Lecture 1: Mathematical Proofs

1. Notation

The most common symbols relating to mathematical logic that you are likely to encounter are

⇒, ⇔ and ∴

𝐴 ⇒ 𝐵 Means that proposition 𝐴 implies proposition 𝐵.

𝐴 ⇔ 𝐵 Means that proposition A implies proposition B and that proposition B implies proposition A.

∴
is short for “therefore”.

2. Proof by inference

Let us prove that the solution to the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

−𝑏±√𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
is given by 𝑥 = .
2𝑎

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 (1)
𝑏 𝑐
⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + = 0 (2)
𝑎 𝑎

𝑏 2 𝑐 𝑏2
⇒ (𝑥 + ) + − =0 (3)
2𝑎 𝑎 4𝑎2

𝑏 2 𝑏2 𝑐 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
⇒ (𝑥 + ) = − = (4)
2𝑎 4𝑎2 𝑎 4𝑎2

𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 𝑏 −𝑏±√𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐

⇒𝑥=√ − = (5)
4𝑎2 2𝑎 2𝑎

Eq.(2) uses the fact that 𝑎 cannot be zero since eq.(1) represents a quadratic equation.
−𝑏±√𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
Another valid way to proceed would have been to substitute 𝑥 = into the left hand side
2𝑎
(abbreviated to LHS) of eq.1 and show that the LHS was zero. This would have been inferior to the
method shown as it would still leave open the possibility of other solutions. Note that numbering the
equations is good practice.
It is generally not good practice to assume the statement that you are trying to prove. For example,
let us “prove” that 2+2 =5.

2+2=5 (6)

⇒ (2 + 2) × 0 = 5 × 0 (7)

⇒0=0 (8)

Since eq.(8) is obviously correct, have we proven that (6) is correct also? The point is that the logical
steps are not reversible. Eq.(7) does not imply eq.(6). If it is absolutely necessary to start with the
relationship you are trying to prove, the ⇔ symbol must be used and the reversibility of the steps
checked.

3. Proof by counterexample

A proposition can be disproved by finding a counterexample. For example we can easily disprove the
statement “All even numbers, 𝑥, are divisible by 3”. This is done by finding an example of an even
number, e.g. 𝑥 = 2 which is not divisible by 3.

Note that you cannot prove that a statement is correct by finding an example where it holds true
e.g. the “All even numbers, 𝑥, are divisible by 3” statement cannot be proven by stating 𝑥 = 6 is an
even number and is divisible by 3.

4. Reductio ad absurdum

Here we show that assuming that a statement is true leads to a contradiction, thus proving that the
statement is not true. Let us prove that √2 is irrational by first assuming that it is rational i.e. we
𝑎
assume that √2 = where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are integers with no common factors.
𝑏
𝑎
√2 = 𝑏 (9)

𝑎2
⇒2= (10)
𝑏2

⇒ 𝑎2 = 2𝑏 2 (11)

⇒ 𝑎 = 2𝑚 (12)

where 𝑚 is an integer since eq.(11) implies that 𝑎 must be even.

∴ 2𝑏 2 = (2𝑚)2 = 4𝑚2 (13)

⇒ 𝑏 2 = 2𝑚2 (14)

Hence 𝑏 must also be even. This contradicts the original assumption which stated that 𝑎 and 𝑏 are
integers with no common factors, which must hence be false.
5. Proof by Induction

Here we assume that a statement is true for an unspecified value, 𝑁, and then show that this leads
to the statement being true for 𝑁 + 1. The final step is to show that the statement is true for a
particular value (usually 0 or 1), so that it is true for all integers larger than this value. As an example,
we prove that the sum of positive integers from 1 to 𝑁 is given by 𝑁(𝑁 + 1)/2. Step 1 is to assume
that the statement is correct:
𝑁

∑ 𝑟 = 𝑁(𝑁 + 1)/2
𝑟=1
(15)

Step 2 is to show that eq.(15) must then be true for 𝑁 + 1 i.e. we need to prove that
𝑁+1

∑ 𝑟 = (𝑁 + 1)(𝑁 + 2)/2
𝑟=1

(16)

We proceed by writing
𝑁+1 𝑁
𝑁(𝑁 + 1) 𝑁
∑ 𝑟 = ∑ 𝑟 + (𝑁 + 1) = + (𝑁 + 1) = (𝑁 + 1) ( + 1) = (𝑁 + 1)(𝑁 + 2)/2
2 2
𝑟=1 𝑟=1

(17)

Hence we have shown that if eq.(15) is true, then it must also hold for 𝑁 + 1. The final step is to
show that it holds for 𝑁 = 1:
1

∑ 𝑟 = 1 = 1(1 + 1)/2
𝑟=1

Hence the statement is true for all values 𝑁 ≥ 1.