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Geometric Dimensioning: Professor Graeme Britton, 2000
Geometric Dimensioning: Professor Graeme Britton, 2000
Geometric Dimensioning: Professor Graeme Britton, 2000
AND
TOLERANCING
In order to properly plan the processes to make a part, you must first
understand the part designer’s intention. Geometric dimensioning and
tolerancing is a method by which designers specify the geometric form of
parts.
The definitions and convention used in this course are based on ISO
standard.
Topics
• Introduction
• Principles of Inspection
The goal of this part of the course is to describe the different types of
geometric tolerances and how actual parts can be inspected to ensure
compliance.
At the end of this part of the course you will be able to interpret a drawing
or model containing GD&T symbols and know (in principle) how to verify
whether a part complies to the design specification.
• roughness 0,0001 mm
• waviness
• edge deviations
• form deviations
• orientation deviations
GD&T
• location deviations
This slide lists the different kinds of geometric deviations. Only the last
three are part of Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T).
Traversing length
Roughness spacing
(5:1-150:1)
depth
Not to scale!
Size deviation
The tolerance values either side of the nominal have the same va lues
(bilateral tolerancing) or different values (unilateral toleranc ing). Unilateral
tolerancing is used to bias a size towards one of the design limits in order to
optimise performance. On the other hand, as you will find out later,
manufacturing processes are controlled using bilateral tolerances. Hence it is
normal practice to convert unilateral design tolerances to bilateral tolerances
during process planning.
Form deviation
• produced by
– errors in guideways and bearings
– deflection of cutting tool and fixture
– fixture errors
– tool and fixture wear
Form deviation is the deviation of a feature from its nominal (defined) form
(shape). The feature being controlled may be a line on a surface, a surface or
a geometric element, e.g., an axis. Form deviations are specified without
reference to any other features.
All geometric deviations are assumed to apply over the entire feature unless
otherwise specified. Thus a straightness control applied to lines on a surface
means the entire surface is to be controlled, not just a small part of it.
Orientation deviation
form deviation
orientation
deviation
Datum surface
The slide shows a parallel orientation. The feature being controlled must be
lie within a tolerance zone that is oriented parallel to the datum surface.
Position deviation
form deviation
orientation
nominal deviation position
position deviation
datum
The deviations are asssessed over the feature unless otherwise specified.
Summary of deviations
Location
Orientation
Form
• is needed
– when part features are critical to function or interchangeability
– when errors of shape & form must be held within tighter limits
than normally expected from the manufacturing process
– when functional gauging techniques are to be used
– when datum references are required to ensure consistency
between design, manufacture and verification operations
– when computerization techniques in design and manufacture
are used
Use of GD&T to control form of a part increases cost because ext ra control
is required for the manufacturing processes and additional inspection is
required to ensure compliance. Thus it should only be used when necessary.
Geometric tolerances
tolerance zone
motor spindle
actuator heads
actuator baseplate
Lets take a disk drive as an example and see what geometric deviations
affect its performance.
A disk drive consists of disks attached to a motor spindle which spins them
around. The motor spindle is mounted in a base plate. An actuator, mounted
on a bearing, supports the heads that read data from the disks. The actuator
bearing is mounted to the base plate. The following deviations can occur:
These notes define the symbols and methods for representing geometric
tolerances on drawings and engineering models.
Form tolerances
LINES SURFACES
• CHARACTERISTIC SYMBOL • CHARACTERISTIC SYMBOL
– straightness – flatness
– circularity – cylindricity
(roundness)
Profile Tolerances
LINES SURFACES
• CHARACTERISTIC SYMBOL • CHARACTERISTIC SYMBOL
Orientation tolerances
(related features)
• CHARACTERISTIC SYMBOL
– angularity
– perpendicularity
– parallelism
Runout tolerances
(related features)
• CHARACTERISTIC SYMBOL
– circular runout
– total runout
Location tolerances
(related features)
• CHARACTERISTIC SYMBOL
– position
– concentricity (coaxiality)
– symmetry
Other symbols
• CHARACTERISTIC SYMBOL
– datum feature A
The previous slides have shown the main symbols. Additional information
can be provided using other symbols. Four important symbols are shown in
the slide above.
The least material condition indicates the size of a feature when it is made
such the part contains the least amount of material, for example, this would
be the smallest shaft or the largest hole.
The datum feature symbol shows how to indicate a feature that is to be used
as a datum for controlling other features.
geometric
tolerance
value frame
0,02 A
datum letter for
related geometrical
leader
symbol for tolerances
geometric diameter symbol for
tolerance cylindrical tolerance
zone
The symbols are placed in a feature control frame which points to the
feature-being-controlled with an arrow. The parts of the frame are defined
above.
Features of size have a size tolerance, e.g., the diameter of a shaft or hole.
These different sizes need to be taken into account during GD&T. One way
to do this is to use the Maximum Material Condition (MMC). This condition
is defined as the size of the feature when the part contains the maximum
amount of material – smallest hole or largest shaft.
0,05 M A M B
This slide shows how MMC is indicated in the drawing callout. The
interpretation is that hole position is to be measured at MMC. Datum A
(another hole) is to be at MMC condition when it is used as a datum for this
controlled feature.
The advantage of this arrangement is that two gauge pins can be used. One
for datum A and the other for the feature-being-controlled.
Max. permissible
Max. permissible deviation to the right
deviation to the left of of true centre
true centre
6,725-6,025
= 0,70
= positional tol
Gauge pin
diameter = 12,05
This slide illustrates how MMC works. Assume a hole is at its MMC
(smallest diameter) of 12,75 mm and the positional tolerance is 0,70 mm.
The mauve circle in the middle is the positional tolerance zone for the axis
of the hole. The red circle on the right shows the circumference of the hole
when its axis is displaced to the right to the maximum amount permitted by
the tolerance zone. The blue circle on the left shows the circumference of
the hole when its axis is displaced to the left to the maximum amount
permitted by the tolerance zone. The difference in the circumferences is the
positional tolerance.
The light orange circle in the middle shows the size of functional gauge pin
that can be used to check that the hole meets the mating requirement. The
gauge pin is centred at the true position of the hole. You can clearly see that
the two circles (red and blue) just touch either side of the gauge pin.
In practice, some tolerance has to be assigned to the manufacture of the
gauge and so the design geometric tolerance is reduced accordingly.
Hole at MMC
true position Hole at LMC
(smallest size) hole diameter (largest size)
tolerance
gauge pin
positional
tolerance
true position
This slide shows what happens when the hole increases. The picture on the
left shows the hole at MMC. In this condition, the maximum deviation of
the hole axis is given by the positional tolerance zone, shown as a
mauvecircle. The centre line of the mauve circle indicates the theoretically
true position of the hole. The actual hole is displaced to the left as shown.
The picture on the right shows the hole at LMC, with the hole again
displaced to the left of true position. The yellow circle represents the
amount of permitted tolerance variation for the hole size (diameter). The
hole axis can be permitted to vary by an additional amount equal to half the
hole diameter tolerance and still meet mating requirements. This can be
clearly seen in the slide where the functional gauge pin from the previous
slide has been superimposed. The larger hole at LMC just touches the gauge
pin and hence the gauge pin will fit in the hole, even though the hole axis
has been displaced further than the positional tolerance/2.
With functional gauging the positional tolerance of the hole axis is allowed
to vary with change in size. If this is not done and a fixed positional
tolerance is used then different gauges have to be made to match each
possible hole size. This greatly increases inspection costs. In addition, the
costs of manufacture may increase as well as it may be difficult to control
both hole size and position simultaneously.
0,03
tolerance zone
Straightness and flatness are perhaps the two most important types of
geometric control. This is because features must be straight or flat before
they can be used as datums.
Straightness controls lines drawn on a surface, axes of shafts and holes, and
edges of parts. The drawing callout is applied to the view which indicates
the profile of the feature-to-be-controlled. The slide above shows a
straightness control for lines on a surface. The tolerance zone is defined by
two parallel straight lines whose distance apart is given by the tolerance
value (0,03). The lines are drawn in a plane parallel to the plane of
projection in which the feature is indicated. The actual position of the
tolerance zone relative to other features, such as surface A, is not controlled.
Each line drawn the surface must line within the 0,03 tolerance zone. The
lines are drawn in the direction as shown. The callout applies to the entire
surface. In practice, it is not cost effective to inspect the entire surface,
instead 3 or 4 lines spaced apart would be checked to ensure compliance.
There is one important point to note. The tolerance zone applies to each line
on the surface independently. The tolerance zones for different lines may
vary in position (up and down) relative to each other. Thus a surface could
be wavy, convex or concave and yet still meet the straightness requirement.
Measuring principle
straightness of a plane surface
Surface inclined with respect
to the measuring device.
Another technique is to zero the dial indicator at three widely spaced points
on the surface-being- measured. To do this the bottom surface of the part
must be supported by adjusted supports which can be adjusted to give the
zero readings. Once adjustment is completed the dial readings can be used
directly to determine the tolerance. The tolerance is given by the difference
between the highest and lowest readings.
0,03
tolerance zone
0,03
For cylindrical shapes, such as shafts, pins and holes, there are two different
types of straightness control. This slide shows how to control the
straightness of the outside surface. For this situation, the leader line
indicating the surface-to-be-controlled must not touch the dimension line.
The tolerance zone is given by two lines in a plane through the centre of the
part.
All actual local size (circular elements) of the surface must be within the
specified size tolerance (18,95-19,05) and the boundary of perfect form at
MMC (19,05). In addition, each longititudinal line of the surface must lie in
a tolerance zone defined by two parallel lines with a separation distance
equal to the straightness tolerance (0,03).
Measuring principle
straightness of a cylindrical surface
At each measuring position along
longitude, move dial indicator around
circumference, take lowest reading
(highest point).
V block support
Axis may be inclined relative
to indicator, so correct in
similar manner to flat surface.
To ensure that the line-being- measured is along the axis the dial indicator is
moved across the part at each measuring point. The lowest reading is taken
as the measurement (represents the highest point on the part). The part may
be inclined relative to the measuring device, so correction needs to be made
for this. The technique is the same as for a flat surface.
0,03
tolerance
zone
This slide shows how to control the straightness of an axis. The leader for
the feature control frame is attached to the dimension line. In addition, a
diametral symbol is added to the feature control frame to show that the
tolerance zone is a cylinder.
RFS: Each actual local size (circular element) must be within the specified
size tolerance (18,95-19,05). The derived median line (estimated actual axis)
must lie within a tolerance zone of 0,03 regardless of the size of the feature;
i.e, regardless of the diameter of the part. Thus the same tolerance applies to
parts at MMC (19,05) and LMC (18,95), and for all sizes in between.
MMC: Each actual local size (circular element) must be within the specified
size tolerance (18,95-19,05). The derived median line (estimated actual axis)
must lie within a tolerance zone of 0,03 at MMC. If the part is smaller than
MMC then the difference in size from MMC can be used to increase the
straightness tolerance. Thus the straightness tolerance is different for
different sizes of parts. At LMC the straightness tolerance is 0,03 + 0,1 =
0,13.
MMC is used for functional design of assemblies (mating parts) and permits
functional gauging, thus reducing manufacturing and inspection costs.
Measuring principle
straightness of an axis - RFS
Part is held between centers. Longitudinal section
at zero degrees.
Au
Longitudinal section
at 180 degrees.
The next slide gives some examples of measurements for different shapes of
parts.
Measuring principle
straightness of an axis - RFS
Au Au
Au
Al Al
Al Axis straight
Axis bent
Part concave
Axis straight Au=-0,02
Au=+0,02
Part convex Al=+0,02
Al=+0,02
R=(-0,02-(+0,02))/2
Au=-0,02 R=(+0,02-(+0,02))/2
=-0,02
Al=-0,02 =0
R=(-0,02-(-0,02))/2
=0
This slide illustrates how the straightness is calculated. If the part has a
straight axis and is symmetrical about the centreline then the upper and
lower dial indicator readings cancel each other.
If the axis is bent (not straight) then one indicator will read lower than the
other. However each indicator is measuring the error so the sum of the two
readings is twice the amount of actual error. The actual error is calculated by
dividing the sum by two. This gives an average value estimate for the
position of the axis.
Measuring principle
straightness of an axis – MMC
functional gauging for a shaft/pin
Virtual condition=19,05+0,03=19,08
Gauge Gauge
Part, in blue, at MMC size of 19,05. Part, in blue, at LMC size of 18,95.
Straightness tolerance=0,03. Straightness tolerance=0,13.
Maximum deviation of median line is 0,03. Maximum deviation of median line is 0,13.
Note that in addition to meeting the gauge requirements, the feature must
meet local feature size requirements, i.e., circular elements must lie between
18,95-19,05.
Measuring principle
straightness of an axis – MMC
functional gauging for a hole
Virtual condition=19,11-0,03=19,08
Gauge
Gauge
Size of tolerance zone
19,08 0,03 0,13 19,08
Part, in blue, at MMC size of 19,11. Part, in blue, at LMC size of 19,21.
Straightness tolerance=0,03. Straightness tolerance=0,13.
Maximum deviation of median line is 0,03. Maximum deviation of median line is 0,13.
This slide shows how MMC would be applied to a hole to match the shaft of
the previous example. The virtual condition is the same as for the shaft. It
is the common boundary for mating parts. When a hole is at the MMC
(smallest diameter) the straightness tolerance is 0,03. When a hole is at
LMC (largest diameter) the tolerance is 0,13.
The gauge must have a length equal to or greater than the feature-being-
measured.
Note that in all cases, the gauge will fit the hole. Thus the hole will always
mate with the shaft of the previous example.
0,02
drawing callout
controlled lines
0,02
tolerance zone
The callout applies to the entire surface, but in practice several lines would
be assessed to check compliance.
A part, e.g., shaft, may be bowed or bent and yet still meet this requirement
because it does not control the relative positions of the tolerance zones.
Measuring principle
circularity
V block
The slide shows an approximate method for assessing circularity. The part
is rotated with the dial indicator stationary. The full indicator movement
(FIM) is determined - it is the difference between the highest and lowest
values. The deviation is half this value.
FIM=Amax-Amin.
Deviation=FIM/2
With two point measurements, two measurements are taken 180 degrees
apart. Two point measurement will not detect lobing of the part. Lobing is
known to occur for certain machining operations, e.g., centre less grinding
and reaming. Where lobing is suspected three point measurement or other
methods should be used. Correction values are used to obtain accurate
assessments of circularity when using 3 or more point measurement
methods.
0,02
drawing callout
controlled line
0,02
tolerance zone
Profile of a line is used to control all forms other than straight and round
lines.
In this case the tolerance zone is defined by a two curved lines traced out by
a circle whose centre point follows the nominal shape of the profile. Thus
this callout requires a diameter symbol.
All points on the line-being-controlled must lie within the tolerance zone. If
more than one line is being controlled then the tolerance zones are
independent.
0,05
drawing callout
0,05
tolerance zone
ALL points on the surface must lie within the tolerance zone, thus flatness
control controls deviations such as waviness, concavity and convexity.
The measuring principle is the same as for straight lines on pla nes, except
that now it is necessary to correct for inclination in two directions.
0,05
drawing callout
0,05
tolerance zone
Cylindricity controls the roundess of a feature over its entire surface. The
tolerance zone is a tube whose thickness is given by the tolerance value. The
zone is formed by a 360 degree rotation of a cylinder whose diameter is
equal to the tolerance value and whose length is equal to the le ngth of the
feature-being-controlled, thus the diameter symbol is used for this tolerance.
Cylindricity is verified in a similar manner to circularity.
ALL points on the surface must lie within the tolerance zone, thus
cylindricity controls deviations such as concavity and convexity.
0,03
R 30 R 10
drawing callout
tolerance zone
0,03
Profiles are often verified using shadow graphs. These project an image of
the profile onto a large screen which has the tolerance boundaries inscribed
on it. The projected profile must lie within these boundaries.
Orientation tolerance
parallelism
0,08 B
drawing callout
0,08
tolerance zone
theoretically
Datum surface
flat surface B
In this case, the tolerance zone is defined two plane surfaces parallel to
datum B. All points on the surface-being-controlled must lie within the
tolerance zone.
The tolerance zone controls the orientation of the surface relative to datum
B but not its position vertically.
Orientation tolerance
perpendicularity
0,06 C
drawing callout
C
0,06
In this case, the tolerance zone is defined by two plane surfaces at right
angles to datum C. All points on the surface-being-controlled must lie within
the tolerance zone.
The tolerance zone controls the orientation of the surface relative to datum
C but not its position in the horizontal direction.
Orientation tolerance
angularity
0,1 A
drawing callout A
60o
0,1
tolerance zone
60o theoretically
Datum surface flat surface A
The tolerance zone defines the orientation of the axis relative to datum A but
not its position in the horizontal direction.
Note that tolerances may apply to features that vary with size. When this
happens we need to specify the size of the feature to which the tolerance
applies - this will be discussed later under maximum material condition. In
the case above, the hole diameter can vary. This variation will affect how
the angularity of the axis is measured.
Runout
circular
0,1
0,1 A-B
A B
drawing callout
tolerance zone
Runout is the composite deviation from the desired form and orientation of a
part surface of revolution during full rotation (360o ) of the part on a datum
axis. A runout tolerance always applies on a RFS basis; size va riation has
no effect on runout compliance. Surfaces-being-controlled may lie around
the datum axis or at 90o to the datum axis. The datum axis may be
established by a single diameter, two separate diameters, or a diameter and a
face surface at 90o to it.
For circular runout, in each plane perpendicular to the common datum axis
A-B the circumference should lie within two circles concentric with axis A-
B and set a apart a radial distance of 0,1 mm.
Runout
total
0,1 A-B
drawing callout
A B
0,1
tolerance zone
For total runout the surface should lie within a tube whose thickness is 0,1
mm and whose axis is coaxial with the datum axis A-B.
Datum definitions
Definitions continued
B A
A
The symbol for a datum is shown in the above slide. The symbol is attached
to the datum feature or a leader line from the feature.
Datums are given letter codes starting from the letter A. They follow the
order of the alphabet.
0,225
This slide illustrates the use of the symbol. The symbol indicates a surface
which is shaped like a disk. This surface is used to support the motor spindle
on the baseplate of a disk drive unit.
Referencing datums
0,2 A B
Tertiary Datum
0,34 A B E
One or more datums can be used to control a feature. The different ways of
doing this is shown in this slide.
Datum example
motor spindle
B
0,025
A
49,8 + 0
- 0,05
0,025 A
This example illustrates how two datums can be defined relative to each
other. Datum A is defined first as is the same as previously defined. The
spindle axis is controlled relative to datum A through a perpend icularity
tolerance. The spindle axis is defined by the large cylinder at the bottom,
shown in blue. This axis is used to control the axis of the top (smaller)
cylinder which locates the disks.
C
B
A
A is primary datum
B is secondary datum
C is tertiary datum
The 3-2-1 datum is illustrated in the slide above. The datum planes are set
perpendicular to each other.
The primary datum A provides three point contact to locate a part (it
restrains three degrees of freedom – 2 rotation and one translation). The
primary datum locates a plane.
The secondary datum B provides 2 point contact (it restrains two degrees of
freedom - one rotation and one translation). It locates a line.
The tertiary datum C provides 1 point contact (it restrains one defgree of
freedom – translation). It locates a point.
Thus in total the three datums restrain six degrees of freedom, which is
sufficient to locate a part.
Datum C
Datum B
This slide shows an assembly. The next slide shows how datums were
selected and how geometric tolerances were specified for the flange, in order
to meet design functionality.
Location tolerance
position
C 0,05 A C
B
30,00
B
65,00 0,05
30,00
drawing callout A
65,00
C
B
tolerance zone
A
All points on the axis of the hole must lie within the tolerance zone. The
zone applies over the complete depth of the hole.
This slide and next give an example of hole positioning, showing how the
datums are controlled relative to each other. A is primary datum, B is
secondary datum and C is tertiary datum.
-B-
2X .3450±.0005 thru
A B C -C-
.030 M
.010 M
-A-
Location tolerance
concentricity
0,04 A
A
drawing callout
0,04
tolerance zone
The tolerance zone applies over the full length of the feature-being-
controlled.
This slide shows the errors that are included in a concentricity tolerance.
For practical purposes these errors are considered indistinguishable. Hence
the total deviation of an axis is a composite of these errors when checking
compliance with a concentricity tolerance.
Location tolerance
symmetry
A
0,08 A
drawing callout
0,08
tolerance zone
The median face should lie within two parallel planes set 0,08 mm apart that
are symmetrically positioned about the datum median plane.
Datum A is at RFS.
Measurement Principles
Measurement principles
Minimum requirement
form tolerance zone
illustration
straightness
x wrong
x
x
measurements x x x x
x x x
correct
This slide illustrates the wrong way and correct way to measure straightness.
Assume a series of measurements have been taken along a line as indicated.
Then the actual amount of deviation of these measurements is given by the
distance between the blue lines. The red lines are incorrect.
There are various methods for establishing position and orientation of the
blue lines, e.g., least squares regression.
illustration
plane datum feature
surface of
datum feature
supports (exaggerated)
theoretically
actual surface flat surface
of measuring
device, e.g., a
granite table
This slide illustrates the minimum rock requirement for a plane datum
feature. The datum feature will be positioned on the measuring device,
which should have a surface condition at least an order of magnitude better
than the the datum feature.
Supports can be used to minimise the amount of rock of the datum feature as
shown above.