MODUL 1

Energy consumption, generation,

sustainability, and energy
systems
A.1 Energy consumption
Modern society converts energy from forms that are less desirable and
typically less dense to forms that are more desirable. For example we
con- vert grains and grazing grasses to meat (cows and other
livestock), oil to gasoline, which powers vehicles, and coal to electricity,
which powers manufacturing plants. The primitive human, who had yet
to discover the fascination of fire, had access only to the food he ate,
which was used by his body as energy to power the activities needed for
survival. Soon man developed the hunting skills that provided more
energy per gram of food consumed. About 100,000 years ago, primitive
humans developed better methods of acquiring food and also of
burning wood for both heating and cooking. Energy consumption
dramatically rose again as humans learned to harness the power of
animals to aid in growing crops. Energy consumption again rose in a
dramatic leap as our ancestors invented devices to tap the power of
wind and water. This eventually led to burn- ing a much denser type of
energy resource—coal. The industrialization age was driven by the
invention of the steam engine, which again resulted in a dramatic
increase in energy generation. The steam engine allowed us to unlock the
Earth’s vast storage deposits of solar energy (coal, gas, and oil). Prior to
industrialization, these increases in energy consumption had been slow
and gradual. Once industrialization came to center stage, the rate of
energy consumption increased exponentially over a period of just a few
generations.

A.1.1 Energy consumption data

Figure A.1 illustrates global energy consumption between 1850 and 2000,
compared to the increase in global population over the same period. As
Figure A.1 The top plot shows global energy consumption between 1850 and
2000. The bottom plot graphs population over time. These two figures illustrate
that energy consumption is increasing faster than population.
the figure demonstrates, energy consumption is growing faster than
population.
Energy consumption is ten times greater than it was in the beginning
of the 20th century. Major forms of energy over the 20th century
were nonrenewable sources:

• Coal
• Oil
• Natural gas
• Nuclear energy

Oil, coal, and natural gas are also known as fossil fuels. Two prin-
cipal problems with nonrenewable energy sources are limited
quantity and environment pollution, particularly the generation of large
quantities of CO2, a greenhouse gas. Many scientists believe the increase
in green- house gases is the principal reason for the increase in
global tempera- ture in recent decades. Nuclear power plants do not
produce appreciable amounts of greenhouse gases, but their waste
remains radioactive for generations and needs to be isolated from
the biosphere. The principle renewable energy sources are:

• Wind energy
• Sun energy
• Bioenergy
• Water energy

As the global population increases, particularly in developing countries,

and their citizens demand modern standards of living, global energy use
will continue to increase, with developing nations accounting for a grow-
ing share of total world demand (See Figure A.2).
Projections of total world energy consumption through the year
2300 are shown in Figure A.3, where it is indicated that consumption is
expected to increase rapidly. Eventually, it will begin to level out around
the year 2175.

A.1.2 Energy consumption by industrial

sector
Figure A.4 shows projections of total world energy consumption. The
plot depicts rapidly increasing demand, particularly among the
developing world, through most of the 21st century.

A.1.3 Energy consumption by fuel

type
Figure A.5 shows projected world energy consumption by fuel type. This
projection indicates a much faster increase in fossil fuel use than in either
Figure A.2 Projected increase in world energy consumption through the year
2020. The figure shows a consistent increase in energy consumption through the
year 2020.

Figure A.3 Projections of total world energy consumption through the year
2300.
Figure A.4 Shows by
industrial sector total
world energy consumption.

Figure A.5 Projected world energy use by fuel type (From the International
Energy Agency.)
renewable or nuclear energy. Peak oil advocates question whether such a
sharp increase in fossil fuel use is possible or can be sustained.

A.1.4 Relationship between GDP and energy

consumption
Figure A.6 shows the GDP/capita for various countries versus how much
energy they consume (kW/capita). While it appears that there is a
relation- ship to the U.S. GDP and its energy consumption, this
relationship does not hold for all nations. While Japan and Russia have
the same energy usage, Japan has 10 times the GDP of Russia.
Figure A.7 shows which countries use more than their share of the
world’s energy as compared to their GDP per capita. For instance,
the United States has approximately 5% of the world’s population
but con- sumes 23% of its total energy. The Russian Federation has
2% of the world’s population and consumes 7% of the world’s energy.
Meanwhile, China holds 20% of the world’s population and consumes
only 17% of the world’s energy.

A.2 Energy
production
As depicted in Figure A.8, the majority of energy produced around the
world comes from fossil fuels. While renewable energy sources do
not

Figure A.6 Relationship between GDP/capita and energy consumption/capita.

Figure A.7 National consumption of energy versus the nation’s population base.
The United
States
clearly
ranks as
the most
energy-
intensive
country
per capita.

Meanwhile the Philippines and Bangladesh have among the lowest consumption
per capita.
Figure A.8 Breakdown of energy production by source. (From Key World Energy
Statistics, International Energy Agency.)

pollute the environment in the same amount as nonrenewable sources,

they nevertheless are not completely clean or without their own set
of environmental problems. For instance, burning biomass results in
CO2 emissions similar to that of fossil fuels. The principal problems with
renew- able energy sources are still the price and relatively small
contribution to

global energy production. However, the cost of renewable energy sources

is generally declining; while it has significant potential, this technology
will have limited use in the near future.
Switching from one energy resource to another involves more than
simply developing a new technology. It also involves altering the sys-
tems that produce, process, and transport these resources. Primary
commercial energy fuels like coal, natural gas, and uranium, for exam-
ple, are mined, processed, refined, and transported through complex
systems that represent billions of dollars in infrastructure investments
and complicated technological interconnections. Typically, energy
production or refining facilities operate for 30 to 60 years or more; we
cannot simply switch to different energy sources or technology mixes
overnight. Retiring these existing systems prematurely to replace them
with something better is a very expensive proposition even if the new
facilities are more efficient.

A.2.1 Renewable energy

Renewables already provide almost double the energy production of
nuclear power. However, most of the renewable energy comes from
burn- ing biomass (wood, crop residue, dung, etc.) and hydropower.
Of the remaining 0.5%, over 80% of that comes from geothermal—
almost all based on tapping surface volcanic and hydrothermal heat
(essentially nothing to date from hot dry rocks). However, geothermal
power has large growth potential. What has been referred to as
“technosolar” (wind, solar thermal, solar PV, wave) constitutes just over
0.1% of energy production.

A.2.2 The smart grid

One of the most promising technologies for conserving energy involves
the smart grid (SG). Twentieth-century power grids “broadcast”
power from a few central generators to a large number of consumers. In
contrast, the smart grid (SG) is capable of optimally routing power so as
to respond to a wide range of dynamic conditions, and to charge a
premium to those that use energy during peak hours. While there are
some proven smart grid technologies in use, the term smart grid refers to
a set of related tech- nologies on which a specification is generally agreed
rather than a name for a specific technology.
A number of governments around the world, including the United
States, are currently studying or actively designing SG technology. The
SG uses digital technology to deliver electricity to consumers. Two-way
communica- tions are combined with net metering technology to monitor
grid conditions and measure electrical generation and consumption
needs along various parts of the grid. Intelligent monitoring devices keep
track of all electricity

flowing across the grid. By monitoring grid usage, automated devices can
be used to dynamically respond to changes in grid usage conditions.
Events that may affect grid conditions can include a plant being
removed from the grid or perhaps clouds blocking the sun and reducing
the amount of solar power to the grid, or a hot day requiring increased
use of air conditioning by consumers. The grid would encourage
customers to change their usage practices to take advantage of reduced
energy costs during periods of low demand and increased prices during
peak demand, a process referred to as peak curtailment. It is thought that
consumers and businesses will tend to consume less during high demand
periods if it is possible for consumers and consumer devices to be aware
of the high price premium for using electricity at peak periods.
The total load over the power grid can vary significantly. The overall
load is not stable and may vary rapidly. Consider the incremental load if
a popular television program begins and millions of viewers turn on their
televisions, which instantly increases demand. To respond to such a
rapid increase in power demand, some spare generators are brought on
line. A smart grid could help compensate for such rapid changes.
Consumer electronics devices consume over half the power used in a
typical U.S. home. Possessing the ability to shut down or hibernate such
devices when they are not actually being used presents a major
oppor- tunity for reducing energy consumption; however, this means the
utility company can monitor whether you are using your computer or TV
or not, and if so, the electric company could decide your computer is not
being used and shut it off. Appliances that could aide in the effort to
reduce peak demand include air conditioning units, electric water
heaters, pool pumps and other high wattage devices. For example, water
heaters might be turned off in the middle of the night and pool pumps
run during periods of low demand. Because consumer activity can be
monitored, privacy advocates warn that this technology may open up a
disturbing potential for abuse.
Such a system could lead to significant increased efficiency,
reduce electrical costs and greenhouse emissions, and enhance
emergency grid resilience during an emergency. In 2009, it was
learned that spies had infiltrated the U.S. power grids, perhaps as a
means of practicing for an attack on the grid at a later time. 1 An SG can
be designed to better absorb or ward off such attacks. By monitoring grid
usage, automated devices can be used to dynamically respond to changes
in grid usage conditions. In an emergency situation, a localized
section of the SG would be able to function independently of other
parts of the grid and would have the capability to ration whatever power
is available to critical needs, such as communications, hospitals, and
police and fire response. It also opens up the potential for entirely new
services or improvements on existing ones, such as fire monitoring and
alarms that can shut off power or make phone calls to emergency
services.

When power is least expensive, the user can allow the smart grid to
turn on selected appliances such as washing machines or factory
pro- cesses that can run at arbitrary hours when electrical supply is high
and demand is low. Conversely, at peak times it could turn off selected
appli- ances to reduce demand.
Another key advantage is that it would make it much easier to
integrate renewable electricity such as solar and wind into the grid.
Businesses and homes are beginning to generate more wind and solar
electricity, enabling them to sell surplus energy back to their utilities.
However, the existing grid is not designed to efficiently manage such
activities. Through bi-di- rectional metering, the SG could more
efficiently manage such “traffic” and compensate local producers of
power. One United States Department of Energy study calculated that
internal modernization of U.S. grids with smart grid capabilities would
save between 46 and 117 billion dollars over the next 20 years. 2 Some
cities are already constructing SGs. In the United States, Austin, Texas,
has been building its smart grid since 2003, when its utility first replaced
1/3 of its manual meters. Boulder, Colorado, completed the first phase of
its smart grid project in 2008. Hydro One, in Ontario, Canada, is
constructing a large-scale SG initiative. The City of Mannheim in
Germany is using real time communications in its Model City Mannheim
“MoMa” project.
According to the U.S. Department of Energy’s Modern Grid Initiative
report, a modern SG should:3

1. Motivate consumers to actively participate in operations of the grid

2. Be able to heal itself
3. Resist attack
4. Provide higher quality power that will save money wasted from
 outages
5. Enable higher penetration of intermittent power generation sources
6. Accommodate all generation and storage options
7. Run more efficiently
8. Enable electricity markets to flourish