CHAPTER II

Review of Related Literature and Studies

This chapter presents the related literature and studies after the thorough and in-depth search done by the researchers. The

information from foreign and local sources relevant in the study are gathered to give clarification and lay the foundation of this research

work.

Mohammad Hosein Farzaei (2015) study “A comprehensive review on phytochemical and pharmacological aspects of Elaeagnus

angustifolia L.” revealed that various in-vitro experimental studies confirmed significant antioxidant potential of E. angustifolia. Okmen

and Turkcan reported that flavonoids isolated from leaf methanolic extract have remarkable antioxidant properties. In-vitro investigation

showed that ABTS (2, 2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) scavenging effect of leaf methanol extract (100 mg/ml) was

84% by ABTS decolorization assay. Various fractions, particularly hydroethanolic fraction, obtained from the fruits demonstrated radical

scavenging activity. Wang et al. reported that flavonoid glycosides, quercetin 3,4’-O-βD-diglucoside, isorhamnetin-3-O-β-D-

galactopyranoside, quercetin 3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside- 4’-O- β-Dglucopyranoside and isorhamnetin 3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside-4’-O-

β-D-glucopyranoside from fruits possess antioxidant property concentration-dependently in term of ABTS+ radicals scavenging, DPPH

(1,1-diphenyl-2picrylhydrazine) radical scavenging and superoxide anion radical scavenging method. Ethanolic extract of the flowers

possesses total antioxidant activity in ferric thiocyanate assay, total reducing ability through Fe3+- Fe 2+ transformation assay, DPPH and

superoxide anion radical scavenging activity, as well as suppression of lipid peroxidation. Bucur et al. reported that the pharmaceutical
formulations, dermatological preparation and soft extract from flowers and young branches possess antioxidant activity, and showed that

the antioxidant activity of flowers soft extracts (antioxidant range 43.6–45.9%) was higher than young branches (range 32.7– 43%) in

chemiluminescence assay. It seems that this capacity is attributed to flavonoids and polyphenols constituents. The antioxidant activity of

the extracts showed linear relationship with polyphenols but non-linear dependence with flavonoids.

Graziele Francine Franco Mancarz (2016) “Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity of the Leaves, Bark and Stems of

Liquidambar styraciflua L. (Altingiaceae)” The butanol fraction of the bark and stem showed the strongest antioxidant activity, which

was stronger than those of the reference standards that were used in this study. The value displayed by the ethyl acetate fraction of this

same plant organ represented the second strongest antioxidant effect; however, the average did not differ from those of the ascorbic acid

standard and the ethyl acetate fraction of the leaves. The antioxidant activity found for the crude extract of the leaves was statistically

similar to that exhibited by the gallic acid and rutin standards. From the results obtained using the phosphomolybdenum methodology, it

can also be seen that for both the samples and the reference patterns, the total antioxidant capacity is dose-dependent, with the highest

concentration tested here (250 µg/mL) corresponding to the highest total antioxidant capacity of all of the analyzed solutions.

In the article entitled, “Oxidative Stress In Disease”, written by Dr. Ananya Mandal, states that there are numerous studies that

prove that since these diseases are mediated by oxidative stress and disbalance between pro-oxidant and antioxidant factors, antioxidants

may play a pivotal role in preventing or slowing the progression of these conditions. Antioxidants help to decrease the chances of

developing these diseases such as Heart disease. It is speculated that a critical step in development of atherosclerosis is oxidation of low-

density lipoprotein (LDL) (a type of bad cholesterol in blood) within the arterial wall. Several studies show an association between low

intakes of dietary antioxidants to an increased frequency of heart disease.

Antioxidants exert their protective effect in Cancer by decreasing oxidative damage to DNA and decreasing abnormal increases in cell

division. Pro-oxidants, or those who generate free radicals, stimulate cell division and these form the beginnings of mutagenesis and

tumor formation. When a cell with a damaged DNA strand divides, it gives rise to disturbed and deformed clusters of cells that form the

cancer. Recent studies suggest that free radicals may be involved in the development of pulmonary disorders such as asthma.

Antioxidants have been seen to reduce the development of asthmatic symptoms. Vitamin C, vitamin E, and beta carotene supplementation

has been associated with improved lung function. Free radicals can also damage nerves and the brain. Neural tissue may be particularly

susceptible to oxidative damage. This is because the brain receives a disproportionately large percentage of oxygen and has large amounts

of polyunsaturated fatty acids which are highly prone to oxidation and oxidative damage. Diseases implicated to oxidative stress include

Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and dementia.

According to the article entitled, “Use of antioxidants in the prevention and treatment of disease” written by Kelly F.D. stating

that considerable interest has risen in the idea that oxidative stress is instrumental in the etiology of numerous human diseases. Oxidative

stress can arise through the increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and/or because of a deficiency of antioxidant

defenses. Antioxidant deficiencies can develop as a result of decreased antioxidant intake (such as vitamins C and E), synthesis of

enzymes (such as superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase) or increased antioxidant utilization. Insufficient antioxidant enzyme

synthesis may in turn be due to decreased micronutrient availability (such as selenium, magnese, copper and zinc). Of those diseases

linked with oxidative stress, cardiovascular disease provides the strongest evidence for the protective role of antioxidants. A high

consumption of fruit and vegetables, which are good sources of antioxidants, is associated with a lower coronary risk. More specifically,

there is evidence of a reduced coronary risk in populations with high blood levels of the antioxidant nutrients, vitamins C and E.
Evidence is also accumulating that diabetes, and microvascular complications associated with diabetes, involve oxidative stress and have

compromised antioxidant status. In addition, patients who develop acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) also exhibit clear

evidence of oxidative stress. Definitive proof for active oxygen formation and oxidative cell damage being causative rather than a result

of other underlying these pathologies remains elusive; however, evidence is sufficiently compelling to suggest that antioxidants are

potential therapeutic agents in the above conditions.

According to the article entitled “Antioxidants: What you need to know”, copyright by American Academy of Family Physicians

(AAFP) shows that antioxidants are chemicals that help stop or limit damage caused by free radicals. Your body uses antioxidants to

balance free radicals. This keeps them from causing damage to other cells. Antioxidants can protect and reverse some of the damage.

They also boost your immunity. You can get most of these antioxidants by eating a healthy diet. This includes a mix of colorful fruits and

vegetables. Whole grains, seeds, and nuts also provide good nutrients. You can get Vitamin A in milk, butter, eggs, and liver. Vitamin

C is in most fruits and vegetables. Eat fruits such as berries, oranges, kiwis, cantaloupes, and papayas. Eat vegetables such as broccoli,

bell peppers, tomatoes, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, and kale. Vitamin E is in some nuts and seeds. For example, almonds, sunflower

seeds, hazelnuts, and peanuts. You can find it in green leafy vegetables such as spinach and kale. You also can find it in soybean,

sunflower, corn, and canola oils. Beta-carotene is in brightly colored fruits and vegetables. Eat fruits such as peaches, apricots, papayas,

mangoes, and cantaloupes. Eat vegetables such as carrots, peas, broccoli, squash, and sweet potatoes. It also is in some leafy green

vegetables such as beet greens, spinach, and kale. Lycopene is in pink and red fruits and vegetables. This includes pink grapefruits,

watermelon, apricots, and tomatoes. Lutein is in green leafy vegetables such as spinach, collards, and kale. You also can find it in
broccoli, corn, peas, papayas, and oranges. Selenium is in pasta, bread, and grains, including corn, wheat, and rice. You can find it in

animal products, like beef, fish, turkey, and chicken. You also can find it in nuts, legumes, eggs, and cheese.

From the study entitled “Native Fruit Species in the Philippines and Their Phenotypic Traits and Potential Uses” by Pablito M.

Magdalita et al. (2016) Alingaro (Eleaegnus triflora Roxb.) is native to the Philippines, found in Taiwan, Australia, Malaysia and New

Guinea. Dark green leaves are simple and elliptic, ripe oblong fruits are dark red, fruit weight is 1.3 ± 0.95 g, red flesh is soft, sub-acid

and juicy. Ripe fruits are eaten raw which is also used to treat amoebic dysentery.

End Notes

American Academy of Family Physicians (2017). Antioxidants: What you need to know. National Institutes of Health: medlineplus,

Antioxidants. Retrieved from https://medlineplus.gov/antioxidants.html

Graziele, FFM(2016) Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity of the Leaves, Bark and Stems of Liquidambar styraciflua L.

(Altingiaceae). Retrieved from https://www.ijcmas.com/5-1-2016/Graziele%20Francine%20Franco%20Mancarz,%20et%20al.pdf.

Mandal, A (2017). Oxidative Stress In Disease. Retrieved from https://www.news-medical.net/health/Oxidative-Stress-In-

Disease.aspx

Mohammad, HF and et.al (2015) A comprehensive review on phytochemical and pharmacological aspects of Elaeagnus angustifolia

L. Retrieved from onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jphp.12442/pdf

Magdalita, P and et,al (Native Fruit Species in the Philippines and Their Phenotypic Traits and Potential Uses)

Virgilio V. Garcia, Teresita O. Magpantay, Lotis D. Escobin (Antioxidant Potential of Selected Philippine Vegetables and Fruits) The

Philippine Agricultural Scientist Vol.88 No.1, 78-83.