I had to rely on others for help with many things, because of a
childhood condition, later diagnosed as aspergers. I therefore wanted to and needed to trust them.
I feel that due to the way I resolved this crisis, I was able to resolve each future crisis more
positively because I felt as though I could trust others and, more specifically, their advice.
Although, in many ways, I feel that during infancy I was almost too trusting because I had no
sense of fear, I’ve reworked this crisis. Now, I have learned to trust people unless I have a
legitimate reason not to. I have always had issues with particular things. I had a tactile issue so I
felt uncomfortable with the way certain things felt (e.g., I didn’t like to stand on bathroom scales,
grass, sand, etc.). When I was about four years old I had a medical issue and was hospitalized. At
another time, when I was about seven years old, I had a very invasive procedure done. Due to the
fact that I did not like people touching me in uncomfortable ways and the fact that they did not
sedate me during the procedure, my parents believe that this was an extremely traumatic
experience for me. To this day I am still uncomfortable in situations involving certain medical
procedures. Although this situation altered my trust toward a certain group of people and
circumstances, I still have that basic trust that was formed as an infant. During the stage of
autonomy vs. shame/doubt toddlers determine whether or not they can be independent. If they do
not doubt their abilities, they will learn to do things for themselves. I believe that, when I was a
toddler, I resolved this crisis negatively because I was unsure if could do some things by myself,
and other things I was unable to do independently. I believe that I have re-worked this crisis and
have now resolved it positively because I have always been told that I can overcome anything.
I’ve always had goals to accomplish. As a third-grader I was still an elective mute and wouldn’t
talk in school. I believe this, so far, to be the most difficult challenge that I have overcome. I still
had a problem with speaking in front of select groups. In middle school while I was going
through my puberty years this may have actually been an advantage. While my peers went
through the emotional, chatty stages of their life, mine seemed to be on hold. This gave me the
advantage of being a better listener and observer. Therefore, when I reached that maturity level I
had already learned from their mistakes. Although emotionally I was probably inferior because
of the way my brain worked, it almost gave me a more mature attitude toward my friends. This
advantage influenced my way of looking at life. While others’ emotions seemed to get in the
way, I generally saw the world in black and white, although I could still be sympathetic to their
feelings. I have always challenged myself and wanted to further myself in different areas. In
eleventh grade I signed up for the Criminal Justice class at MACC, which is an outgoing choice
for someone of my character. To further myself in the area of speaking, I signed up for a speech
class. This was during the time that, in Criminal Justice, we were going to have to speak in front
of the class. The most recent thing that I’ve done, and continue to do, to challenge myself in
these areas, is catering. When catering, I constantly have to speak to people and I learn
something new each time I work. During early childhood we are faced with responsibility and
the question of whether or not we can handle it, as is presented in the next stage, initiative vs.
guilt. The child learns to begin tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to
be independent. If they have initiative, they feel as though they can be responsible. I feel that,
during early childhood, I resolved this crisis negatively, due to the way I resolved the previous
crisis. Since I couldn’t do many things independently because of a short-term memory issue, I
didn’t have to take much responsibility and I couldn’t, very well, handle the little responsibility
that I did have. I believe that I have re-worked this crisis over and over and have only recently
come to resolve it positively. I find my flaws and work on them, keeping in mind that I can
overcome anything. During elementary school we are faced with the stage of industry vs.
inferiority. In this case, industry means being productive and doing things well. I think that this
was a two-part stage in my life. During elementary school, I resolved this crisis positively in that
I could do things well, yet negatively because I was not productive. I couldn’t be very productive
because I was a perfectionist with no concept of time. Although I may still be a perfectionist with
little concept of time, I have learned to prioritize. I therefore feel as though I have come to
resolve this crisis positively, although it is an ongoing struggle. Because of how I re-worked the
previous crisis, I found that everything doesn’t always have to be perfect. I can still do things
well and can now be productive because I’ve learned to prioritize. As adolescents we are faced
with a decision of who we are: our identity or confusion of our identity. I believe that I resolved
this crisis positively. One reason is because I was always told to "Be your own person." Another
reason why is because I’ve never really cared very much about what others think about me. I
believe that I was, and continue to be, more of an observer so I focus less on who I am, and am
intrigued more by who others are. I still find it fascinating to try to figure out what circumstances
make people who they are. I believe this results in my being very comfortable with who I am and
who I am becoming. The intimacy vs. isolation stage generally arises during early adulthood and
brings the question of whether or not we can form intimate emotional relationships. I don’t
believe I have experienced this stage or any future stages in my life yet. I have seen my peers
experience this crisis but, because I have matured emotionally slower that my peers in previous
stages, I believe that I have in this stage too. It now is not that I cannot form an intimate
emotional relationship, but rather, I do not see that that is necessary at this time in my life. The
generativity vs. stagnation stage generally occurs during middle age when we ask ourselves what
we have done and what we will do in our life. The feeling of generativity means that we feel we
have accomplished much in our life and plan to do more which generally results in us feeling
good about ourselves, whereas the feeling of stagnation means just the opposite. Generally
during old age, or when we know that we are about to die, we are faced with the stage of
integrity vs. despair. During this stage we think about whether or not we lived our lives the way
we wanted to. If we haven’t, we are often faced with a feeling of despair. I think that applying
Erikson’s theory to my life has helped me to understand myself better. It has helped me to
understand who I was then and why I am who I am now. It has also helped me to realize how
much I have accomplished and overcome and what I should work on next. I believe that this
theory is pretty accurate to the life of a fairly normal person. I do not believe, however, that the
theory is accurate to my life experiences. I positively resolved these crises in a different order,
and during a different stage in my life, than shown in Erikson’s psychological theory of
development.