doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3121.2012.01066.

Review article
Review of submarine cold seep plumbing systems: leakage to
seepage and venting
Asrarur Rahman Talukder
CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering (CESRE), 26 Dick Perry Avenue, Kensington, WA 6151, Australia

ABSTRACT
Cold seep systems comprise three structural elements: source,
plumbing system, and venting structures or seeping features at
or near the seabed. The transition from leakage to seepage,
represented by the plumbing system, is the most complex and
least understood part of the whole system. Quantifying the
processes which operate in seep conduits is challenging
because they are highly transient, and vary both in time and
space. This paper reviews the literature to define our present
understanding of complex plumbing systems and how they vary
in active and passive continental margins. The plumbing
systems are reviewed in the framework of tectonics, rock
deformation mechanics and petro-physical evolution between
the sediments. The review of the worldwide association of
faults and seeps in diverse tectonic settings suggests that fault
permeability is the most important controlling factor for the
distribution and temporal and spatial variability of seeps. The
key to unlocking the plumbing systems is to understand and
quantify long-term fault behaviour in relation to fluid flow.
Terra Nova, 00, 1–18, 2012

and widespread nature of submarine Olu-Le Roy et al., 2007; Cambon-

Introduction
Recent marine geoscience research
indicates that subsurface fluid flow
and deep sediment remobilisation are
very important in shaping seabed mor-
phodynamics. Results from successive
Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) and
Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) drilling
on different convergent margins, espe-
cially penetration of décollement zones,
show that fluid circulation influences
virtually every aspect of the geological
evolution of active margins. Examples
are DSDP leg 78A (Biju-Duval et al.,
1984), and ODP Leg 110 and 156,
Barbados Ridge (Mascle et al., 1988;
Shipley et al., 1995); Leg 112, Peru
Margin (Suess et al., 1988); DSDP
Legs 31 and 87 and ODP Leg 131, 190
and 196, Nankai Trough (Taira et al.,
1991; Moore et al., 2001; Mikada
et al., 2002); Leg 141, Chile Triple
Junction (Behrmann et al., 1992); Leg
146, Cascadia Margin (Westbrook
et al., 1994) and Leg 170, Pacific Mar-
gin of Costa Rica (Kimura et al., 1997).
Although pockmarks were first re-
ported on sidescan records from the
Nova Scotia Shelf, offshore Canada,
by King and MacLean in 1970 (Judd
and Hovland, 2007), the full extent
Correspondence: Asrarur Rahman Taluk-
der, CSIRO Earth Science and Resource
Engineering (CESRE), 26 Dick Perry Ave-
nue, Kensington, WA 6151, Australia. Tel.:
+61 86 436 87 27; e-mail: asrar.talukder@
csiro.au
seeps have been appreciated only
recently. Systematic high resolution
geo-acoustic mapping of continental
margins, coupled with high precision
bottom-sampling technology, has re-
vealed an increasing number of cold
seeps worldwide in all tectonic con-
texts (Loncke et al., 2004; Judd and
Hovland, 2007; Pilcher and Argent,
2007; Sahling et al., 2008; Ivanov
et al., 2010; Klaucke et al., 2010;
Logan et al., 2010). In many places
they are also numerous. In the north-
west Black Sea margin alone 2778 new
methane seeps were detected on echo-
sounding records in an area of
1540 km2 (Naudts et al., 2006).
Submarine cold seeps refer to the
seepage and venting of fluids involving
gas, water and sediments. Seafloor
sites of methane-rich fluid expulsion
may be associated with hydroacoustic
flares (Greinert et al., 2006; Solomon
et al., 2009; Law et al., 2010), pock-
mark depressions (Pilcher and Argent,
2007; Chand et al., 2009), mud volca-
noes (Kopf, 2002; Van Rensbergen
et al., 2005; Jerosch et al., 2007; Savini
et al., 2009), hydrate mounds (Van
Dover et al., 2003; Haeckel et al.,
2004), methane-derived authigenic
carbonate deposits producing
mounds, slabs and ⁄ or chimneys (Rit-
ger et al., 1987; Kulm and Suess, 1990;
Diaz-del-Rio et al., 2003; Bayon et al.,
2007, 2009) and chemosynthetic bio-
logical communities (Kulm et al.,
1986; Hovland and Svensen, 2006;
Bonavita et al., 2009; Olu et al., 2009).
The term Ôcold seepÕ often refers
only to the seeping ⁄ venting structures
on the seabed, and much of the
published literature contains mainly
the descriptions of these seabed struc-
tures and their associated benthic
faunas. However, cold seep systems
are more complex and comprise three
structural elements: source (of the
fluid), plumbing systems and venting
structures or seeping features at or
near the seabed (Fig. 1). The plumb-
ing system is the most complex and
the least known of the whole system
and represents the transitory part
from source (reservoir?) leakage to
seepage and venting at the seabed
(Judd and Hovland, 2007; Cathles
et al., 2010; Hovland et al., 2010).
Increased use of seep sampling as an
indicator of subsurface reservoirs
highlights the importance of a detailed
understanding of the plumbing sys-
tems (Kennicutt et al., 1988; Clayton
et al., 1997; Judd and Hovland, 2007),
particularly as the cold seep features
are not always directly above an
accumulation (Abrams, 2005). The
isotopic analysis of the seeping gases
may also give mixed signals because of
possible incorporation of biogenic
gases (shallow bacterial origin) within
thermogenic gases (deep thermal ori-
gin) during long migrations through
plumbing conduits (Prinzhofer and
Huc, 1995). From a geo-hazard point
of view, the plumbing systems define

 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 1

Seeps plumbing system • A. R. Talukder
.............................................................................................................................................................
Seep structure
(on seabed) Seepage/venting
Plumbing
system
Leakage
Overburden
Source layer
Fig. 1 Cartoon showing the three struc-
tural elements of cold seep systems. Scale
is arbitrary: the diameter of seep features
could be several metres; e.g. unit pock-
marks off Norway (<5 m) (Hovland
et al., 2010); to hundreds of metres; e.g.
giant pockmark in Lower Congo Basin
(800 m) (Cambon-Bonavita et al., 2009);
or up to the kilometre scale; e.g. mud
volcano in the Caspian Sea (Stewart and
Davies, 2006). Fluid source could be
shallow biogenic gas to very deep fluid
from the décollement (references in text).
the weak and ⁄ or overpressured zones
in the sedimentary column, which can
potentially lead to seabed instability,
sedimentary collapse and submarine
landslides (Dugan and Flemings,
2000; Talukder et al., 2008).
Geological emission of methane is
now acknowledged to be an important
greenhouse gas source by the Intergov-
ernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report
(Denman et al., 2007) and by the
United Nations Economic Commis-
sion for Europe ⁄ European Monitoring
and Evaluation Program (UNECE ⁄
EMEP) emission inventory guidebook
(Etiope, 2009). Realistic estimates of
methane emissions from seeps will
require three-dimensional mapping of
the plumbing systems (Schwartz et al.,
2003; Aiello, 2005; Hornbach et al.,
2007). With the advent of three-dimen-
sional seismic technology, the system is
now better imaged (Heggland, 1998;
Loseth et al., 2003; Stewart and Da-
vies, 2006; Hornbach et al., 2007).
Improved resolution of three-dimen-
sional seismic is leading to a new
understanding of the plumbing sys-
tems, creating a whole new domain of
investigation (Cartwright, 2007).
In the early 2000s, several authors,
such as Milkov (2000), Dimitrov
(2002) and Kopf (2002), published
reviews of submarine mud volcanoes.
2  2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
These reviews concentrated mainly on
the different types and morphology of
mud volcanoes on the seabed, lithol-
ogy and rheology of the extruded
materials, triggers and driving forces,
and their distribution in different geo-
logical contexts. An updated global
seep distribution has also been pub-
lished recently in Judd and Hovland
(2007), while Logan et al. (2010)
reviewed the Australian context.
In this review, fast or vigorous fluxes
are described as venting and slow
fluxes as seepage. Both processes can
be associated within the same cold seep
structures. For example, mud volca-
noes generally result from venting (fast
or vigorous flux) and not seepage (slow
flux) (Aharon, 1994; Roberts et al.,
2006). Nevertheless, seepages are asso-
ciated with mud volcanoes, diapirs or
diatremes (Higgins and Saunders,
1974; Brown, 1990). It is commonly
observed that extrusions of fluidised
sediments are episodic, but seepages of
gas and volatiles continue even during
quiescent periods of mud volcanic
activity (Dimitrov, 2002; Mazzini
et al., 2009; Savini et al., 2009). To
understand plumbing systems, we need
to understand the mechanisms of both
venting and seepages. In this paper the
plumbing systems are reviewed in the
framework of tectonics, rock defor-
mation mechanics and the petro-phys-
ical evolution of the sediments. The
schematic synthesis of different plumb-
ing mechanisms and the triggers of
fluid injections (Figs 2 and 3) are
presented to illustrate how they vary
in accretionary ⁄ erosive and passive
continental margins.
Boundary conditions of the
plumbing systems
An understanding of how the upward
injection of overpressured sediments
and gases is triggered in different
tectonic settings, as well as how over-
pressured source layers are formed, is
essential to understanding the plumb-
ing systems. A key factor in the
development of these systems is the
mechanical behaviour of sediments
during deformation, which is deter-
mined by their stress history. Timing
of overpressure generation plays a
very important role in determining
the consolidation ⁄ permeability of sed-
iments. Although gas hydrates can be
both the source of gases and the
Terra Nova, Vol 00, No. 0, 1–18
trigger for hydro-fracturing, a detailed
discussion of these is beyond the scope
of this review.
Overpressured sources
The presence of an overpressured
source layer in the sedimentary col-
umn is a common factor in most of
the geological settings with cold seeps
(Figs 2 and 3) (Milkov, 2000; Dimit-
rov, 2002; Kopf, 2002). The principal
cause of the generation of overpres-
sure (also called geo-pressure) is
disequilibrium compaction caused by
rapid sedimentary and ⁄ or tectonic
loading (Fig. 4: path B to C). During
sediment burial, pore water must be
expelled for compaction to occur, and
if this happens freely, the pore pres-
sure increases with depth according to
a normal hydrostatic gradient. Under
conditions of slow sediment burial (or
high sediment permeability), normal
compaction occurs, and the equilib-
rium between overburden and reduc-
ing pore fluid volume is maintained
(Fig. 4: path A to B to D). If the burial is
rapid due to high sedimentation, an-
d ⁄ or the permeability of the sediments
is low, then dewatering is impeded and
pore pressure will build up to supra-
hydrostatic levels (Fig. 4: path B to C)
(Osborne and Swarbrick, 1997).
Overpressure inhibits further
mechanical compaction and increases
with further burial (Fig. 4: path B to C),
creating potential source layers for
sediment remobilisation and upward
fluid injections (Osborne and Swar-
brick, 1997; Maltman and Bolton,
2003). Disequilibrium compaction is
most common in thick clay, mud,
marl and shale successions because
of their low permeability. Overpres-
sure in adjacent higher permeability
reservoir rocks may also be generated,
either through stratigraphic isolation
of the reservoir within a finer grained,
low permeability section or by lateral
permeability barriers such as sealing
faults (Clennell et al., 1998). At great-
er depth, diagenesis-related chemical
processes of fluid production (e.g.
transformation of the clay mineral
smectite to illite and thermal cracking
of liquid hydrocarbons into gases) and
overpressure generation may take
over (Osborne and Swarbrick, 1997).
These chemical processes differ from
mechanical fluid sources because
they are driven by temperature and
Terra Nova, Vol 00, No. 0, 1–18 A. R. Talukder • Seeps plumbing system
.............................................................................................................................................................

Gas hydrate
outcropping

SLOW FLUX MODERATE FLUX RAPID FLUX

MINERAL PRONE MUD PRONE

(I) Methane Microbe feeding
escape mega/macrofauna

Sulphide oxidation Symbiotic

Water Methanotrophic (by bacteria) fauna
Sediment microbes
Sulphide
Sulphate

SRBs +methane
Oxidizing archaea Authigenic
Methane a) AOM carbonate
(Anoxic condition)
b) Biogenic
source

c) Thermogenic
source
AC (Ia)
AC (Ia)
AC (Ia)

Ib) Biogenic PM
gas & fluid BSR
pf
MV

MV
Ic) Thermogenic
pf
gas & fluid

Pch

OVdchs

OVdchs

Fig. 2 Schematic synthesis of origins and trigger mechanisms of cold seep systems in passive margins and the relationships between
flow rates and different seeping ⁄ venting morphologies observed on the seabed (images of different seep features and their
relationships with flow rate and content are taken from Roberts et al., 2006). Scale is arbitrary. (I) (a) Schematic illustration of
anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) occurring at ⁄ near seabed and mediated by a consortium of methane-oxidising archaea and
sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB). Note that the relationships between flow rate and relative content of fluids and seep morphology
as well as processes related to AOM are also valid for active margins. AC, authigenic carbonate; AOM, anaerobic oxidation of
methane; BSR, bottom simulating reflector; MV, mud volcanoes; OVdchs, overpressure generated by disequilibrium compaction
induced by high sedimentation; Pch, palaeo-channel; pf, polygonal faults; PM, pockmarks.

 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 3

Seeps plumbing system • A. R. Talukder
.............................................................................................................................................................
(I) 4
(III) SF
Slide scarp
Frontal
prism Fluid escape
Subducted
seamount
Forearc basin
SF SF Slope sediments
SF SF
hg2 (I)
BSR
(III)
t2
pf hg1
ssm
hg3
OVdct
(II)
hg4
t3
(II)
hg3
OVd
0 °C hg3
0–15
Tem:6
OVdct
hg4
t3
Fig. 3 Schematic synthesis of origins and trigger mechanisms of cold seep systems in
active margins. Scale is arbitrary. (I) Schematic representation of extensional faults
created by the crestal collapse of thrust anticline of deformation front. (II) Schematic
representation of overpressure generated by disequilibrium compaction at décolle-
ment by tectonic loading (OVdct) (modified from Von Huene et al., 2004). Further
down dip, overpressure is generated by the fluid released by diagenesis (OVd) at the
interval of temperatures approximately 60–150 C (Saffer and Tobin, 2011). (III)
Schematic representation of the mud volcanoes and landslides induced by subducted
seamounts (ssm) (modified from Talukder et al., 2008). BSR, bottom simulating
reflector; Hg1, 2, 3 and 4 refer to hydro-geological regime 1, 2, 3 and 4; pf, polygonal
fault; SF, seep features on seabed (which can be mud volcanoes, pockmarks and ⁄ or
authigenic carbonate deposits); t1, 2 and 3 indicate sites where three main tectonic
processes occur in the margin. Note that the schematic representation of AOM and
the relationship between fluid flow rate and content, and seep morphology on the
seabed are not repeated here, as they are similar to those at passive margins.
fluid chemistry. Excess fluid pressure dependent on the thermal gradient.
related to disequilibrium compaction During upward migration, exsolution
is necessarily limited to values below of gases from water and petroleum
lithostatic pressure. However, temper- also influences secondary overpressure
ature-driven fluid expansion and or modifies the existing overpressure,
chemical processes may continue to both in terms of volume ⁄ pressure
add to the overall level of excess pore balance and by reducing the effective
pressure (Brown, 1994). When the permeability to water when some of
buried sediments are enriched with the pore space is occupied by hydro-
organic matter, post-depositional carbons (Brown, 1990; Kuo, 1997).
transformation to hydrocarbon fluids As a consequence of the higher
involves a large volume increase, and prevailing mean stress, overpressure
this can be an important added factor generation in active convergent mar-
for further overpressuring (Hedberg, gins differs from that which occurs in
1974; Dimitrov, 2002). Methane solu- passive margins and can be more
bility increases with depth in a manner extreme (Saffer and Tobin, 2011). In
4  2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Terra Nova, Vol 00, No. 0, 1–18
an active margin, lateral tectonic
compression adds a horizontal compo-
nent to vertical loading (i.e. by a sudden
thrusting event) (Taylor and Leonard,
1990). At convergent margins, the geo-
metrical relationships between various
basin elements (Fig. 3), as well as the
rate and accumulation of sediments,
contrast from those in passive margin
sedimentary basins (Fig. 2). Active
deformation leads to a different pattern
of fluid production and, together with
the tectonic structures, results in a
much more complex hydrological re-
gime (Saffer and Tobin, 2011).
Results from ODP drilling show that
SF three main tectonic processes act simul-
taneously at the leading edge of the
t1 accretionary complex: initial offscra-
ping at the deformation front, upslope
wedge thickening and underplating
beneath the décollement (Fig. 3: t1, t2
and t3) (Byrne et al., 1993). Four
hydrological regimes are potentially
established in the active margin: within
the accreting sediment, in the sedimen-
tary apron overlying the wedge, in the
décollement and in underthrust sedi-
ments (Fig. 3: hg1, hg2, hg3 and hg4)
(Mascle and Moore, 1990; Screaton,
1990; Byrne et al., 1993; Ranero et al.,
2008).
From a geometrical point of view,
accretionary wedges dynamically adjust
their shapes (e.g. critical angle of taper)
by all three types of faulting: thrust,
normal and wrench faulting (Behrmann,
1991). Initially the wedge thickens by
thrust faults. Normal faults develop to
reduce the taper angle of the wedges.
When the direction of convergences
changes from normal to oblique, wrench
faults are produced. During normal and
wrench faulting at shallower depths,
hydrofracturing can be induced by fluid
pressure that is even less than hydro-
static pressure. Conversely, during
thrust faulting, fluid pressure must al-
ways be more than lithostatic pressure to
induce hydrofracturing. Consequently,
regions of lateral compression and
thrusting are the optimum sites for
overpressure development and longer
term maintenance of high fluid pres-
sure (Behrmann, 1991).
At the toe of the accretionary prism
and in the underthrust sediments
(Fig. 3: hg1 and hg4), overpressure is
mainly created by disequilibrium com-
paction as a result of tectonic loading
(Silver et al., 2000; Torres et al., 2002;
Saffer, 2003; Barnes et al., 2010). In
Terra Nova, Vol 00, No. 0, 1–18
.............................................................................................................................................................
(a) Pressure
A leakage, the injection and upward
Lithostatic
gradient (22.6 MPa km–1)
B B
Depth
Depth
C C
D D
E E
Hydrostatic
gradient
(10.18 MPa km–1)
Fig. 4 Schematic (a) pressure-depth and (b) porosity depth paths for overpressure
generated by disequilibrium compaction (path B to C) and fluid expansion ⁄ lateral
transfer (path D to E) (modified from Osborne and Swarbrick, 1997; Tingay et al.,
2007).
the deeper décollement (Fig. 3: hg3),
the transformation from smectite to
illite may play an important role in the
production of an overpressured source
for seeps (Mascle and Moore, 1990;
Hensen et al., 2004; Ranero et al.,
2008).
Early overpressure generation
(Fig. 4: path B to C) causes under-
consolidation of sediments. Increasing
evidence suggests that there can also
be late overpressure generation in
initially normally compacted sedi-
ments by the injection of fluid from
outside (e.g. Fig. 4: path D to E)
(Lonergan et al., 2000). Yassir (2003)
suggests that redistribution ⁄ reorienta-
tion of the shear stresses are capable
of generating enormous overpressures
in normally compacted sediments at
depth. Late overpressuring causes the
sediments to become over-consoli-
dated by reducing effective stress.
The timing of overpressure genera-
tion is of crucial importance for the
development of the posterior plumb-
ing system, because the consolidation
state of sediments at the onset of stress
determines the mode of deformation
during posterior deformation (Bolton
and Maltman, 1998). Normally, com-
pacted sediments and sediments which
are becoming overpressured due to
disequilibrium compaction tend to
behave in a ductile manner, which
 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
(b)
Porosity A
Normal compaction
Porosity path for
disequilbrium
compaction
Porosity path for
fluid expansion
means they can flow plastically when
experiencing shear forces. Sediments
can become over-consolidated when
they are overpressured during later
stages, and have a tendency to exhibit
brittle behaviour if deformed by tec-
tonically and gravitationally driven
shear stresses (Brown, 1994). This can
lead to the development of fractures,
brittle faults and leakage pathways.
Consequently, late overpressuring at
shallower depths, even if minor com-
pared with overpressuring in the source
beds, is a key step in the development of
seepage plumbing systems.
Injection and upward migration
Cross-stratal fluid migration occurs as a
result of either capillary seal breach or
permeability enhancement usually asso-
ciated with faults, diapirs or major
fracture systems. For capillary breach-
ing to occur, pore pressure must be
sufficient to overcome capillary entry
pressure in the sealing lithologies
(Watts, 1987). Capillary entry pressure
is a function of rock pore throat size and
grain wettability, though for gas most
rocks can be considered water wet and
so maximally sealing to gas. It is com-
mon to find at least one layer in a
sequence that has a capillary entry
pressure significantly in excess of the
potential capillary driving forces.
A. R. Talukder • Seeps plumbing system
Therefore, in the absence of capillary
migration of fluids require mechanical
failure of the seal (Clennell et al., 1998).
Overpressured sediments and fluids
must overcome the total horizontal
stress plus the tensile strength of the
sediment to initiate upward migration
by mechanical seal breaching (Yassir,
2003). This means approaching or
equalling lithostatic pressure. In the
case of existing faults, tensile strength
is equal to zero. Thus, pore fluid is more
likely to re-open the existing faults, than
to initiate new fractures, even if the
faults are oriented normal to the max-
imum stress (Yassir, 2003). As a result,
discontinuities and structural surfaces
such as faults, faulted anticlines and
bedding planes are more effective path-
ways for fluid migration than simple
seepage through the sedimentary col-
umn (Gay et al., 2003; Aiello, 2005).
In most of the geological scenarios,
one or several external factors trigger
the ascent by inducing faulting or by
reducing lithostatic pressure (Maltman
and Bolton, 2003). The most important
external triggers are listed below:
1 Tectonic (faulting and fracturing):
In many places, location and distri-
bution of deep-rooted cold seeps on
the seabed are controlled by faults.
Examples can be found in the Alb-
oran Sea (Talukder et al., 2003), in
offshore South Africa (Ben-Avra-
ham et al., 2002), in the lower
Congo Basin (Gay et al., 2007), in
the Santa Barbara Basin (Eichhubl
et al., 2000), in the Eastern Medi-
terranean (Dimitrov and Woodside,
2003), in the Sicily Channel, Malta
Plateau (Savini et al., 2009), in the
Sea of Marmara (Zitter et al.,
2008), in the Pacific Margin, off-
shore Nicaragua (Talukder et al.,
2007, 2008), in the Hikurangi Mar-
gin (Barnes et al., 2010), in the
Markran accretionary prism, in off-
shore Iran (Grando and McClay,
2007), in the Nankai accretionary
wedge (Kobayashi, 2002) and also
in the fossil seep record in NE
Bulgaria (De Boever et al., 2009b).
2 Overburden erosion: Overburden
erosion reduces lithostatic pressure,
which can then be easily overcome
by entrapped fluid overpressure
triggering mud and fluid ascents.
For example, in the Barents Sea,
hydrocarbon leakage on the seabed
5
Seeps plumbing system • A. R. Talukder
.............................................................................................................................................................
is controlled by the distribution of
plough marks (Chand et al., 2009).
In other places, seeps have been
found near the head scarps of
submarine landslides (Naudts et al.,
2006).
3 Subducted seamounts: Seamount
subduction creates locally higher
fluid overpressure in the décolle-
ment, mainly in active and erosive
margins such as the Pacific Margin,
offshore Nicaragua (Talukder et al.,
2008), Costa Rica (Dominguez
et al., 1998) and offshore Hawke
Bay, New Zealand (Barnes et al.,
2010). The uplift and fracturing of
the margin wedge above the sub-
ducting seamount opens pathways
for the overpressured fluid to es-
cape, leading to numerous types of
cold seeps on the seabed (Fig. 3III).
4 Seismic loading and earthquake: In
many places, inland and offshore
increased fluid venting and seepage,
and mud volcano eruptions are
related to moderate and strong
earthquake activity (Obzhirov et
al., 2004; Brown et al., 2005; Mau
et al., 2007; Geletti et al., 2008; Géli
et al., 2008). Earthquakes are most
effective at triggering mud volcano
eruptions when the intensity of the
main shock is approximately 6 on
the Mercalli scale and the location
of the epicentre is less than 100 km
from the mud volcano (Mellors
et al., 2007). In Italy, Bonini
(2009) found that earthquakes trig-
gered only those mud volcanoes
where pore pressure was already
near-lithostatic. In some areas, seep
activity serves as a precursor for
earthquakes (Huang et al., 1998).
5 Tidal cycle and sea level changes:
Decreasing hydraulic pressure by
low tides (Boles et al., 2001; Torres
et al., 2002; Krabbenhoeft et al.,
2010) or by sea level lowstand on
a longer time scale (Teichert et al.,
2003; Kiel, 2009) can be important
trigger mechanisms for the relative
elevation of fluid flow activities in
seep sites.
Gas hydrate accumulation: source,
overpressure and triggers
An association between seeps and gas
hydrate accumulations in marine sed-
iments is observed in many places; for
example, in Blake Ridge (ODP Leg
6  2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
164: Paull et al., 1996), Hydrate Ridge
(ODP Leg 204: Trehu et al., 2003), the
Angola Margin (Nouze and Baltzer,
2003), Lake Baikal, Siberia (Van
Rensbergen et al., 2002), the Mid
Norwegian Margin (Buenz et al.,
2003; Berndt et al., 2004; Hovland
and Svensen, 2006; Ivanov et al.,
2010), off the Georgia Margin in the
Black Sea (Klaucke et al., 2006) and
in the Hikurang Margin, off New
Zealand (Barnes et al., 2010).
Gas hydrates form in the submarine
environment where the concentration
of hydrocarbon gases in pore fluids
exceeds saturation in relation to the
solid hydrate, and where the temper-
atures are sufficiently low and the
pressure is high enough. Gas hydrate
is stable within a certain pressure and
temperature field. Because tempera-
ture increases with depth, the temper-
ature typically becomes too high for
gas hydrate stability beneath several
hundred metres of sediments. Also, in
gas-saturated pore fluids, additional
gas accumulates as free gas beneath
the hydrate stability field (Sloan, 1990;
Buffett and Zatsepina, 1999). This
phase boundary in sediments between
gas hydrate above and free gas be-
neath leads to a negative impedance
contrast in the seismic response, giv-
ing rise to a typical seismic reflection
called the Bottom Simulating Reflec-
tion (BSR) (Holbrook et al., 1996).
Results from the ODP Leg 164 at
Blake Ridge, offshore North Carolina,
have shown that very large amounts
of gaseous methane (free gas) can
accumulate below the gas hydrate
zone. Holbrook et al. (1996) estimated
that at Blake Ridge free gas below the
BSR comprises about 25% of the total
methane inventory, whereas other
authors estimate that about 57% of
total methane may occur as in situ
gaseous methane (Dickens et al.,
1997). Sediment permeability to gas
is reduced when there is sufficient
concentration of gas hydrates in sed-
iments (Nimblett and Ruppel, 2003).
Results from ODP Leg 164 at Blake
Ridge also show that the concentra-
tion of gas hydrate is higher at the
base of the gas hydrate stability field
than elsewhere in the section above or
below. Thus, it is possible that perme-
ability clogging occurs at the base of
the hydrate stability field, inducing
pressure build-up beneath the BSR
(Hornbach et al., 2004). When the gas
Terra Nova, Vol 00, No. 0, 1–18
pressure is high enough, gas can
migrate through existing fault and
fracture networks in the gas hydrate
stability zone, producing seeps on the
seabed (Trehu et al., 2004).
Gas hydrate dissociation can be
another source of seepages (West-
brook et al., 2009). Dissociation of
gas hydrate can generate a consider-
able amount of overpressure and ini-
tiate hydrofracturing above the
dissociation area, thus acting as a
trigger mechanism for upward gas
migration (Xu and Germanovich,
2006). In Lake Baikal, seepages are
the result of induced hydrofracturing
by overpressuring produced by the
dissociation of gas hydrates (Van
Rensbergen et al., 2002).
Development of the plumbing
systems: leakage to seepage
Plumbing systems are poorly con-
strained by direct observation. Their
characterisation is very difficult, be-
cause flow can be highly transient,
varying both in time and space along
complex and changing conduit sys-
tems (Hornbach et al., 2007). Obser-
vations of onshore mud volcanoes
suggest that methane emissions from
each mud volcano are highly depen-
dent on the eruption cycle (Higgins
and Saunders, 1974 and references
therein). Repeated offshore surveys
also reveal a high temporal variability
of the intensity of the methane emis-
sions at cold seeps (Tryon et al., 1999;
Leifer et al., 2004; Greinert et al.,
2006). However, even repeated sur-
veys give only snapshots of the sea-
floor at discrete times, and a full
appreciation of the temporal variabil-
ity can only be achieved with long-
term continuous observation of the
cold seeps (Klaucke et al., 2010). To
date, there have been only a few high-
resolution time-series studies of the
temporal variability of seeps (Leifer
et al., 2004; Greinert et al., 2006;
Solomon et al., 2008). These show
significant variations in gas fluxes
on the scales of seconds to hours.
Initiatives such as Neptune (http://
www.neptunecanada.ca), the Monte-
rey Bay Marine Observatory, and
ESONET (jointly funded by Euro-
pean Union and Ifremer: http://
www.esonet-noe.org) are designed to
provide continuous monitoring of the
benthic environment and to match it
Terra Nova, Vol 00, No. 0, 1–18
.............................................................................................................................................................
with other data such as remote and
water column observations and seis-
mic monitoring.
In the past, plumbing systems have
typically been studied using two-
dimensional seismic images. The pub-
lished two-dimensional seismic data
suggest that the feeder conduit for
mud volcanoes can be up to 2 km in
diameter (Ivanov et al., 1996; Taluk-
der et al., 2003). However, Kopf and
Behrmann (2000) have calculated that
the fluid ascent velocity would be
unrealistically high, even for a conduit
measuring hundreds of metres in
diameter. Use of three-dimensional
seismic has resolved this inconsis-
tency. Recent three-dimensional seis-
mic data have shown that many of the
previously interpreted conduits are
actually poorly imaged zones. The
presence of gas, faults and fractures
causes seismically incoherent zones in
two-dimensional seismic, within which
the country rock is probably to a large
extent intact (Van Rensbergen and
Morley, 2003).
The advent of three-dimensional
seismic acquisition and improved
migration algorithms have helped in
the discovery of a new class of fluid
conduits known as pipes (Fig. 5)
(Loseth et al., 2001; Berndt et al.,
2003), which are very narrow vertical
fluid conduits. Pipes were commonly
ignored in two-dimensional seismic
because the vertical to subvertical pipe
0.5
TWTT (S)
Pipes
1.0
1.5
3 km
2.0
Fig. 5 Time-migrated three-dimensional seismic section showing a series of pipes. The
line is from the Browse Basin, NW shelf offshore Australia (data courtesy of
Geoscience Australia).
 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
geometry was easily confused with
seismic artifacts such as migration
anomalies, scattering artifacts, lateral
velocity anomalies and attenuation
variations related to shallow diffrac-
tions (Loseth et al., 2001, 2003).
Plumbing systems are often fully or
partially covered by massive pave-
ments or patches of carbonate crust
(Mazzini et al., 2004), which inhibits
the penetration of normal seismic
incidences, giving no images beneath
the crust and causing a problem with
imaging (Riedel et al., 2002). This
problem has been overcome in some
cases by using deep tow seismic sys-
tems (Breitzke and Bialas, 2003;
Talukder et al., 2007).
The fossil seep plumbing systems
found in the geological records on-
shore show complex three-dimen-
sional structures which may involve
sub-seismic scale faults and fracture
networks, and ⁄ or a network of sills
and dykes of sand intrusions (Aydin,
2000; Aiello et al., 2001; Jolly and
Lonergan, 2002; Schwartz et al., 2003;
Aiello, 2005; De Boever et al., 2009b).
Hornbach et al. (2007) imaged the
complex networks of branching con-
duits for the first time offshore by an
ultra high resolution three-dimen-
sional chirp survey. At least four main
conduits appeared to converge at
depth. Branches of flow conduits were
observed up to 1 km away from the
main conduits. Davies and Stewart
Pockmark
A. R. Talukder • Seeps plumbing system
(2005) and Stewart and Davies (2006)
undertook another pioneering study
to image the feeder system of a very
large mud volcano in the South Cas-
pian Sea using three-dimensional seis-
mic. Their investigation revealed a
cylindrical zone of multiple amalgam-
ated fluidised mud pipes feeding the
mud volcano (Fig. 6). Onshore out-
crops that show a scattered array of
small edifices (gryphons) also demon-
strate that there are several routes
upwards, rather than a single one,
within a kilometre-scale mud volcano,
as shown, for example, by the Dashgil
mud volcano, Azerbaijan (Hovland
et al., 1997; Planke et al., 2003; Rob-
erts et al., 2010) and the Lusi mud
volcano, Indonesia (Roberts et al.,
2011). This multiple and dendritic
fluid conduit network model implies
that previous fluid flux estimates,
based on one-dimensional direct (e.g.
fluxmeter) and proxy (borehole-based)
measurements of near-seabed flow at
discrete locations, may have yielded
inaccurate estimates of seep activity
(Hornbach et al., 2007).
The geological features associated
with seep plumbing systems can be
(a) Pf > σh + T
Early feeder pipe
Overpressured source layer
Minor antithetic
faults Caldera
subsidence
1 km
(b)
Cluster of
fluidized pipes
Fig. 6 Diagrams of evolution of mud
volcano plumbing systems (clustered
fluidised pipes) (modified from Stewart
and Davies, 2006). Note that in two-
dimensional seismic the cluster of flui-
dised pipes could appear as one single
feeding chimney of possibly 1 km dia-
meter (?) of chaotic to semitransparent
seismic facies. Pf, fluid pressure; rh,
total minimum (horizontal) stress in the
overburden; T, tensile strength of the
overburden.
7
Seeps plumbing system • A. R. Talukder
.............................................................................................................................................................
structural (faults and fractures) or
stratigraphical (bedding planes along
the crest of folds and sedimentary
ridges, erosional surfaces at the base,
flanks and margins of canyons, palaeo-
canyons and near slide scarps,
entrapped high permeable layers such
as buried channels) and both struc-
tural as well as stratigraphical (sand
intrusions, salt and mud diapirs)
(Cartwright et al., 2007; Gay et al.,
2007). In this review, the plumbing
mechanisms are described by two
major processes: fluid flow through
faults and fluid flow through mobi-
lised sediments. The evolution of fault
permeability is particularly significant.
The worldwide association between
faults and seeps in diverse tectonic
settings (some references are men-
tioned earlier) suggests that the distri-
bution of fault and fracture networks
and up-fault permeability are the most
important controlling factors for the
temporal and spatial variability of
seeps. In many instances, diapirisms
have been also initially triggered and
controlled by faults (Barber et al.,
1986; Vendeville and Jackson, 1992;
Van Rensbergen et al., 1999; Davies,
2003; Morley, 2003; Soto et al., 2011).
Fluid flow through faults
Several questions need to be addressed
regarding fluid flow through faults.
Firstly, do faults regulate fluid flow
and how? Faults may act as seals to
migration as well as conduits (Clennell
et al., 1998), but what are the factors
that lead to leaking or sealing? How
does fault permeability evolve during
slip (dynamic permeability) and dur-
ing the interval between slips (static
permeability)?
Faults have three fundamental ele-
ments that might impact fluid flow:
juxtaposition of the layers of different
permeability, fault rock and the sur-
rounding damage zone (Fig. 7a)
(Aydin, 2000; Braathen et al., 2009).
Faults with damage zones more per-
meable than their host sequences can
be major flow routes, irrespective of
their specific history of rupture and
displacement (Cartwright et al., 2007).
In these cases, fault permeability can
be semipermanent (Hooper, 1991;
James, 1997). However, in most cases,
fault zone rocks are characterised by
lower permeability than their host
rocks, and steady-state leakage rates
8  2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
are significantly reduced (Knipe,
1997). The physical properties of
gouge in fault zones (Gibson, 1994)
and the permeability of any connected
fractures in the damage zones sur-
rounding larger scale faults (Aydin,
2000) will determine the extent to
which steady-state flow can occur
along the fault zone during intervals
between successive slips (Cartwright
et al., 2007).
In the faulting process, rock is
comminuted and clay is mixed in with
sand, producing various types of fault
rock with different magnitudes of
permeability reduction. As with top
seals, the capillary capacity of a fault
seal relates to pore throat size rather
than to permeability. Factors reflect-
ing pore throat size in fault seal rock
include rock net-to-gross (sand–shale
ratio), variable fault slip, stress regime
and critical pore pressure against the
fault wall (Wiprut and Zoback, 2000;
Grollimund and Zoback, 2003; Ab-
rams, 2005; Egholm et al., 2008). Pore
fluid composition is not important for
gas, but in the case of oil it affects the
wettability and contact angle (Ander-
son, 1986). In sedimentary successions
where clay or shale layers are present,
dragging or ductile flow of these
layers along the fault plane between
the up- and down-thrown source beds
can result in a clay smearing along the
fault plane (Fig. 7b) (Knipe, 1993).
Clay smearing is continuous for the
fault throw up to the distance of six to
eight times of the source clay layer
thickness (Childs et al., 2007). In
addition, faulting produces fault
gouge in the fault zone (Fig. 7c). A
shale-rich fault gouge can significantly
reduce fault permeability. In an ap-
praisal context, a shale gouge ratio
(SGR) of 15–20% can be the thresh-
old value between permeable and
non-permeable faults (Yielding,
2002).
Faults in clay and shale formations
typically have a more compacted fab-
ric than the host sediments. These
faults need to be dilated to behave as
conduits (Clennell et al., 1998). Pore
pressure appears to play a primary
role in maintaining fault permeability
(Sibson, 1988, 1996). When the faults
are critically stressed (i.e. capable of
slipping) by elevated pore pressure
(>total horizontal stress) and opti-
mally oriented in the existing stress
field, they are permeable, whereas
Terra Nova, Vol 00, No. 0, 1–18
(a) Hydro-
fracture
Shear
zone
Damage
Reference zone
Layer
Juxtaposition
(b)
Clay
smearing
(c)
Aggregates of
sheared rocks
Fig. 7 Cartoon to explain the three ele-
ments controlling fault permeability: (a)
juxtaposition of permeable ⁄ imperme-
able layer, (b) clay smearing and (c)
aggregates of sheared rocks in the fault
zone measured by shale gouge ratio.
those that are not critically stressed
are not permeable (Wiprut and
Zoback, 2000). Pore pressure acting
against an initially sealing fault can
rise only to a certain value before fault
slippage occurs and hydrocarbons
leak upward along the fault through
the cap rock. It is possible that once
sufficient gas leaks out of the reservoir
to reduce the pore pressure, the fault
may seal again (Sibson, 1992). This
pressure dependency of the fault per-
meability was directly measured dur-
ing ODP Leg 146 in the Cascadia
Margin. The dilated fractures in the
fault zones penetrated at ODP Site
892 yielded the value of flow trans-
missivities at least two orders of mag-
nitude greater than transmissivity
values in adjacent, unfractured sec-
tions or in the same interval when
pore pressure was reduced to hydro-
static level and the fractures were
closed (Carson and Westbrook,
Terra Nova, Vol 00, No. 0, 1–18
.............................................................................................................................................................
1995). Drilling results from different
continental margins reveal that over-
pressured sites, implying low perme-
ability leading to temporary blockage
of flow (Neuzil, 1986), are often asso-
ciated with rapid and focused fluid
flow systems, which require enhanced
permeability (Mascle and Moore,
1990). The flow rate can be as high
as 300 cm a)1 (Hensen et al., 2004).
The maintenance of excess pore pres-
sures coupled with enhanced perme-
ability inducing focused fluid flow
represents a paradox that requires
flow to be transient and episodic in
nature (Bolton and Maltman, 1998).
Mascle and Moore (1990) explained
this apparent alternation of overpres-
sure build-up and flow by a coupled
process of fluid flow and fault move-
ment called the Ôdeformational pump-
ing mechanismÕ. When the dynamic
permeability is higher than the static
permeability of the fault rocks, and
much higher than the permeability of
the surrounding matrix, a deforma-
tion pumping mechanism would begin
with the dilation of fracture networks.
Fluid then flows to zones of localised
minimal fluid pressure within dilated
fractures. With increasing deforma-
tion, the number of dilated fractures
increases and fluid pressure briefly
exceeds lithostatic pressure, causing
sediment failure. The interconnected
dilated fractures create the easiest
path of fluid flow and the fluid escapes
through the dilated and connected
fracture networks. After the fluid
escapes, pore pressure drops to hydro-
static level and scaly fabrics shrink,
disrupting the interconnection and
closing the fluid paths until the next
cycle of pressure builds up (Carson
and Westbrook, 1995).
The stress history of failing sedi-
ments determines whether faulting
will increase or decrease the pore
pressure in the fault zone. Over-con-
solidated sediments have been sub-
jected to higher than present average
effective stresses. Pore pressures tend
to be reduced during the faulting of
heavily over-consolidated sediments
and tend to increase during the fault-
ing of normally compacted sediments
(Brown, 1994). This implies, that for
large faults involving kilometre-scale
layers of different consolidations (e.g.
shallower over-consolidated sediments
produced by overburden erosion vs.
deeper well-lithified sediments) and
 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
different lithologies (clay, silt vs.
sand), relative pore pressure in the
fault zone would increase at depth,
but decrease near the surface, making
the fault permeable down-dip and
sealing up-dip. For example, field
observations in the Gulf of Mexico,
offshore Gabon, and elsewhere show
that some seep structures are located
towards the hangingwall side of the
faults (Abrams, 1996; Pilcher and
Argent, 2007; De Boever et al.,
2009b). Initially, fluid might rise
through faults, but at shallow depth
where the fault is no longer permeable
up-dip, increased fluid buoyancy en-
hanced by gas exolution and de-
creased lithostatic pressure would be
sufficient to pierce the overburden to
reach the surface.
In many places, an association of
polygonal faults, focused fluid flow
and seeps has been observed; for
example, in the Mid Norwegian Mar-
gin (Berndt et al., 2003), the Voring
Plateau (Gay and Berndt, 2007) and
offshore Congo Basin (Gay et al.,
2004, 2007). The distinctive feature
of these faults is that in plan view they
are polygonally organised with no
regionally consistent preferred strike
orientation (Lonergan et al., 1998).
Characteristically, they have no fault-
gouge zone and consequently very low
static permeability. However, they
have the capacity for focused fluid
flow, indicating that dilatancy occurs
during active slip, producing transient
fluid flux (Cartwright et al., 2007).
Fluids are preferentially driven along
the triple junction of three contiguous
polygonal faults, which cross-cut the
entire interval (Gay et al., 2004; Han-
sen et al., 2004). In some places,
polygonal fault systems are connected
to the seabed via pipes (Berndt et al.,
2003).
In summary, while clay smearing
and a high SGR keep a fault sealing,
high fluid pressure opens a fault as a
conduit. Fault permeability will de-
pend on the state of lithification and
consolidation of failing sediments and
rocks, the type of fault and its orien-
tation relative to the existing stress
field, and the evolution of the fluid
pressure during ascent ⁄ migration
along the fault. The changing fluid
pressure determines whether a fault
remains a conduit for fluid or becomes
barrier to it, hence determining the
temporal evolution of the seeps.
A. R. Talukder • Seeps plumbing system
Flow within mobilised sediments (salt
diapir, mud diapir and sand injection)
Mud and salt diapirs are widely asso-
ciated with focused fluid flow as evi-
denced by the localised development
of cold seep features (mud volcanoes,
pockmarks and shallow gas anoma-
lies) above and around the diapirs.
Examples can be found in the Baram
Delta, Borneo (Van Rensbergen et al.,
1999), in the Gulf of Mexico (Roberts
and Carney, 1997, Hovland et al.,
2005a) in the Black Sea (Krastel et al.,
2003), in the North Sea (Heggland,
1998; Hovland, 2002), in the Adriatic
Sea (Geletti et al., 2008) and in the
Lower Congo Basin (Gay et al.,
2007).
The rheological behaviour of salt
during burial and deformation is sig-
nificantly different from that of shale
and mud (Weijermars et al., 1993).
Salt compacts little during burial, and
between depths of about 700 and
1600 m, salt density is generally less
than that of other sedimentary rocks,
which induces density inversion in the
sedimentary column (Bishop, 1978;
Jackson and Vendeville, 1994; Morley
and Guerin, 1996). Often the density
inversions alone are insufficient to
trigger salt diapirism (Vendeville and
Jackson, 1992). Water is commonly
found within salt layers in sedimen-
tary basins. Wet salt behaves as a
Newtonian fluid without any shear
strength (Weijermars et al., 1993;
Jackson and Vendeville, 1994), and
therefore, unlike other sedimentary
rocks (shale, mud and sand), salt
remobilisation does not require over-
pressuring mechanisms such as dis-
equilibrium compaction (Morley and
Guerin, 1996). The high thermal con-
ductivity of salt also retards thermal
maturation of subsalt petroleum
source rocks and causes late genera-
tion and migration from them
(McBride et al., 1998).The mecha-
nisms creating instability (e.g. density
inversion) in the source layers and
making them prone to remobilise are
different for mud and salt diapirisms.
However, once the unstable source
layers are established, the initiation of
both mud and salt diapirisms involves
similar external triggers, such as
tectonics or overburden erosion, to
intrude the overburden. Also, the
structural evolution of the different
stages of diapir development, especially
9
Seeps plumbing system • A. R. Talukder
.............................................................................................................................................................
the creation of seep plumbing systems,
and fluid migration pathways are
similar for both diapirisms (Morley
and Guerin, 1996; Van Rensbergen
et al., 1999; Soto et al., 2011).
Diapirism induces deformation by
which adjacent or overlying strata are
folded and faulted. Faulting may be
perpendicular to the diapir boundary
(radial), parallel to the diapir (con-
centric) or more complex (Rowan
et al., 1999, 2001, 2003; Davison
et al., 2000). Intense deformation at
the diapir margins also creates highly
anisotropic scaly fabrics or marginal
gouges. Where the permeability of
surrounding rocks is less than that of
the diapir, the whole diapir can act as
a conduit, although this is rare in
nature (Brown, 1990).
In diapir environments, fluid migra-
tion may be enhanced by the follow-
ing:
1 Scaly fabrics that are developed in
the immediate contact zone between
the diapir body and forcibly in-
truded host sediments, and in the
overburden immediately above the
crest of the diapir (Brown, 1990;
Alsop et al., 2000; Davison et al.,
2000; Geletti et al., 2008).
2 Induced faults and fractures in the
adjacent and overlying strata, par-
ticularly those faults that have
developed by crestal collapse of
the diapir due to salt dissolution
or fluid escape (Vendeville and
Jackson, 1992; Van Rensbergen
et al., 1999; Davison et al., 2000).
3 Localised positive heat-flow anom-
alies which occur along the diapir
axis and in surrounding sediments
and which induce fluid convection
around and over the diapir (Xie
et al., 2001; Poort et al., 2007).
4 Hydraulic faulting at the top of
overpressured uplifted reservoirs
(Davison et al., 2000) and the trans-
port of supercritical water (Hovland
et al., 2006).
Sand injections create their own
fluid paths, unlike diapirism, which
generally opens fluid paths by deform-
ing the surrounding rocks at the edge
(Cartwright et al., 2007). After forma-
tion, sandstone intrusions can remain
open as highly permeable conduits for
millions of years, until their vertical
continuity is broken by deformation,
or the pore space becomes cemented.
Therefore, sandstone intrusions have
10
the capacity to provide long-term
plumbing systems (Cartwright et al.,
2007).
Relation between plumbing and
surface morphology of seeps
As mentioned earlier, cold seep mor-
phologies on the seabed have been
extensively described in the literature
and reviews. Only the relationship
between morphology and the plumb-
ing systems and their possible self-
sealing mechanisms are discussed
here. Fluid flow patterns may change
dramatically in the shallow subsurface
from focused to diffuse flow, which
leads to an almost random pockmark
distribution at the seafloor as occurs,
for example, in the Connemara Field,
Porcupine Basin (Van Rensbergen
et al., 2007). Vertical and lateral
changes in sediment properties, such
as sediment cohesion, grain size and
permeability in the unconsolidated,
unfaulted, shallow subsurface, control
seep occurrence and distribution on
the seafloor (Kobayashi, 2002; Moerz
et al., 2007; Van Rensbergen et al.,
2007). For example, in the Barents
Sea, pockmarks mainly occur in areas
of fine-grained seabed sediments. The
intensity of their occurrence, size and
depth depend on the thickness of the
unconsolidated sediments at ⁄ near the
seabed (Chand et al., 2009).
The morphological expression of
seeps on the seabed might be affected
by several factors, including flux rate
and concentration (Higgins and Saun-
ders, 1974; De Boever et al., 2006a;
Roberts et al., 2006; Olu-Le Roy
et al., 2007), physical properties of
extruded material (Brown, 1990) and
near-surface sediments (Kobayashi,
2002; OÕBrien et al., 2005; Van Rens-
bergen et al., 2007), major direction of
bulk flow (Brown, 1990; Hornbach
et al., 2007; Mazzini et al., 2008),
sedimentary environment of the sea-
bed (sediment type, thickness, sedi-
mentation rate and erosion) (Fader,
1991; Rogers et al., 2006; Chand
et al., 2009; Buerk et al., 2010), and
oceanographic conditions (salinity,
temperature and bottom water cur-
rent) (Masson et al., 2003; OÕBrien
et al., 2005; Rollet et al., 2006). The
rate and volume of flux and the
relative content of sediments, gases
and water in the fluids are the critical
factors directly impacting on seep
Terra Nova, Vol 00, No. 0, 1–18
morphology on the seabed (Fig. 2)
(Higgins and Saunders, 1974; Brown,
1990; Roberts et al., 2006). Mud
domes and ridges are formed when
the flux is rapid or vigorous and
voluminous, with a high content of
plastic sediment. When the water con-
tent is higher, mud volcanoes are
formed with a conical (Barber et al.,
1986) or a flat top edifice (Kopf, 2002;
Feseker et al., 2009). Rapid and
abrupt fluxes of gas and water create
craters or pockmarks on the seabed
(Hovland et al., 2005b, 2010).
Whereas the craters of normal and
coalesced pockmarks, and of pock-
mark trains (linear pockmarks) on the
seafloor, are caused by periodic gas
bursts through the seafloor, the much
smaller features, such as unit-pock-
marks, are caused by pore-water seep-
age driven by sub-surface migrating
gas (by buoyancy) (Pilcher and
Argent, 2007; Cathles et al., 2010;
Hovland et al., 2010). High fluxes of
gas and liquid hydrocarbon create
vigorous bubble streams of hydrocar-
bon plumes, which can rise hundreds
of metres (up to 1300 m) from the
seabed (Greinert et al., 2006). Condi-
tions of moderate fluxes are optimal
for creating gas hydrates in the very
near subsurface, with some hydrate
mounds on the seafloor, as well as
diverse chemosynthetic communities
(Roberts et al., 2006).
When the ascending hydrocarbon
does not reach the seafloor, it is oxi-
dised anaerobically within the sedi-
ment near the seabed by a consortium
of methane-oxidising archaea and sul-
phate-reducing bacteria (Fig. 2Ia)
(Boetius et al., 2000; Bouloubassi
et al., 2009; De Boever et al., 2009a).
This coupled process increases alkalin-
ity and dissolved inorganic carbon in
the pore fluids, thus inducing carbon-
ate precipitation (Ritger et al., 1987;
Aiello et al., 2001). Carbonate deposits
are composed of near-seabed sedi-
ments at seep sites lithified by carbon-
ate cement (De Boever et al., 2006b,
2009a; Judd and Hovland, 2007) and
occur in various morphologies: slabs,
mounds and chimneys (Hovland and
Sommerville, 1985; Hovland et al.,
1985; Aloisi et al., 2000; Diaz-del-Rio
et al., 2003; Mazzini et al., 2004).
Where the bottom water is anoxic such
as in the Black Sea, mineralised chim-
neys can also be found above the
seabed (Gulin et al., 2003).
 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Terra Nova, Vol 00, No. 0, 1–18
.............................................................................................................................................................
The development of a carbonate
crust may eventually seal the plumb-
ing systems. Hovland (2002) suggested
a three-stage self-sealing process,
which begins when seepages become
slower and induce anaerobic oxida-
tion of methane. Bacterial mats devel-
op near the surface and further reduce
the seepages. The second stage occurs
when plumbing systems are clogged
with sediments and bacterial mats are
visible on the seafloor. Only episodic
gas escapes occur at this stage. Final-
ly, complete blockage occurs when
carbonate precipitation builds up a
massive carbonate crust (Hovland,
2002).
Summary and conclusion
Submarine cold seeps can provide
indications of both deep petroleum
systems and geo-hazards on the sea-
bed, and are also an important source
of greenhouse gas emissions. As a
result, seep studies are an important
focus of interest for both petroleum
and non-petroleum geologists. Recent
research, utilising new submarine
technologies (swath bathymetry, side-
scan sonar and three-dimensional seis-
mic) and advanced positioning
systems for both accurate and precise
ground truth sampling, has led to a
better understanding of complete cold
seep systems. These comprise three
elements: sources, plumbing systems
and seeping ⁄ venting seabed struc-
tures. This review focused on plumb-
ing systems in the continental
margins. The most significant findings
are summarised below.
1 To understand a plumbing system,
it is important to understand how it
originates at the source level. The
presence of an overpressured source
layer is the most common factor in
determining where seeps have been
found. The main cause of overpres-
sure generation on passive margins
is disequilibrium compaction due to
rapid and high sedimentation.
When the buried sediments are rich
in organic matter, hydrocarbon
generation can be a very important
added source of further overpres-
suring. On active margins, the over-
pressure is mainly caused by
tectonic loading in the underthrust
sediments, especially at the toe of
the deformation front, and rapid
 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
sediment loading in the accretion-
ary wedge. Up-dip in the decolle-
ment, mineral dehydration of
smectite to illite is very important
for overpressure generation. In
most cases, the generated overpres-
sure is not sufficient to induce
hydrofracturing in the overburden
to initiate focused fluid flow. This
requires external factors, and tec-
tonic stress appears to be the most
efficient trigger mechanism for
seeps.
2 The plumbing system is complex
with changing conduit systems,
which make the fluid flow highly
transient and spatially and tempo-
rally variable. With the help of ultra
high resolution three-dimensional
seismic, the plumbing systems are
now better imaged. Conduit sys-
tems can be composed of a complex
network of fractures and faults
and ⁄ or a cylindrical zone of amal-
gamated fluidised pipes. This multi-
ple and branching conduit model
implies that the fluid flux estimates,
based on many one-dimensional
measurements of near-seabed flow
at discrete locations, may yield con-
servative estimates of seep volumes
(Hornbach et al., 2007).
3 Geological structures associated
with seeps are of three types: struc-
tural (e.g. faults), stratigraphic (e.g.
bedding planes, higher permeability
sedimentary layers) and a combina-
tion of both (diapirs and sand
intrusion). The most important are
faults. Fault permeability appears
to be the principal controlling
mechanism. Long-term fluid flow
behaviour along faults is deter-
mined by the following factors:
static and dynamic permeability of
faults, fault gouge ratio, clay smear-
ing, type of faulting and fault ori-
entation in the existing stress field,
stress history of failing material and
degree of lithification, and the evo-
lution of fluid pressures.
4 The stress history of failing sedi-
ments determines whether faulting
will increase or decrease the pore
pressure in the fault zone, thus
enhancing or reducing fault perme-
ability. For large faults involving
kilometre-scale layers of different
consolidations and different lithol-
ogies, it is possible that the relative
pore pressure in the fault zone
would increase at depth, but de-
A. R. Talukder • Seeps plumbing system
crease near the surface, making the
fault a conduit down-dip and a seal
up-dip. This explains the field
observations that the seeps are not
always aligned with major fault
traces on the seabed, but offset
towards the hangingwall side. Ini-
tially, fluid might rise through
faults, but at shallow depth, where
the fault is no longer permeable up-
dip, increasing fluid buoyancy en-
hanced by gas exolution and
decreasing lithostatic pressure
would be sufficient to pierce the
overburden to reach the surface.
5 Morphological expression of seeps
near and ⁄ or on the seabed is con-
trolled by various factors: the flux
rate and concentration, physical
properties of extruded material
and the near-surface sediments,
flow direction, the sediment envi-
ronment on the seabed and ocean-
ographic conditions (salinity,
temperature and bottom water cur-
rent). The critical factors related to
plumbing systems are the rate, vol-
ume and relative contents of the
fluid (sediments, gases and water)
comprising the fluid flow. When the
fluid flux is vigorous and volumi-
nous, it produces mud volcanoes,
mud mounds, pockmarks and
hydrocarbon plumes, and when
the flux is slow, it forms deposits
of authigenic carbonates. Between
the two extremes of slow and rapid
flux, moderate flux is the optimum
for the development of gas hydrate
deposits and diverse chemosyn-
thetic communities.
6 Seabed seeps can be a useful indi-
cator of an active deep petroleum
system in the basin. However, the
relationship between seepages on
the seabed and a deep reservoir is
not always straightforward (Abrams,
2005). An understanding of the
complex plumbing system working
between the two is essential to
determine this relationship.
Despite significant work by industry
and academia, seeps remain largely
unquantified transport pathways for
fluids, volatiles and sediments from
the lithosphere to the hydrosphere.
The most important key to under-
standing these systems is the quantifi-
cation of long-term fault behaviour,
particularly in relation to fluid flow.
Long-term monitoring of submarine
11
Seeps plumbing system • A. R. Talukder
.............................................................................................................................................................
seep plumbing conduits by IODP
long-term borehole deployment (Davis
and Villinger, 2006) and other initia-
tives for continuous monitoring (Nep-
tune, ESONET) would be the best
option to understand and quantify the
spatial and temporal variability of the
system.
Acknowledgements
This work is financially supported by
CSIRO IODP and Seep projects (manu-
script ref. no. EP101299). I thank Dr Ben
Clennell, Dr Cedric Griffith and the Edi-
tors and reviewers for their constructive
criticisms. I thank C. Lang for her careful
and detailed linguistic revision of the man-
uscript.
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Received 2 December 2010; revised version
accepted 14 February 2012
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